Cholecystokinin-2 (CCK2) receptor-mediated anxiety-like behaviors in rats

Food intake and the HPT axis in the cichlid fish: The implications of the gut-brain peptide cholecystokinin

This work aimed to investigate the response of cholecystokinin (CCK) to starvation and its impact on food intake and the reproductive axis of the tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus. The fish subjected to 21 days of starvation showed a significant decrease in CCK immunoreactivity in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and intestine. The administration of injections of 0.5 and 5 μg of sulfated CCK-8 (CCK-8S) over 21 days resulted in a significant, dose-dependent decrease in food consumption. Administration of a high dose of CCK-8S (5 μg) caused a substantial decrease in the number of various spermatogenic cells, the intensity of androgen receptor immunoreactivity in the testis, and the percentage area of GnRH-immunoreactive fibres in the pars distalis of the pituitary gland (PPD), concurrent with a significant decline in serum levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and 11-ketotestosterone (11-KT). Moreover, CCK-8S treatment markedly reduced the in vitro testicular 11-KT level. The findings indicate for the first time that CCK influences hypothalamic GnRH release into the pituitary gland, resulting in the inhibition of LH release from the pituitary and affecting testicular spermatogenesis, androgen receptor protein expression, and steroidogenesis in teleosts. In addition, CCK may also directly affect testicular steroidogenesis.

cAMP-PKA signaling pathway and anxiety: Where do we go next?

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is an intracellular second messenger that is derived from the conversion of adenosine triphosphate catalysed by adenylyl cyclase (AC). Protein kinase A (PKA), the main effector of cAMP, is a dimeric protein kinase consisting of two catalytic subunits and two regulatory subunits. When cAMP binds to the regulatory subunits of PKA, it leads to the dissociation and activation of PKA, which allows the catalytic subunit of PKA to phosphorylate target proteins, thereby regulating various physiological functions and metabolic processes in cellular function. Recent researches also implicate the involvement of cAMP-PKA signaling in the pathologenesis of anxiety disorder. However, there are still debates on the prevention and treatment of anxiety disorders from this signaling pathway. To review the function of cAMP-PKA signaling in anxiety disorder, we searched the publications with the keywords including "cAMP", "PKA" and "Anxiety" from Pubmed, Embase, Web of Science and CNKI databases. The results showed that the number of publications on cAMP-PKA pathway in anxiety disorder tended to increase. Bioinformatics results displayed a close association between the cAMP-PKA pathway and the occurrence of anxiety. Mechanistically, cAMP-PKA signaling could influence brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neuropeptide Y and participate in the regulation of anxiety. cAMP-PKA signaling could also oppose the dysfunctions of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), intestinal flora, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, neuroinflammation, and signaling proteins (MAPK and AMPK) in anxiety. In addition, chemical agents with the ability to activate cAMP-PKA signaling demonstrated therapy potential against anxiety disorders. This review emphasizes the central roles of cAMP-PKA signaling in anxiety and the targets of the cAMP-PKA pathway would be potential candidates for treatment of anxiety. Nevertheless, more laboratory investigations to improve the therapeutic effect and reduce the adverse effect, and continuous clinical research will warrant the drug development.

Biochemical challenges for testing novel anti-panic drugs in humans

Current medications for panic disorder each carry significant limitations that indicate the need for novel anxiolytics. The high costs and low success rates of drug development demand that testing trials be efficient. Lab panicogenic challenges in humans allow for the rapid biochemical induction of panic symptoms and hence an efficient means of testing potential anti-panic drugs. This paper describes ideal characteristics of lab panicogens, reviews the validity and utility of various biochemical panicogenic agents, identifies key outcome measures for studies of novel anti-panic drugs, and makes broad recommendations for labs wishing to perform such studies. We conclude by presenting a four-tiered hierarchy of panicogens that matches each against ideal characteristics and reflects our recommendations for their laboratory use.

The state of the art in secondary pharmacology and its impact on the safety of new medicines

Secondary pharmacology screening of investigational small-molecule drugs for potentially adverse off-target activities has become standard practice in pharmaceutical research and development, and regulatory agencies are increasingly requesting data on activity against targets with recognized adverse effect relationships. However, the screening strategies and target panels used by pharmaceutical companies may vary substantially. To help identify commonalities and differences, as well as to highlight opportunities for further optimization of secondary pharmacology assessment, we conducted a broad-ranging survey across 18 companies under the auspices of the DruSafe leadership group of the International Consortium for Innovation and Quality in Pharmaceutical Development. Based on our analysis of this survey and discussions and additional research within the group, we present here an overview of the current state of the art in secondary pharmacology screening. We discuss best practices, including additional safety-associated targets not covered by most current screening panels, and present approaches for interpreting and reporting off-target activities. We also provide an assessment of the safety impact of secondary pharmacology screening, and a perspective on opportunities and challenges in this rapidly developing field.

Are decreased cocaine- and amphetamine regulated transcript and Agouti- related peptide levels associated Eating behavior in medication-free children with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder?

This study aimed to investigate plasma levels of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART), agouti-related protein (AgRP), cholecystokinin (CCK) and peptide YY (PYY) and their relationship with eating behaviors among children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and healthy controls. A total of 94 medication-free children with ADHD and 82 controls aged 8-14 years were included in this study. The Plasma levels of CART, AgRP, CCK and PYY were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. The Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ) was used to assess eating behaviors in children. CART and AgRP levels were found to be significantly lower in the ADHD group than in the control group, while CCK levels were found to be significantly higher in the ADHD group than in the control group. However, there was no significant difference in PYY levels between the groups. Compared to controls, those with ADHD demonstrated significantly higher scores on the CEBQ subscales of food responsiveness, emotional overeating, desire to drink, enjoyment of food, and food fussiness, and significantly lower scores on the slowness of eating subscale. CART was significantly correlated with emotional overeating and enjoyment of food scores, while AgRP was significantly correlated with emotional undereating scores. Covariance analysis was performed by controlling potential confounders such as body mass index, age and sex, and the results were found to be unchanged. It was concluded that CART, AgRP, and CCK may play a potential role in the pathogenesis of ADHD.

Effect of BI 1358894 on Cholecystokinin-Tetrapeptide (CCK-4)-Induced Anxiety, Panic Symptoms, and Stress Biomarkers: A Phase I Randomized Trial in Healthy Males

INTRODUCTION

Depression, anxiety, and/or panic disorder are often comorbid and have a complex etiology mediated through the same neuronal network. Cholecystokinin-tetrapeptide (CCK-4), a synthetic analog of the endogenous neuropeptide cholecystokinin (CCK), is thought to be implicated in this network. The CCK-4 challenge model is an accepted method of investigating the pathophysiology of panic and has been shown to mediate neuronal activation via the transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) ion channels.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to assess the pharmacodynamic effects of BI 1358894, a small-molecule inhibitor of TRPC ion channel members 4 and 5 (TRPC4/5), on CCK-4-induced anxiety/panic-like symptoms and evaluate circuit engagement.

METHODS

Twenty healthy male CCK-4-sensitive volunteers entered a Phase I, double blind, randomized, two-way cross-over, single dose, placebo-controlled trial. Randomization was to oral BI 1358894 100 mg in the fed state followed by oral placebo in the fed state, or vice versa. Treatments were administered 5 h prior to intravenous CCK-4 50 µg. The primary endpoint was maximum change from baseline of the Panic Symptom Scale (PSS) sum intensity score after CCK-4 injection. Further endpoints included the emotional faces visual analog score (EVAS), the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and serum cortisol values. The safety and tolerability of BI 1358894 was assessed based on a number of parameters including occurrence of adverse events (AEs). All pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic, and safety endpoints were analyzed using descriptive statistics.

RESULTS

Single oral doses of BI 1358894 were generally well tolerated by the healthy male volunteers included in this study. Adjusted mean maximum change from baseline in PSS sum intensity score was 24.4 % lower in volunteers treated with BI 1358894 versus placebo, while adjusted mean maximum change from baseline of EVAS was reduced by 19.2 % (BI 1358894 vs placebo). The STAI total score before CCK-4 injection was similar in both groups (placebo: 25.1; BI 1358894: 24.3). Relative to placebo, BI 1358894 reduced CCK-4-induced mean maximum plasma ACTH and serum cortisol values by 58.6 % and 27.3 %, respectively. Investigator-assessed drug-related AEs were reported for 13/20 participants (65.0 %). There were no serious or severe AEs, AEs of special interest, AEs leading to discontinuation of trial medication, or deaths.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, BI 1358894 reduced psychological and physiological responses to CCK-4 compared with placebo, as measured by PSS, subjective EVAS and objectively measured stress biomarkers. BI 1358894 had a positive safety profile, and single oral doses were well tolerated by the healthy volunteers. This trial (NCT03904576/1402-0005) was registered on Clinicaltrials.gov on 05.04.19.

Cholecystokinin (CCK) and its receptors (CCK1R and CCK2R) in chickens: functional analysis and tissue expression

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is widely distributed in the gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system, regulating a range of physiological functions by activating its receptors (CCK1R and CCK2R). Compared to those in mammals, the CCK gene and its receptors have already been cloned in various birds, such as chickens. However, knowledge regarding their functionality and tissue expression is limited. In this study, we examined the expression of CCK and its 2 receptors in chicken tissues. In addition, the functionality of the 2 receptors was investigated. Using 3 cell-based luciferase reporter systems and western blots, we demonstrated that chicken (c-) CCK1R could be potently activated by cCCK-8S but not cCCK-4, whereas cCCK2R could be activated by cCCK-8S and cCCK-4 with similar efficiency. Using RNA-sequencing, we revealed that cCCK is abundantly expressed in the testis, ileum, and several brain regions (cerebrum, midbrain, cerebellum, hindbrain, and hypothalamus). The abundant expression of CCK in the hypothalamus was further supported by immunofluorescence. In addition, cCCK1R is highly expressed in the pancreas and moderately expressed in various intestinal regions (ileum, cecum, and rectum) and the pituitary gland, whereas cCCK2R expression is primarily restricted to the brain. Our data reveal the differential specificities of CCK receptors for various CCK peptides. In combination with the differential tissue distribution of CCK and its receptors, the present study helps to understanding the physiological functions of CCK/CCKRs in birds.

Brain systems in cocaine abstinence-induced anxiety-like behavior in rodents: A review

Cocaine use disorder (CUD) is a significant public health issue that generates substantial personal, familial, and economic burdens. Still, there are no FDA-approved pharmacotherapies for CUD. Cocaine-dependent individuals report anxiety during withdrawal, and alleviation of anxiety and other negative affective states may be critical for maintaining drug abstinence. However, the neurobiological mechanisms underlying abstinence-related anxiety in humans or anxiety-like behavior in rodents are not fully understood. This review summarizes investigations regarding anxiety-like behavior in mice and rats undergoing cocaine abstinence, as assessed using four of the most common anxiety-related assays: the elevated plus (or its derivative, the elevated zero) maze, open field test, light-dark transition test, and defensive burying task. We first summarize available evidence that cocaine abstinence generates anxiety-like behavior that persists throughout protracted abstinence. Then, we examine investigations concerning neuropeptide, neurotransmitter, and neuromodulator systems in cocaine abstinence-induced anxiety-like behavior. Throughout, we discuss how differences in sex, rodent strain, cocaine dose and dosing strategy and abstinence duration interact to generate anxiety-like behavior.

The Role of the Microbiome-Brain-Gut Axis in the Pathogenesis of Depressive Disorder

The role of gut microbiota and its association with the central nervous system via the microbiome-brain-gut axis has been widely discussed in the literature. The aim of this review is to investigate the impact of gut microbiota on the development of depression and underlying molecular mechanisms. There are two possible pathways in which this interaction might occur. The first one suggests that depressive disorder could lead to dysbiosis and one of the causes may be the influence on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The second one considers if changes in the composition of gut microbiota might cause depressive disorder. The mechanisms that could be responsible for this interaction include the secretion of neurotransmitters, gut peptides and the activation of the immune system. However, current knowledge on this topic does not allow for us to state an unambiguous conclusion, and future studies that take into consideration more precise stress-measurement methods are needed to further explore direct mechanisms of the interaction between gut microbiota and mental health.

Exploring the role of neuropeptides in depression and anxiety

Depression is one of the most prevalent forms of mental disorders and is the most common cause of disability in the Western world. Besides, the harmful effects of stress-related mood disorders on the patients themselves, they challenge the health care system with enormous social and economic impacts. Due to the high proportion of patients not responding to existing drugs, finding new treatment strategies has become an important topic in neurobiology, and there is much evidence that neuropeptides are not only involved in the physiology of stress but may also be clinically important. Based on preclinical trial data, new neuropharmaceutical candidates may target neuropeptides and their receptors and are expected to be essential and valuable tools in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. In the current article, we have summarized data obtained from animal models of depressive disorder and transgenic mouse models. We also focus on previously published research data of clinical studies on corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), galanin (GAL), neuropeptide Y (NPY), neuropeptide S (NPS), Oxytocin (OXT), vasopressin (VP), cholecystokinin (CCK), and melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) stress research fields.

CCK2 receptors in chronic pain

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CCK2R is a historic target for pain management that has shown limited success.

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We review CCK2Rs and their role in peripheral and central circuits in chronic pain.

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We discuss the interactions between CCK2Rs and opioids.

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We highlight recent drug discovery efforts targeting CCK2R for chronic pain.

The cholecystokinin receptor system, specifically cholecystokinin 2 receptor (CCK2R) is a historic target for pain management that has shown limited success. However, new approaches to target CCK2R have incited fresh enthusiasm for this target. In this mini-review, we discuss what is known about CCK2R in peripheral and central circuits under naïve physiological conditions and under conditions of chronic pain, the interactions of CCK2Rs with opioids and briefly, recent efforts to develop new treatments targeting CCK2R for chronic pain.

Cholecystokinin and Panic Disorder: Reflections on the History and Some Unsolved Questions

The classic gut hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) and its CCK2-receptor are expressed in almost all regions of the brain. This widespread expression makes CCK by far the most abundant peptidergic transmitter system in the brain. This CNS-ubiquity has, however, complicated the delineation of the roles of CCK peptides in normal brain functions and neuropsychiatric diseases. Nevertheless, the common panic disorder disease is apparently associated with CCK in the brain. Thus, the C-terminal tetrapeptide fragment of CCK (CCK-4) induces, by intravenous administration in a dose-related manner, panic attacks that are similar to the endogenous attacks in panic disorder patients. This review describes the history behind the discovery of the panicogenic effect of CCK-4. Subsequently, the review discusses three unsettled questions about the involvement of cerebral CCK in the pathogenesis of anxiety and panic disorder, including therapeutic attempts with CCK2-receptor antagonists.

Emerging trends of receptor-mediated tumor targeting peptides: A review with perspective from molecular imaging modalities

Natural peptides extracted from natural components such are known to have a relatively short in-vivo half-life and can readily metabolize by endo- and exo-peptidases. Fortunately, synthetic peptides can be easily manipulated to increase in-vivo stability, membrane permeability and target specificity with some well-known natural families. Many natural as well as synthetic peptides target to their endogenous receptors for diagnosis and therapeutic applications. In order to detect these peptides externally, they must be modified with radionuclides compatible with single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) or positron emission tomography (PET). Although, these techniques mainly rely on physiological changes and have profound diagnostic strength over anatomical modalities such as MRI and CT. However, both SPECT and PET observed to possess lack of anatomical reference frame which is a key weakness of these techniques, and unfortunately, cannot be available freely in most clinical centres especially in under-developing countries. Hence, it is need of the time to design and develop economic, patient friendly and versatile strategies to grapple with existing problems without any hazardous side effects. Optical molecular imaging (OMI) has emerged as a novel technique in field of medical science using fluorescent probes as imaging modality and has ability to couple with organic drugs, small molecules, chemotherapeutics, DNA, RNA, anticancer peptide and protein without adding chelators as necessary for radionuclides. Furthermore, this review focuses on difference in imaging modalities and provides ample knowledge about reliable, economic and patient friendly optical imaging technique rather radionuclide-based imaging techniques.

Cholecystokinin-Mediated Neuromodulation of Anxiety and Schizophrenia: A "Dimmer-Switch" Hypothesis

Cholecystokinin (CCK), the most abundant brain neuropeptide, is involved in relevant behavioral functions like memory, cognition, and reward through its interactions with the opioid and dopaminergic systems in the limbic system. CCK excites neurons by binding two receptors, CCK1 and CCK2, expressed at low and high levels in the brain, respectively. Historically, CCK2 receptors have been related to the induction of panic attacks in humans. Disturbances in brain CCK expression also underlie the physiopathology of schizophrenia, which is attributed to the modulation by CCK1 receptors of the dopamine flux in the basal striatum. Despite this evidence, neither CCK2 receptor antagonists ameliorate human anxiety nor CCK agonists have consistently shown neuroleptic effects in clinical trials. A neglected aspect of the function of brain CCK is its neuromodulatory role in mental disorders. Interestingly, CCK is expressed in pivotal inhibitory interneurons that sculpt cortical dynamics and the flux of nerve impulses across corticolimbic areas and the excitatory projections to mesolimbic pathways. At the basal striatum, CCK modulates the excitability of glutamate, the release of inhibitory GABA, and the discharge of dopamine. Here we focus on how CCK may reduce rather than trigger anxiety by regulating its cognitive component. Adequate levels of CCK release in the basal striatum may control the interplay between cognition and reward circuitry, which is critical in schizophrenia. Hence, it is proposed that disturbances in the excitatory/ inhibitory interplay modulated by CCK may contribute to the imbalanced interaction between corticolimbic and mesolimbic neural activity found in anxiety and schizophrenia.

Hippocampal GABAergic interneurons and their co-localized neuropeptides in stress vulnerability and resilience

Studies in humans and rodents suggest a critical role for the hippocampal formation in cognition and emotion, but also in the adaptation to stressful events. Successful stress adaptation promotes resilience, while its failure may lead to stress-induced psychopathologies such as depression and anxiety disorders. Hippocampal architecture and physiology is shaped by its strong control of activity via diverse classes of inhibitory interneurons that express typical calcium binding proteins and neuropeptides. Celltype-specific opto- and chemogenetic intervention strategies that take advantage of these biochemical markers have bolstered our understanding of the distinct role of different interneurons in anxiety, fear and stress adaptation. Moreover, some of the signature proteins of GABAergic interneurons have a potent impact on emotion and cognition on their own, making them attractive targets for interventions. In particular, neuropeptide Y is a promising endogenous agent for mediating resilience against severe stress. In this review, we evaluate the role of the major types of interneurons across hippocampal subregions in the adaptation to chronic and acute stress and to emotional memory formation.

Region-specific involvement of interneuron subpopulations in trauma-related pathology and resilience

Only a minority of trauma-exposed individuals develops Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and active processes may support trauma resilience. Individual behavioral profiling allows investigating neurobiological alterations related to resilience or pathology in animal models of PTSD and is utilized here to examine the activation of different interneuron subpopulations of the dentate gyrus-amygdala system associated with trauma resilience or pathology. To model PTSD, rats were exposed to juvenile stress combined with underwater trauma (UWT) in adulthood. Four weeks later, individual anxiety levels were assessed in the elevated plus maze test for classifying rats as highly anxious 'affected' vs. 'non-affected', i.e. behaving as control animals. Analyzing the activation of specific interneuron subpopulations in the dorsal and ventral dentate gyrus (DG), the basolateral (BLA) and central amygdala by immunohistochemical double-labeling for cFos and different interneuron markers, revealed an increased activation of cholecystokinin (CCK)-positive interneurons in the ventral DG, together with increased activation of parvalbumin- and CCK-positive interneurons in the BLA of affected trauma-exposed rats. By contrast, increased activation of neuropeptide Y (NPY)-positive interneurons was observed in the dorsal DG of trauma-exposed, but non-affected rats. To test for a direct contribution of NPY in the dorsal DG to trauma resilience, a local shRNA-mediated knock down was performed after UWT. Such a treatment significantly reduced the prevalence of resilient animals. Our results suggest that distinct interneuron populations are associated with resilience or pathology in PTSD with high regional specificity. NPY within the dorsal DG was found to significantly contribute to trauma resilience.

Blockade of the cholecystokinin CCK-2 receptor prevents the normalization of anxiety levels in the rat

Cholecystokinin (CCK), through the CCK-2 receptor, exerts complex effects on anxiety. While CCK agonists are panicogenic, CCK-2 antagonists fail to alleviate human anxiety. Preclinical studies with CCK-2 antagonists are also inconsistent because their anxiolytic effects largely depend on the behavioral paradigm and antecedent stress. The controversy might be accounted by the neuromodulatory role for CCK in anxiety which is ill-defined. If this is its actual role, blocking CCK-2 will have carry-over effects on the anxiety baseline over time. To test this hypothesis, the consequences of acute administration of the CCK-2 antagonist Ly225.910 (0.1 mg Kg^-1) was evaluated in the temporal expression of aversion toward exploration-conflicting tasks. Ly225.910 effects were evaluated in rats exposed to the elevated plus-maze (EPM) twice, an approach-avoidance anxiety-like test. While LY225.910-treated rats had less anxiety than vehicle-treated rats, the difference was reversed during the EPM retest 24 h later without drug. Moreover, Ly225.910 effects in stress-induced cognitive impairment was measured giving the novel-object discrimination (NOD) test to rats not habituated to the exploration apparatus to elicit neophobia. After a first encounter with objects ("old"), Ly225.910-treated rats did not recognize the "novel" object introduced 6 h later. Ly225.910-exposed rats did not discriminate the new location of the "novel object" when it was repositioned in the arena 24 h later. Ly225.910-treated rats also failed to explore objects. In line with its neuromodulatory role, aversive carry-over effects of Ly225.910 suggest that CCK-2 activation by endogenous CCK, rather than triggering anxiety, may return the anxiety state to its normal level.

Transcriptome profiles of hypothalamus and adrenal gland linked to haplotype related to coping behavior in pigs

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is an important component of neuroendocrine stress regulation and coping behavior. Transcriptome profiles of the hypothalamus and adrenal gland were assessed to identify molecular pathways and candidate genes for coping behavior in pigs. Ten each of high- (HR) and low- (LR) reactive pigs (n = 20) were selected for expression profiling based haplotype information of a prominent QTL-region on SSC12 discovered in our previous genome-wide association study (GWAS) on coping behavior. Comparing the HR and LR pigs showed 692 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the adrenal gland and 853 DEGs in the hypothalamus, respectively. Interestingly, 47% (17 out of 36) of DEGs found in both tissues were located in GWAS regions identified on SSC12, indicating that there are significant functional positional candidate genes for coping behaviour. Pathway analysis assigned DEGs to glucocorticoid receptor signaling in the adrenal gland. Furthermore, oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and NGF signaling as well as cholecystokinin/Gastrin-mediated were identified in the hypothalamus. We narrowed the list of candidate genes in GWAS regions by analyzing their DEGs in the HPA axis. The top identified transcripts, including ATP1B2, AURKB, MPDU1 and NDEL1 provide evidence for molecular correlates of coping behavior in GWAS regions.

Anxiety-induced hyperalgesia in female rats is mediated by cholecystokinin 2 receptor in rostral ventromedial medulla and spinal 5-hydroxytryptamine 2B receptor

Background

Preoperative anxiety is associated with postoperative hyperalgesia; however, few studies have investigated the mechanism underlying this association in female surgical patients. Research has suggested that ON cells in the rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM) receive nerve impulses via cholecystokinin 2 (CCK2) receptors, facilitating hyperalgesia. Additionally, the downstream serotonergic projection system from the RVM to the spinal cord has a dual regulating effect on pain responses, and the 5-hydoxytryptophan 2B (5-HT2B) receptor in spinal dorsal horn neurons is critically involved in mechanical allodynia.

Methods

Ovariectomized rats were treated with estrogen replacement, single prolonged stress (SPS), and plantar incision. Various receptor agonists and antagonists were then administered into the RVM and spinal cord to study the mechanism underlying postoperative hyperalgesia caused by preoperative anxiety in female rats.

Results

Behavioral testing revealed that preoperative SPS induced postoperative hyperalgesia, as well as the expression of the CCK2 receptor in the RVM and the expression of the 5-HT2B receptor, protein kinase Cγ (PKCγ), and phosphorylation of the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor1 (p-NR1) in the spinal cord increased confirmed by Western blot. RVM microinjection of the CCK2 receptor agonist CCK-8 and intrathecal injection of the 5-HT2B receptor agonist BW723C86 both produced hyperalgesia in female rats after plantar incision, whereas the CCK2 receptor antagonist YM022, the 5-HT2B receptor antagonist RS127445, and the PKCγ inhibitor C37H65N9O13 decreased the rats’ sensitivity to the same stimulus. Additionally, electrophysiological analysis suggested that activation of the 5-HT2B receptor increased the whole-cell current (I_Ba) in superficial dorsal horn neurons through the PKCγ pathway.

Conclusion

Our study demonstrated that preoperative anxiety-induced postoperative hyperalgesia in female rats is associated with descending pain pathways. The CCK2 receptor in the RVM and spinal 5-HT2B receptor may play a role in this hyperalgesic effect.

Acquisition of analgesic properties by the cholecystokinin (CCK)/CCK2 receptor system within the amygdala in a persistent inflammatory pain condition

Pain is associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, but the underlying neurocircuitry and modulators of the association of pain and anxiety remain unclear. The neuropeptide cholecystokinin (CCK) has both pronociceptive and anxiogenic properties, so we explored the role of CCK in anxiety and nociception in the central amygdala (CeA), a key area in control of emotions and descending pain pathways. Local infusion of CCK into the CeA of control rats increased anxiety, as measured in the light-dark box test, but had no effect on mechanical sensitivity. By contrast, intra-CeA CCK infusion 4 days after Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) injection into the hindpaw resulted in analgesia, but also in loss of its anxiogenic capacity. Inflammatory conditions induced changes in the CeA CCK signaling system with an increase of CCK immunoreactivity and a decrease in CCK1, but not CCK2, receptor mRNA. In CFA rats, patch-clamp experiments revealed that CCK infusion increased CeA neuron excitability. It also partially blocked the discharge of wide dynamic range neurons in the dorsal spinal cord. These effects of CCK on CeA and spinal neurons in CFA rats were mimicked by the specific CCK2 receptor agonist, gastrin. This analgesic effect was likely mediated by identified CeA neurons projecting to the periaqueductal gray matter that express CCK receptors. Together, our data demonstrate that intra-CeA CCK infusion activated a descending CCK2 receptor-dependent pathway that inhibited spinal neuron discharge. Thus, persistent pain induces a functional switch to a newly identified analgesic capacity of CCK in the amygdala, indicating central emotion-related circuit controls pain transmission in spinal cord.

Cholecystokinin induces crowing in chickens

Animals that communicate using sound are found throughout the animal kingdom. Interestingly, in contrast to human vocal learning, most animals can produce species-specific patterns of vocalization without learning them from their parents. This phenomenon is called innate vocalization. The underlying molecular basis of both vocal learning in humans and innate vocalization in animals remains unknown. The crowing of a rooster is also innately controlled, and the upstream center is thought to be localized in the nucleus intercollicularis (ICo) of the midbrain. Here, we show that the cholecystokinin B receptor (CCKBR) is a regulatory gene involved in inducing crowing in roosters. Crowing is known to be a testosterone (T)-dependent behavior, and it follows that roosters crow but not hens. Similarly, T-administration induces chicks to crow. By using RNA-sequencing to compare gene expression in the ICo between the two comparison groups that either crow or do not crow, we found that CCKBR expression was upregulated in T-containing groups. The expression of CCKBR and its ligand, cholecystokinin (CCK), a neurotransmitter, was observed in the ICo. We also showed that crowing was induced by intracerebroventricular administration of an agonist specific for CCKBR. Our findings therefore suggest that the CCK system induces innate vocalization in roosters.

Differential effects of cholecystokinin (CCK-8) microinjection into the ventrolateral and dorsolateral periaqueductal gray on anxiety models in Wistar rats

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is one of the main neurohormone peptide systems in the brain, and a major anxiogenic mediator. The periaqueductal gray (PAG) is a key midbrain structure for defensive behaviors, which could include anxiety, fear, or even panic. The CCK system has wide distribution in the PAG, where the dorsolateral region (DL) participates in active defensive behavior and the ventrolateral region (VL) in passive defensive behavior. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of CCK-8 microinjection into DL-PAG or VL-PAG on anxiety-like behavior through two tests: elevated plus maze (EPM) and defensive burying behavior (DBB). CCK-8 (0.5 and 1.0 μg/0.5 μL) presently microinjected into the DL-PAG produced an anxiogenic-like effect on the EPM evidenced by decreasing the time spent/number of entries in open arms compared to vehicle group. Additionally, the latency to burying decreased and burying time increased on the DBB test. Contrarily, CCK-8 microinjected into the VL-PAG resulted in greater open-arm time and more open-arm entries compared to the vehicle-microinjected group. The results on the DBB test confirmed an anxiolytic-like response of CCK-8 into the VL-PAG. In conclusion, CCK-8 microinjected into DL-PAG produced anxiety-like behavior on EPM, and for first time reported on DBB. Contrarily, CCK-8 microinjected into the VL-PAG reduced anxiety-like behavior also for first time reported using both behavioral models EPM and DBB.

Anxiety, Depression, and the Microbiome: A Role for Gut Peptides

The complex bidirectional communication between the gut and the brain is finely orchestrated by different systems, including the endocrine, immune, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems. Moreover, increasing evidence supports the role of the microbiome and microbiota-derived molecules in regulating such interactions; however, the mechanisms underpinning such effects are only beginning to be resolved. Microbiota-gut peptide interactions are poised to be of great significance in the regulation of gut-brain signaling. Given the emerging role of the gut-brain axis in a variety of brain disorders, such as anxiety and depression, it is important to understand the contribution of bidirectional interactions between peptide hormones released from the gut and intestinal bacteria in the context of this axis. Indeed, the gastrointestinal tract is the largest endocrine organ in mammals, secreting dozens of different signaling molecules, including peptides. Gut peptides in the systemic circulation can bind cognate receptors on immune cells and vagus nerve terminals thereby enabling indirect gut-brain communication. Gut peptide concentrations are not only modulated by enteric microbiota signals, but also vary according to the composition of the intestinal microbiota. In this review, we will discuss the gut microbiota as a regulator of anxiety and depression, and explore the role of gut-derived peptides as signaling molecules in microbiome-gut-brain communication. Here, we summarize the potential interactions of the microbiota with gut hormones and endocrine peptides, including neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, pancreatic polypeptide, cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide, corticotropin-releasing factor, oxytocin, and ghrelin in microbiome-to-brain signaling. Together, gut peptides are important regulators of microbiota-gut-brain signaling in health and stress-related psychiatric illnesses.

The effects of CCK-8S on spatial memory and long-term potentiation at CA1 during induction of stress in rats

Objectives

Cholecystokinin (CCK) has been proposed as a mediator in stress. However, it is still not fully documented what are its effects. We aimed to evaluate the effects of systemic administration of CCK exactly before induction of stress on spatial memory and synaptic plasticity at CA1 in rats.

Materials and Methods

Male Wistar rats were divided into 4 groups: the control, the control-CCK, the stress and the stress-CCK. Restraint stress was induced 6 hr per day, for 24 days. Cholecystokinin sulfated octapeptide (CCK-8S) was injected (1.6 µg/kg, IP) before each session of stress induction. Spatial memory was evaluated by Morris water maze test. Long-term potentiation (LTP) in Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses was assessed (by 100 Hz tetanization) in order to investigate synaptic plasticity.

Results

Stress impaired spatial memory significantly (P<0.01). CCK in the control rats improved memory (P<0.05), and prevented the impairments in the stress group. With respect to the control group, both fEPSP amplitude and slope were significantly (P<0.05) decreased in the stress group. However, there were no differences between responses of the control-CCK and Stress-CCK groups compared to the control group.

Conclusion

The present results suggest that high levels of CCK-8S during induction of stress can modulate the destructive effects of stress on hippocampal synaptic plasticity and memory. Therefore, the mediatory effects of CCK in stress are likely as compensatory responses.

Control of Food Intake by Gastrointestinal Peptides: Mechanisms of Action and Possible Modulation in the Treatment of Obesity

This review focuses on the control of appetite by food intake-regulatory peptides secreted from the gastrointestinal tract, namely cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide 1, peptide YY, ghrelin, and the recently discovered nesfatin-1 via the gut-brain axis. Additionally, we describe the impact of external factors such as intake of different nutrients or stress on the secretion of gastrointestinal peptides. Finally, we highlight possible conservative—physical activity and pharmacotherapy—treatment strategies for obesity as well as surgical techniques such as deep brain stimulation and bariatric surgery also altering these peptidergic pathways.

A Novel CCK-8/GLP-1 Hybrid Peptide Exhibiting Prominent Insulinotropic, Glucose-Lowering, and Satiety Actions With Significant Therapeutic Potential in High-Fat-Fed Mice

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and cholecystokinin (CCK) exert important complementary beneficial metabolic effects. This study assessed the biological actions and therapeutic utility of a novel (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8/exendin-4 hybrid peptide compared with the stable GLP-1 and CCK mimetics exendin-4 and (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8, respectively. All peptides significantly enhanced in vitro insulin secretion. Administration of the peptides, except (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 alone, in combination with glucose significantly lowered plasma glucose and increased plasma insulin in mice. All treatments elicited appetite-suppressive effects. Twice-daily administration of the novel (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8/exendin-4 hybrid, (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 alone, or (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 in combination with exendin-4 for 21 days to high-fat-fed mice significantly decreased energy intake, body weight, and circulating plasma glucose. HbA1c was reduced in the (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8/exendin-4 hybrid and combined parent peptide treatment groups. Glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity also were improved by all treatment modalities. Interestingly, locomotor activity was decreased in the hybrid peptide group, and these mice also exhibited reductions in circulating triglyceride and cholesterol levels. Pancreatic islet number and area, as well β-cell area and insulinotropic responsiveness, were dramatically improved by all treatments. These studies highlight the clear potential of dual activation of GLP-1 and CCK1 receptors for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Emerging drugs for the treatment of anxiety

INTRODUCTION

Anxiety disorders are among the most prevalent and disabling psychiatric disorders in the United States and worldwide. Basic research has provided critical insights into the mechanism regulating fear behavior in animals and a host of animal models have been developed in order to screen compounds for anxiolytic properties. Despite this progress, no mechanistically novel agents for the treatment of anxiety have come to market in more than two decades.

AREAS COVERED

The current review will provide a critical summary of current pharmacological approaches to the treatment of anxiety and will examine the pharmacotherapeutic pipeline for treatments in development. Anxiety and related disorders considered herein include panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder. The glutamate, neuropeptide and endocannabinoid systems show particular promise as future targets for novel drug development.

EXPERT OPINION

In the face of an ever-growing understanding of fear-related behavior, the field awaits the translation of this research into mechanistically novel treatments. Obstacles will be overcome through close collaboration between basic and clinical researchers with the goal of aligning valid endophenotypes of human anxiety disorders with improved animal models. Novel approaches are needed to move basic discoveries into new, more effective treatments for our patients.

Synergistic metabolic benefits of an exenatide analogue and cholecystokinin in diet-induced obese and leptin-deficient rodents

AIM

To test the impact of cholecystokinin (CCK) plus either amylin or a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonist on metabolic variables in diet-induced obese (DIO) rodents.

METHODS

A stabilized acetylated version of CCK-8 (Ac-Y*-CCK-8), selective CCK1 receptor (CCK1R) or CCK2 receptor (CCK2R) agonists, amylin or the GLP-1R agonist and exenatide analogue AC3174 were administered in select combinations via continuous subcutaneous infusion to DIO rats for 14 days, or Lep(ob) /Lep(ob) mice for 28 days, and metabolic variables were assessed.

RESULTS

Combined administration of Ac-Y*-CCK-8 with either amylin or AC3174 induced greater than additive weight loss in DIO rats, with the overall magnitude of effect being greater with AC3174 + Ac-Y*-CCK-8 treatment. Co-infusion of AC3174 with a specific CCK1R agonist, but not a CCK2R agonist, recapitulated the weight loss mediated by AC3174 + Ac-Y*-CCK-8 in DIO rats, suggesting that synergy is mediated by CCK1R activation. In a 4 × 4 full-factorial response surface methodology study in DIO rats, a synergistic interaction between AC3174 and the CCK1R-selective agonist on body weight and food intake was noted. Co-administration of AC3174 and the CCK1R-selective agonist to obese diabetic Lep(ob) /Lep(ob) mice elicited a significantly greater reduction in percentage of glycated haemoglobin and food intake relative to the sum effects of monotherapy groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The anti-obesity and antidiabetic potential of combined GLP-1R and CCK1R agonism is an approach that warrants further investigation.

Neuropeptide Y attenuates anxiety- and depression-like effects of cholecystokinin-4 in mice

We investigated the involvement of neuropeptide Y (NPY) in the modulation of cholecystokinin-4 (CCK-4)-evoked anxiety and depression. Adult male mice were injected with vehicle, CCK-4, NPY, NPY Y1 receptor agonist [Leu(31), Pro(34)]-NPY or antagonist BIBP3226, via intracerebroventricular route, and subjected to social interaction or forced swim test (FST) for the evaluation of anxiety- and depression-like phenotypes, respectively. To assess the interactions between the two systems, if any, NPYergic agents were administered prior to CCK-4 and the animals were subjected to these behavioral tests. Treatment with CCK-4 or BIBP3226 dose-dependently reduced social interaction time, while NPY or [Leu(31), Pro(34)]-NPY produced opposite effect. CCK-4 treatment increased immobility time in FST. This effect was reversed by NPY and [Leu(31), Pro(34)]-NPY, although BIBP3226 per se did not alter the immobility time. In a combination study, the anxiogenic or depressive effects of CCK-4 were attenuated by NPY or [Leu(31), Pro(34)]-NPY and potentiated by BIBP3226. The brains of CCK-4 treated rats were processed for NPY immunohistochemistry. Following CCK-4 treatment, the nucleus accumbens shell (AcbSh), ventral part of lateral division of the bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BSTLV), hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus and locus coeruleus showed a reduction in NPY-immunoreactive fibers. Population of NPY-immunopositive cells was also decreased in the AcbSh, BSTLV, prefrontal cortex and hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC). However, NPY-immunoreaction in the fibers of the ARC and cells of the central nucleus of amygdala was unchanged. We conclude that, inhibition of NPY signaling in the brain by CCK-4 might be causal to anxiety- and depression-like behaviors.

Decreased anxiety-like behavior and Gαq/11-dependent responses in the amygdala of mice lacking TRPC4 channels

Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels are abundant in the brain where they regulate transmission of sensory signals. The expression patterns of different TRPC subunits (TRPC1, 4, and 5) are consistent with their potential role in fear-related behaviors. Accordingly, we found recently that mutant mice lacking a specific TRP channel subunit, TRPC5, exhibited decreased innate fear responses. Both TRPC5 and another member of the same subfamily, TRPC4, form heteromeric complexes with the TRPC1 subunit (TRPC1/5 and TRPC1/4, respectively). As TRP channels with specific subunit compositions may have different functional properties, we hypothesized that fear-related behaviors could be differentially controlled by TRPCs with distinct subunit arrangements. In this study, we focused on the analysis of mutant mice lacking the TRPC4 subunit, which, as we confirmed in experiments on control mice, is expressed in brain areas implicated in the control of fear and anxiety. In behavioral experiments, we found that constitutive ablation of TRPC4 was associated with diminished anxiety levels (innate fear). Furthermore, knockdown of TRPC4 protein in the lateral amygdala via lentiviral-mediated gene delivery of RNAi mimicked the behavioral phenotype of constitutive TRPC4-null (TRPC4(-/-)) mouse. Recordings in brain slices demonstrated that these behavioral modifications could stem from the lack of TRPC4 potentiation in neurons in the lateral nucleus of the amygdala through two Gαq/11 protein-coupled signaling pathways, activated via Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors and cholecystokinin 2 receptors, respectively. Thus, TRPC4 and the structurally and functionally related subunit, TRPC5, may both contribute to the mechanisms underlying regulation of innate fear responses.

Comparison of the metabolic effects of sustained CCK1 receptor activation alone and in combination with upregulated leptin signalling in high-fat-fed mice

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Cholecystokinin (CCK) and leptin are important hormones with effects on energy balance. The present study assessed the biological effects of (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 and [D-Leu-4]-OB3, smaller isoforms of CCK and leptin, respectively.

METHODS

The actions and overall therapeutic use of (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 and [D-Leu-4]-OB3, alone and in combination, were evaluated in normal and high-fat-fed mice.

RESULTS

(pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 had prominent (p < 0.01 to p < 0.001), acute feeding-suppressive effects, which were significantly augmented (p < 0.05 to p < 0.01) by [D-Leu-4]-OB3. In agreement, the acute dose-dependent glucose-lowering and insulinotropic actions of (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 were significantly enhanced by concurrent administration of [D-Leu-4]-OB3. Twice daily injection of (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 alone and in combination with [D-Leu-4]-OB3 in high-fat-fed mice for 18 days decreased body weight (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001), energy intake (p < 0.01), circulating triacylglycerol (p < 0.01), non-fasting glucose (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001) and triacylglycerol deposition in liver and adipose tissue (p < 0.001). All treatment regimens improved glucose tolerance (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001) and insulin sensitivity (p < 0.001). Combined treatment with (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 and [D-Leu-4]-OB3 resulted in significantly lowered plasma insulin levels, normalisation of circulating LDL-cholesterol and decreased triacylglycerol deposition in muscle. These effects were superior to either treatment regimen alone. There were no changes in overall locomotor activity or respiratory exchange ratio, but treatment with (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 significantly reduced (p < 0.001) energy expenditure.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

These studies highlight the potential of (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 alone and in combination with [D-Leu-4]-OB3 in the treatment of obesity and diabetes.

Neuropeptide regulation of fear and anxiety: Implications of cholecystokinin, endogenous opioids, and neuropeptide Y

The neural circuitry of fear likely underlies anxiety and fear-related disorders such as specific and social phobia, panic disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. The primary pharmacological treatments currently utilized for these disorders include benzodiazepines, which act on the GABAergic receptor system, and antidepressants, which modulate the monamine systems. However, recent work on the regulation of fear neural circuitry suggests that specific neuropeptide modulation of this system is of critical importance. Recent reviews have examined the roles of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis neuropeptides as well as the roles of neurotrophic factors in regulating fear. The present review, instead, will focus on three neuropeptide systems which have received less attention in recent years but which are clearly involved in regulating fear and its extinction. The endogenous opioid system, particularly activating the μ opioid receptors, has been demonstrated to regulate fear expression and extinction, possibly through functioning as an error signal within the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray to mark unreinforced conditioned stimuli. The cholecystokinin (CCK) system initially led to much excitement through its potential role in panic disorder. More recent work in the CCK neuropeptide pathway suggests that it may act in concordance with the endogenous cannabinoid system in the modulation of fear inhibition and extinction. Finally, older as well as very recent data suggests that neuropeptide Y (NPY) may play a very interesting role in counteracting stress effects, enhancing extinction, and enhancing resilience in fear and stress preclinical models. Future work in understanding the mechanisms of neuropeptide functioning, particularly within well-known behavioral circuits, are likely to provide fascinating new clues into the understanding of fear behavior as well as suggesting novel therapeutics for treating disorders of anxiety and fear dysregulation.

Beneficial effects of the novel cholecystokinin agonist (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 in mouse models of obesity/diabetes

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a rapidly degraded gastrointestinal peptide that stimulates satiety and insulin secretion. We aimed to investigate the beneficial weight-lowering and metabolic effects of the novel N-terminally modified CCK analogue, (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8.

METHODS

The biological actions of (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 were comprehensively evaluated in pancreatic clonal BRIN BD11 cells and in vivo in high-fat-fed and ob/ob mice.

RESULTS

(pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 was completely resistant to enzymatic degradation and its satiating effects were significantly (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001) more potent than CCK-8. In BRIN-BD11 cells, (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 exhibited enhanced (p < 0.01 to p < 0.001) insulinotropic actions compared with CCK-8. When administered acutely to high-fat-fed or ob/ob mice, (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 improved glucose homeostasis. Sub-chronic twice daily injections of (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 in high-fat-fed mice for 28 days significantly decreased body weight (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001), accumulated food intake (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001), non-fasting glucose (p < 0.05) and triacylglycerol deposition in pancreatic (p < 0.01), adipose (p < 0.05) and liver (p < 0.001) tissue, and improved oral (p < 0.05) and i.p. (p < 0.05) glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity (p < 0.001). Similar observations were noted in ob/ob mice given twice daily injections of (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8. In addition, these beneficial effects were not reproduced by simple dietary restriction and were not associated with changes in energy expenditure. There was no evidence for development of tolerance to (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8, and analysis of histology or blood-borne markers for pancreatic, liver and renal function in mice treated with (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 suggested little abnormal pathology.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

These studies emphasise the potential of (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8 for the alleviation of obesity and insulin resistance.

Human cathepsin V protease participates in production of enkephalin and NPY neuropeptide neurotransmitters

Proteases are required for processing precursors into active neuropeptides that function as neurotransmitters for cell-cell communication. This study demonstrates the novel function of human cathepsin V protease for producing the neuropeptides enkephalin and neuropeptide Y (NPY). Cathepsin V is a human-specific cysteine protease gene. Findings here show that expression of cathepsin V in neuroendocrine PC12 cells and human neuronal SK-N-MC cells results in production of (Met)enkephalin from proenkephalin. Gene silencing of cathepsin V by siRNA in human SK-N-MC cells results in reduction of (Met)enkephalin by more than 80%, illustrating the prominent role of cathepsin V for neuropeptide production. In vitro processing of proenkephalin by cathepsin V occurs at dibasic residue sites to generate enkephalin-containing peptides and an ∼24-kDa intermediate present in human brain. Cathepsin V is present in human brain cortex and hippocampus where enkephalin and NPY are produced and is present in purified human neuropeptide secretory vesicles. Colocalization of cathepsin V with enkephalin and NPY in secretory vesicles of human neuroblastoma cells was illustrated by confocal microscopy. Furthermore, expression of cathepsin V with proNPY results in NPY production. These findings indicate the unique function of human cathepsin V for producing enkephalin and NPY neuropeptides required for neurotransmission in health and neurological diseases.

Requirement of phospholipase C and protein kinase C in cholecystokinin-mediated facilitation of NMDA channel function and anxiety-like behavior

Although cholecystokinin (CCK) has long been known to exert anxiogenic effects in both animal anxiety models and humans, the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms are ill-defined. CCK interacts with CCK-1 and CCK-2 receptors resulting in up-regulation of phospholipase C (PLC) and protein kinase C (PKC). However, the roles of PLC and PKC in CCK-mediated anxiogenic effects have not been determined. We have shown previously that CCK facilitates glutamate release in the hippocampus especially at the synapses formed by the perforant path and dentate gyrus granule cells via activations of PLC and PKC. Here we further demonstrated that CCK enhanced NMDA receptor function in dentate gyrus granule cells via activation of PLC and PKC pathway. At the single-channel level, CCK increased NMDA single-channel open probability and mean open time, reduced the mean close time, and had no effects on the conductance of NMDA channels. Because elevation of glutamatergic functions results in anxiety, we explored the roles of PLC and PKC in CCK-induced anxiogenic actions using the Vogel Conflict Test (VCT). Our results from both pharmacological approach and knockout mice demonstrated that microinjection of CCK into the dentate gyrus concentration-dependently increased anxiety-like behavior via activation of PLC and PKC. Our results provide a novel unidentified signaling mechanism whereby CCK increases anxiety.

Cell-type-specific CCK2 receptor signaling underlies the cholecystokinin-mediated selective excitation of hippocampal parvalbumin-positive fast-spiking basket cells

Parvalbumin-positive (PV+) fast-spiking basket cells are thought to play key roles in network functions related to precise time keeping during behaviorally relevant hippocampal synchronous oscillations. Although they express relatively few receptors for neuromodulators, the highly abundant and functionally important neuropeptide cholecystokinin (CCK) is able to selectively depolarize PV+ basket cells, making these cells sensitive biosensors for CCK. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the CCK-induced selective and powerful excitation of PV+ basket cells are not understood. We used single and paired patch-clamp recordings in acute rat hippocampal slices, in combination with post hoc identification of the recorded interneurons, to demonstrate that CCK acts via G-protein-coupled CCK2 receptors to engage sharply divergent intracellular pathways to exert its cell-type-selective effects. In contrast to CCK2 receptors on pyramidal cells that signal through the canonical G(q)-PLC pathway to trigger endocannabinoid-mediated signaling events, CCK2 receptors on neighboring PV+ basket cells couple to an unusual, pertussis-toxin-sensitive pathway. The latter pathway involves ryanodine receptors on intracellular calcium stores that ultimately activate a nonselective cationic conductance to depolarize PV+ basket cells. CCK has highly cell-type-selective effects even within the PV+ cell population, as the PV+ dendrite-targeting bistratified cells do not respond to CCK. Together, these results demonstrate that an abundant ligand such as CCK can signal through the same receptor in different neurons to use cell-type-selective signaling pathways to provide divergence and specificity to its effects.

Quantitative expression profile of distinct functional regions in the adult mouse brain

The adult mammalian brain is composed of distinct regions with specialized roles including regulation of circadian clocks, feeding, sleep/awake, and seasonal rhythms. To find quantitative differences of expression among such various brain regions, we conducted the BrainStars (B*) project, in which we profiled the genome-wide expression of ∼50 small brain regions, including sensory centers, and centers for motion, time, memory, fear, and feeding. To avoid confounds from temporal differences in gene expression, we sampled each region every 4 hours for 24 hours, and pooled the samples for DNA-microarray assays. Therefore, we focused on spatial differences in gene expression. We used informatics to identify candidate genes with expression changes showing high or low expression in specific regions. We also identified candidate genes with stable expression across brain regions that can be used as new internal control genes, and ligand-receptor interactions of neurohormones and neurotransmitters. Through these analyses, we found 8,159 multi-state genes, 2,212 regional marker gene candidates for 44 small brain regions, 915 internal control gene candidates, and 23,864 inferred ligand-receptor interactions. We also found that these sets include well-known genes as well as novel candidate genes that might be related to specific functions in brain regions. We used our findings to develop an integrated database (http://brainstars.org/) for exploring genome-wide expression in the adult mouse brain, and have made this database openly accessible. These new resources will help accelerate the functional analysis of the mammalian brain and the elucidation of its regulatory network systems.

Cholecystokinin facilitates neuronal excitability in the entorhinal cortex via activation of TRPC-like channels

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is one of the most abundant neuropeptides in the brain, where it interacts with two G protein-coupled receptors (CCK-1 and CCK-2). Activation of both CCK receptors increases the activity of PLC, resulting in increases in intracellular calcium ion (Ca(2+)) release and activation of PKC. Whereas high density of CCK receptors has been detected in the superficial layers of the entorhinal cortex (EC), the functions of CCK in this brain region have not been determined. Here, we studied the effects of CCK on neuronal excitability of layer III pyramidal neurons in the EC. Our results showed that CCK remarkably increased the firing frequency of action potentials (APs). The effects of CCK on neuronal excitability were mediated via activation of CCK-2 receptors and required the functions of G proteins and PLC. However, CCK-mediated facilitation of neuronal excitability was independent of inositol trisphosphate receptors and PKC. CCK facilitated neuronal excitability by activating a cationic channel to generate membrane depolarization. The effects of CCK were suppressed by the generic, nonselective cationic channel blockers, 2-aminoethyldiphenyl borate and flufenamic acid, but potentiated by gadolinium ion and lanthanum ion at 100 μM. Depletion of extracellular Ca(2+) also counteracted CCK-induced increases in AC firing frequency. Moreover, CCK-induced enhancement of neuronal excitability was inhibited significantly by intracellular application of the antibody to transient receptor potential channel 5 (TRPC5), suggesting the involvement of TRPC5 channels. Our results provide a cellular and molecular mechanism to help explain the functions of CCK in vivo.

Gastrectomy alters emotional reactivity in rats: neurobiological mechanisms

Gastrectomy (Gsx) is associated with altered emotional function and a predisposition to depression/anxiety disorders. Here we investigated the effects of Gsx on emotional reactivity in rats and explored the underlying neurobiological mechanisms. Gsx- and sham-operated rats were exposed to behavioural tests that explore anxiety- and depression-like behaviour (open field, black and white box, elevated plus maze, social interaction, forced swim) as well as memory (object recognition). The potential neurobiological mechanisms underlying these differences were explored by measuring (i) turnover of candidate neurotransmitter systems in the nucleus accumbens, (ii) hippocampal neurogenesis by BrdU labelling or by analysis of candidate genes involved in neuronal growth and (iii) changes in mRNA expression of candidate genes in dissected hippocampal and amygdala tissue. Data from individual behavioural tests as well as from multivariate analysis revealed differing emotional reactivity between Gsx- and sham-operated rats. Gsx rats showed reduced emotional reactivity in a new environment and decreased depression-like behaviour. Accumbal serotonin and dopamine turnover were both reduced in Gsx rats. Gsx also led to a memory deficit, although hippocampal neurogenesis was unaffected. Of the many candidate genes studied by real-time RT-PCR, we highlight a Gsx-associated decrease in expression of Egr-1, a transcription factor linked to neural plasticity and cognition, in the hippocampus and amygdala. Thus, Gsx induces an alteration of emotional reactivity and a memory/cognitive deficit that is associated with reduced turnover of serotonin and dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and decreased expression of Egr-1 in the hippocampus and amygdala.

Bi-directional effect of cholecystokinin receptor-2 overexpression on stress-triggered fear memory and anxiety in the mouse

Fear, an emotional response of animals to environmental stress/threats, plays an important role in initiating and driving adaptive response, by which the homeostasis in the body is maintained. Overwhelming/uncontrollable fear, however, represents a core symptom of anxiety disorders, and may disturb the homeostasis. Because to recall or imagine certain cue(s) of stress/threats is a compulsory inducer for the expression of anxiety, it is generally believed that the pathogenesis of anxiety is associated with higher attention (acquisition) selectively to stress or mal-enhanced fear memory, despite that the actual relationship between fear memory and anxiety is not yet really established. In this study, inducible forebrain-specific cholecystokinin receptor-2 transgenic (IF-CCKR-2 tg) mice, different stress paradigms, batteries of behavioral tests, and biochemical assays were used to evaluate how different CCKergic activities drive fear behavior and hormonal reaction in response to stresses with different intensities. We found that in IF-CCKR-2 tg mice, contextual fear was impaired following 1 trial of footshock, while overall fear behavior was enhanced following 36 trials of footshock, compared to their littermate controls. In contrast to a standard Yerkes-Dodson (inverted-U shaped) stress-fear relationship in control mice, a linearized stress-fear curve was observed in CCKR-2 tg mice following gradient stresses. Moreover, compared to 1 trial, 36 trials of footshock in these transgenic mice enhanced anxiety-like behavior in other behavioral tests, impaired spatial and recognition memories, and prolonged the activation of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and glucocorticoids (CORT) following new acute stress. Taken together, these results indicate that stress may trigger two distinctive neurobehavioral systems, depending on both of the intensity of stress and the CCKergic tone in the brain. A “threshold theory” for this two-behavior system has been suggested.

Discovery of N-benzyl-2-[(4S)-4-(1H-indol-3-ylmethyl)-5-oxo-1-phenyl-4,5-dihydro-6H-[1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-a][1,5]benzodiazepin-6-yl]-N-isopropylacetamide, an orally active, gut-selective CCK1 receptor agonist for the potential treatment of obesity

We describe the design, synthesis, and structure-activity relationships of triazolobenzodiazepinone CCK1 receptor agonists. Analogs in this series demonstrate potent agonist activity as measured by in vitro and in vivo assays for CCK1 agonism. Our efforts resulted in the identification of compound 4a which significantly reduced food intake with minimal systemic exposure in rodents.