The expression and localization of somatostatin receptors in dorsal root ganglion neurons of normal and monoarthritic rats

Face and Predictive Validity of MI-RAT (Montreal Induction of Rat Arthritis Testing), a Surgical Model of Osteoarthritis Pain in Rodents Combined with Calibrated Exercise

Validating animal pain models is crucial to enhancing translational research and response to pharmacological treatment. This study investigated the effects of a calibrated slight exercise protocol alone or combined with multimodal analgesia on sensory sensitivity, neuroproteomics, and joint structural components in the MI-RAT model. Joint instability was induced surgically on day (D) 0 in female rats (N = 48) distributed into sedentary-placebo, exercise-placebo, sedentary-positive analgesic (PA), and exercise-PA groups. Daily analgesic treatment (D3-D56) included pregabalin and carprofen. Quantitative sensory testing was achieved temporally (D-1, D7, D21, D56), while cartilage alteration (modified Mankin's score (mMs)) and targeted spinal pain neuropeptide were quantified upon sacrifice. Compared with the sedentary-placebo (presenting allodynia from D7), the exercise-placebo group showed an increase in sensitivity threshold (p < 0.04 on D7, D21, and D56). PA treatment was efficient on D56 (p = 0.001) and presented a synergic anti-allodynic effect with exercise from D21 to D56 (p < 0.0001). Histological assessment demonstrated a detrimental influence of exercise (mMs = 33.3%) compared with sedentary counterparts (mMs = 12.0%; p < 0.001), with more mature transformations. Spinal neuropeptide concentration was correlated with sensory sensitization and modulation sites (inflammation and endogenous inhibitory control) of the forced mobility effect. The surgical MI-RAT OA model coupled with calibrated slight exercise demonstrated face and predictive validity, an assurance of higher clinical translatability.

Reassessment of SST4 Somatostatin Receptor Expression Using SST4-eGFP Knockin Mice and the Novel Rabbit Monoclonal Anti-Human SST4 Antibody 7H49L61

Among the five somatostatin receptors (SST1–SST5), SST4 is the least characterized, which is in part due to the lack of specific monoclonal antibodies. We generated a knockin mouse model that expresses a carboxyl-terminal SST4-eGFP fusion protein. In addition, we extensively characterized the novel rabbit monoclonal anti-human SST4 antibody 7H49L61 using transfected cells and receptor-expressing tissues. 7H49L61 was then subjected to immunohistochemical staining of a series of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded normal and neoplastic human tissues. Characterization of SST4-eGFP mice revealed prominent SST4 expression in cortical pyramidal cells and trigeminal ganglion cells. In the human cortex, 7H49L61 disclosed a virtually identical staining pattern. Specificity of 7H49L61 was demonstrated by detection of a broad band migrating at 50–60 kDa in immunoblots. Tissue immunostaining was abolished by preadsorption of 7H49L61 with its immunizing peptide. In the subsequent immunohistochemical study, 7H49L61 yielded a predominant plasma membrane staining in adrenal cortex, exocrine pancreas, and placenta. SST4 was also found in glioblastomas, parathyroid adenomas, gastric and pancreatic adenocarcinomas, pheochromocytomas, and lymphomas. Altogether, we provide the first unequivocal localization of SST4 in normal and neoplastic human tissues. The monoclonal antibody 7H49L61 may also prove of great value for identifying SST4-expressing tumors during routine histopathological examinations.

The Neuropeptide Cortistatin Alleviates Neuropathic Pain in Experimental Models of Peripheral Nerve Injury

Neuropathic pain is one of the most severe forms of chronic pain caused by the direct injury of the somatosensory system. The current drugs for treating neuropathies have limited efficacies or show important side effects, and the development of analgesics with novel modes of action is critical. The identification of endogenous anti-nociceptive factors has emerged as an attractive strategy for designing new pharmacological approaches to treat neuropathic pain. Cortistatin is a neuropeptide with potent anti-inflammatory activity, recently identified as a natural analgesic peptide in several models of pain evoked by inflammatory conditions. Here, we investigated the potential analgesic effect of cortistatin in neuropathic pain using a variety of experimental models of peripheral nerve injury caused by chronic constriction or partial transection of the sciatic nerve or by diabetic neuropathy. We found that the peripheral and central injection of cortistatin ameliorated hyperalgesia and allodynia, two of the dominant clinical manifestations of chronic neuropathic pain. Cortistatin-induced analgesia was multitargeted, as it regulated the nerve damage-induced hypersensitization of primary nociceptors, inhibited neuroinflammatory responses, and enhanced the production of neurotrophic factors both at the peripheral and central levels. We also demonstrated the neuroregenerative/protective capacity of cortistatin in a model of severe peripheral nerve transection. Interestingly, the nociceptive system responded to nerve injury by secreting cortistatin, and a deficiency in cortistatin exacerbated the neuropathic pain responses and peripheral nerve dysfunction. Therefore, cortistatin-based therapies emerge as attractive alternatives for treating chronic neuropathic pain of different etiologies.

Inhibition of ASIC-Mediated Currents by Activation of Somatostatin 2 Receptors in Rat Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons

Somatostatin (SST) and its analogues like octreotide (OCT) have analgesic effect on a variety of pain through peripheral SST receptors (SSTRs). However, the precise molecular mechanisms have not yet been fully elucidated. This research aimed to identify possible antinociceptive mechanisms, showing functional links of the SSTR2 and acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs). Herein, we reported that OCT inhibited the electrophysiological activity of ASICs in rat dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons. OCT concentration-dependently decreased the peak amplitude of acid-evoked inward currents, which were mediated by ASICs. OCT shifted concentration-response curve to protons downwards, with a decrease of 36.53 ± 5.28% in the maximal current response to pH 4.5 in the presence of OCT. OCT inhibited ASIC-mediated currents through SSTR2, since the inhibition was blocked by Cyn 154806, a specific SSTR2 antagonist. The OCT inhibition of ASIC-mediated currents was mimicked by H-89, a membrane-permeable inhibitor of PKA, and reversed by internal treatment of an adenylyl cyclase activator forskolin or 8-Br-cAMP. OCT also decreased the number of action potentials induced by acid stimuli through SSTR2. Finally, peripheral administration of 20 μM OCT, but not 2 μM OCT, significantly relieved nociceptive responses to intraplantar injection of acetic acid in rats. This occurred through local activation of SSTR2 in the injected hindpaw and was reversed following co-application of Cyn 154806. Our results indicate that activation SSTR2 by OCT can inhibit the activity of ASICs via an intracellular cAMP and PKA signaling pathway in rat DRG neurons. These observations demonstrate a cross-talk between ASICs and SSTR2 in peripheral sensory neurons, which was a novel peripheral analgesic mechanism of SST and its analogues.

J-2156, a somatostatin receptor type 4 agonist, alleviates mechanical hyperalgesia in a rat model of chronic low back pain

Chronic low back pain (LBP) ranks among the most common reasons for patient visits to healthcare providers. Drug treatments often provide only partial pain relief and are associated with considerable side-effects. J-2156 [(1'S,2S)-4amino-N-(1'-carbamoyl-2'-phenylethyl)-2-(4"-methyl-1"-naphthalenesulfonylamino)butanamide] is an agonist that binds with nanomolar affinity to the rat and human somatostatin receptor type 4 (SST₄ receptor). Hence, our aim was to assess the efficacy of J-2156 for relief of chronic mechanical LBP in a rat model. Male Sprague Dawley rats were anaesthetised and their lumbar L4/L5 and L5/L6 intervertebral discs (IVDs) were punctured (0.5 mm outer diameter, 2 mm-deep) 10 times per disc. Sham-rats underwent similar surgery, but without disc puncture. For LBP-rats, noxious pressure hyperalgesia developed in the lumbar axial deep tissues from day 7 to day 21 post-surgery, which was maintained until study completion. Importantly, mechanical hyperalgesia did not develop in the lumbar axial deep tissues of sham-rats. In LBP-rats, single intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of J-2156 (3, 10, 30 mg kg^-1) alleviated primary and secondary hyperalgesia in the lumbar axial deep tissues at L4/L5 and L1, respectively. This was accompanied by a reduction in the otherwise augmented lumbar (L4-L6) dorsal root ganglia expression levels of the pro-nociceptive mediators: phosphorylated p38 (pp38) mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphorylated p44/p42 MAPK and a reduction in pp38 MAPK in the lumbar enlargement of the spinal cord. The SST₄ receptor is worthy of further investigation as a target for discovery of novel analgesics for the relief of chronic LBP.

International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. CV. Somatostatin Receptors: Structure, Function, Ligands, and New Nomenclature

Somatostatin, also known as somatotropin-release inhibitory factor, is a cyclopeptide that exerts potent inhibitory actions on hormone secretion and neuronal excitability. Its physiologic functions are mediated by five G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) called somatostatin receptor (SST)1-5. These five receptors share common structural features and signaling mechanisms but differ in their cellular and subcellular localization and mode of regulation. SST₂ and SST₅ receptors have evolved as primary targets for pharmacological treatment of pituitary adenomas and neuroendocrine tumors. In addition, SST₂ is a prototypical GPCR for the development of peptide-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnostic and therapeutic interventions. This review article summarizes findings published in the last 25 years on the physiology, pharmacology, and clinical applications related to SSTs. We also discuss potential future developments and propose a new nomenclature.

The Somatostatin Receptor-4 Agonist J-2156 Alleviates Mechanical Hypersensitivity in a Rat Model of Breast Cancer Induced Bone Pain

In the majority of patients with breast cancer in the advanced stages, skeletal metastases are common, which may cause excruciating pain. Currently available drug treatments for relief of breast cancer-induced bone pain (BCIBP) include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and strong opioid analgesics along with inhibitors of osteoclast activity such as bisphosphonates and monoclonal antibodies such as denosumab. However, these medications often lack efficacy and/or they may produce serious dose-limiting side effects. In the present study, we show that J-2156, a somatostatin receptor type 4 (SST4 receptor) selective agonist, reverses pain-like behaviors in a rat model of BCIBP induced by unilateral intra-tibial injection of Walker 256 breast cancer cells. Following intraperitoneal administration, the ED₅₀ of J-2156 for the relief of mechanical allodynia and mechanical hyperalgesia in the ipsilateral hindpaws was 3.7 and 8.0 mg/kg, respectively. Importantly, the vast majority of somatosensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglia including small diameter C-fibers and medium-large diameter fibers, that play a crucial role in cancer pain hypersensitivities, expressed the SST4 receptor. J-2156 mediated pain relief in BCIBP-rats was confirmed by observations of a reduction in the levels of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (pERK), a protein essential for central sensitization and persistent pain, in the spinal dorsal horn. Our results demonstrate the potential of the SST4 receptor as a pharmacological target for relief of BCIBP and we anticipate the present work to be a starting point for further mechanism-based studies.

Presynaptic inhibition of nociceptive neurotransmission by somatosensory neuron-secreted suppressors

Noxious stimuli cause pain by activating cutaneous nociceptors. The Aδ- and C-fibers of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons convey the nociceptive signals to the laminae I-II of spinal cord. In the dorsal horn of spinal cord, the excitatory afferent synaptic transmission is regulated by the inhibitory neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid and modulators such as opioid peptides released from the spinal interneurons, and by serotonin, norepinepherine and dopamine from the descending inhibitory system. In contrast to the accumulated evidence for these central inhibitors and their neural circuits in the dorsal spinal cord, the knowledge about the endogenous suppressive mechanisms in nociceptive DRG neurons remains very limited. In this review, we summarize our recent findings of the presynaptic suppressive mechanisms in nociceptive neurons, the BNP/NPR-A/PKG/BKCa channel pathway, the FSTL1/α1Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase pathway and the activin C/ERK pathway. These endogenous suppressive systems in the mechanoheat nociceptors may also contribute differentially to the mechanisms of nerve injury-induced neuropathic pain or inflammation-induced pain.

[Physiology of pain]

Pain research is based broadly on physiological disciplines and its development follows the methodological progress of the era, from classical psychophysiology to electrophysiological investigations at peripheral and central nociceptive systems, single cells and ion channels to modern imaging of nociceptive processing. Physiological pain research in Germany has long been part of an interdisciplinary research network extending beyond all political boundaries, and this situation has continued since molecular techniques started to dominate all biomedical research. Current scientific questions, such as intracellular nociceptive signal mechanisms, interactions with other physiological systems including the immune system, or the genetic basis of epidemic and chronic pain diseases can only be solved interdisciplinary and with international collaboration.

Mechanisms and Mediators That Drive Arthritis Pain

There are over 100 different types of arthritis and each can differ greatly in their aetiology and pathophysiology; however, one characteristic that is common to all arthritic conditions is joint pain. Musculoskeletal pain is the leading cause of disability in the world, and the number one reason arthritis patients visit their primary care physician. Despite the prevalence and burden of arthritis pain, current analgesics lack sufficient efficacy and are plagued by multiple adverse side effects. In this review, we outline the current landscape of research concerning joint pain, drawing from both preclinical and clinical studies. Specifically, this review is a discussion of the different neurophysiological processes that occur during joint disease and how inflammatory and neuropathic aspects contribute to the development of arthritis pain.

Role of somatostatin and somatostatin receptor type 2 in postincisional nociception in rats

Somatostatin (SST) and the somatostatin receptor type 2 (sstr2) are expressed in the superficial part (Laminae I-III) of the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Since the neurons in these laminae also receive nociceptive sensation from the periphery, it was hypothesized that both SST and sstr2 could be involved in the modulation of nociceptive transmission. To the best of knowledge, there are no studies on the involvement of SST and sstr2 in hind paw incision model in rats, which mimics postoperative pain in humans. Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to hind paw incision under isoflurane anaesthesia and the resulting mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia were evaluated for 5 days. In another set of animals, the spinal cord was isolated at specified time intervals after incision and examined for SST and sstr2 expression using immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting procedures. Finally, nociceptive parameters were again evaluated in incised rats, which had received SST (400 µg/kg i.p. three times per day). Blood glucose level and locomotor activity were determined after SST treatment. Both allodynia and hyperalgesia were highest immediately after incision. Spinal SST expression increased at 2 h. A further increase was noted on day 3. Expression of sstr2 increased initially but decreased at day 1. These changes could be due to exocytosis of SST and internalization of the ligand-receptor complex. SST injection significantly attenuated mechanical allodynia but not thermal hyperalgesia. Significant change in blood glucose level or locomotor activity was absent. SST appears to contribute to postincisional pain. This finding could be of clinical relevance.

Selective agonists of somatostatin receptor subtype 1 or 2 injected peripherally induce antihyperalgesic effect in two models of visceral hypersensitivity in mice

Somatostatin interacts with five G-protein-coupled receptor (sst1-5). Octreotide, a stable sst2≫3≥5 agonist, exerts a visceral anti-hyperalgesic effect in experimental and clinical studies. Little is known on the receptor subtypes involved. We investigated the influence of the stable sst1-5 agonist, ODT8-SST and selective receptor subtype peptide agonists (3 or 10μg/mouse) injected intraperitoneally (ip) on visceral hypersensitivity in mice induced by repeated noxious colorectal distensions (four sets of three CRD, each at 55mmHg) or corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 agonist, cortagine given between two sets of graded CRD (15, 30, 45, and 60mmHg, three times each pressure). The mean visceromotor response (VMR) was assessed using a non-invasive manometry method and values were expressed as percentage of the VMR to the 1st set of CRD baseline or to the 60mmHg CRD, respectively. ODT8-SST (10μg) and the sst2 agonist, S-346-011 (3 and 10μg) prevented mechanically induced visceral hypersensitivity in the three sets of CRD, the sst1 agonist (10μg) blocked only the 2nd set and showed a trend at 3μg while the sst4 agonist had no effect. The selective sst2 antagonist, S-406-028 blocked the sst2 agonist but not the sst1 agonist effect. The sst1 agonist (3 and 10μg) prevented cortagine-induced hypersensitivity to CRD at each pressure while the sst2 agonist at 10μg reduced it. These data indicate that in addition to sst2, the sst1 agonist may provide a novel promising target to alleviate visceral hypersensitivity induced by mechanoreceptor sensitization and more prominently, stress-related visceral nociceptive sensitization.

Analgesic topical capsaicinoid therapy increases somatostatin-like immunoreactivity in the human plasma

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the therapeutic potential of local capsaicinoid (EMSPOMA(®) cream) treatment on chronic low back pain in patients with degenerative spine diseases and to investigate the possible mechanism of action of the therapy. The qualitative and quantitative analyses of capsaicinoids in EMSPOMA(®) cream were performed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In the clinical study 20 patients with degenerative spine diseases were involved in a self-controlled examination. During the 21 day therapy they received 30 min daily treatment with capsaicinoid (EMSPOMA(®)) cream to the lumbar region of the back. The pain (VASs, Oswestry Disability Index) and the mobility of the lumbar region of the spine (Schober's, Domján's L and R test) were detected at baseline and at the end of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd weeks. The plasma level of somatostatin-like immunoreactivity (SST-LI) was measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA) before and after the treatment on the first and the last day of the therapy. Nonivamide (0.01%) was identified as the only capsaicinoid molecule in the cream. In the clinical study the 21 day local nonivamide treatment reduced the pain sensation. Oswestry Disability Index decreased from 39 ± 3.9% to 32.5 ± 4.4%. VASs showed 37.29%-59.51% improvement. In the plasma level of SST-LI threefold elevation was observed after the first nonivamide treatment. We conclude that nonivamide treatment exerts analgesic action in chronic low back pain and causes the release of the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory neuropeptide somatostatin which may play pivotal role in the pain-relieving effect.

The somatostatin receptor 4 agonist J-2156 reduces mechanosensitivity of peripheral nerve afferents and spinal neurons in an inflammatory pain model

Somatostatin (SST) is a peptide hormone that regulates the endocrine system and affects neurotransmission via interaction with G protein-coupled SST receptors and inhibition of the release of different hormones. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the analgesic properties of the selective SSTR4 agonist J-2156 are mediated via peripheral and/or spinal receptors. Effect on mechanical hyperalgesia in the Complete Freund׳s Adjuvant (CFA) model was measured after intraperitoneal application of J-2156. Electrophysiological neuronal recordings were conducted 24 h after injection of CFA or vehicle into the paw of Wistar rats. Mechanosensitivity of peripheral afferents of the saphenous nerve as well as of spinal wide dynamic range (WDR) and nociceptive-specific (NS) neurons were measured after systemic or spinal application of J-2156. In CFA animals J-2156 dose dependently reduced hyperalgesia in behavioral studies. The minimal effective dose was 0.1 mg/kg. Mechanosensitivity of peripheral afferents and spinal neurons was significantly reduced by J-2156. NS neurons were dose dependently inhibited by J-2156 while in WDR neurons only the highest concentration of 100 µM had an effect. In sham controls, J-2156 had no effect on neuronal activity. We demonstrated that J-2156 dose-dependently reduces peripheral and spinal neuronal excitability in the CFA rat model without affecting physiological pain transmission. Given the high concentration of the compound required to inhibit spinal neurons, it is unlikely that the behavioral effect seen in CFA model is mediated centrally. Overall these data demonstrated that the analgesic effect of J-2156 is mediated mainly via peripheral SST4 receptors.

Nociceptive primary afferents: they have a mind of their own

Nociceptive primary afferents have three surprising properties: they are highly complex in their expression of neurotransmitters and receptors and most probably participate in autocrine and paracrine interactions; they are capable of exerting tonic and activity-dependent inhibitory control over incoming nociceptive input; they can generate signals in the form of dorsal root reflexes that are transmitted antidromically out to the periphery and these signals can result in neurogenic inflammation in the innervated tissue. Thus, nociceptive primary afferents are highly complicated structures, capable of modifying input before it is ever transmitted to the central nervous system and capable of altering the tissue they innervate.

Somatostatin 4 receptor activation modulates TRPV1[correction of TPRV1] currents in dorsal root ganglion neurons

Somatostatin (sst) is a cyclic neuropeptide known to have inhibitory roles in the central nervous system. It exerts its biological effects via the activation of the 5 sst receptor subtypes, which belong to the family of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR). This peptide has analgesic properties, specifically via the activation of the sst4 receptor subtype. Although this is established, the precise molecular mechanisms causing this have not yet been fully elucidated. This research aimed to identify a possible anti-nociceptive mechanism, showing functional links to the transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) within the pain processing pathway. Calcium imaging and whole cell voltage clamp experiments were conducted on DRG neurons prepared from adult rats, utilizing capsaicin stimulations and the sst4 receptor specific agonist J-2156. The complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) inflammatory pain model was used to examine if effects are augmented in pain conditions. The sst4 receptor agonist J-2156 was able significantly to inhibit capsaicin induced calcium and sodium influx, where the effect was more potent after CFA treatment. This inhibition identifies a contributory molecular mechanism to the analgesic properties of sst4 receptor activation.

Somatostatin 4 receptor activation modulates G-protein coupled inward rectifying potassium channels and voltage stimulated calcium signals in dorsal root ganglion neurons

Somatostatin has a wide biological profile resulting from its actions on the five receptor subtypes (sst1-5). Recently somatostatin was shown to exert analgesic effects via activation of the sst4 receptor. Although the analgesia in pain models is established, the precise molecular mechanism has yet to be fully elucidated. This research aimed to identify possible anti-nociceptive mechanisms, showing functional links of the sst4 receptor to G-protein coupled inward rectifying potassium (GIRK) channels and reduction of voltage stimulated calcium influx within the pain processing pathway. Whole cell voltage clamp experiments and calcium imaging experiments were conducted on DRG neurons prepared from adult rats. Application of an sst4 receptor selective agonist, J-2156, on DRG neurons induced a GIRK modulated potassium current, and inhibited voltage sensitive calcium current. Both mechanisms are thought to contribute to the analgesic properties of sst4 receptor agonists.

Somatostatin and its 2A receptor in dorsal root ganglia and dorsal horn of mouse and human: expression, trafficking and possible role in pain

Background

Somatostatin (SST) and some of its receptor subtypes have been implicated in pain signaling at the spinal level. In this study we have investigated the role of SST and its sst2A receptor (sst2A) in dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) and spinal cord.

Results

SST and sst2A protein and sst2 transcript were found in both mouse and human DRGs, sst2A-immunoreactive (IR) cell bodies and processes in lamina II in mouse and human spinal dorsal horn, and sst2A-IR nerve terminals in mouse skin. The receptor protein was associated with the cell membrane. Following peripheral nerve injury sst2A-like immunoreactivity (LI) was decreased, and SST-LI increased in DRGs. sst2A-LI accumulated on the proximal and, more strongly, on the distal side of a sciatic nerve ligation. Fluorescence-labeled SST administered to a hind paw was internalized and retrogradely transported, indicating that a SST-sst2A complex may represent a retrograde signal. Internalization of sst2A was seen in DRG neurons after systemic treatment with the sst2 agonist octreotide (Oct), and in dorsal horn and DRG neurons after intrathecal administration. Some DRG neurons co-expressed sst2A and the neuropeptide Y Y1 receptor on the cell membrane, and systemic Oct caused co-internalization, hypothetically a sign of receptor heterodimerization. Oct treatment attenuated the reduction of pain threshold in a neuropathic pain model, in parallel suppressing the activation of p38 MAPK in the DRGs

Conclusions

The findings highlight a significant and complex role of the SST system in pain signaling. The fact that the sst2A system is found also in human DRGs and spinal cord, suggests that sst2A may represent a potential pharmacologic target for treatment of neuropathic pain.

Cortistatin attenuates inflammatory pain via spinal and peripheral actions

Clinical pain, as a consequence of inflammation or injury of peripheral organs (inflammatory pain) or nerve injury (neuropathic pain), represents a serious public health issue. Treatment of pain-related suffering requires knowledge of how pain signals are initially interpreted and subsequently transmitted and perpetuated. To limit duration and intensity of pain, inhibitory signals participate in pain perception. Cortistatin is a cyclic-neuropeptide that exerts potent inhibitory actions on cortical neurons and immune cells. Here, we found that cortistatin is a natural analgesic component of the peripheral nociceptive system produced by peptidergic nociceptive neurons of the dorsal root ganglia in response to inflammatory and noxious stimuli. Moreover, cortistatin is produced by GABAergic interneurons of deep layers of dorsal horn of spinal cord. By using cortistatin-deficient mice, we demonstrated that endogenous cortistatin critically tunes pain perception in physiological and pathological states. Furthermore, peripheral and spinal injection of cortistatin potently reduced nocifensive behavior, heat hyperalgesia and tactile allodynia in experimental models of clinical pain evoked by chronic inflammation, surgery and arthritis. The analgesic effects of cortistatin were independent of its anti-inflammatory activity and directly exerted on peripheral and central nociceptive terminals via Gαi-coupled somatostatin-receptors (mainly sstr2) and blocking intracellular signaling that drives neuronal plasticity including protein kinase A-, calcium- and Akt/ERK-mediated release of nociceptive peptides. Moreover, cortistatin could modulate, through its binding to ghrelin-receptor (GHSR1), pain-induced sensitization of secondary neurons in spinal cord. Therefore, cortistatin emerges as an anti-inflammatory factor with potent analgesic effects that offers a new approach to clinical pain therapy, especially in inflammatory states.

Bak Foong Pills induce an analgesic effect by inhibiting nociception via the somatostatin pathway in mice

Dysmenorrhoea, defined as cramping pain in the lower abdomen occurring before or during menstruation, affects, to varying degrees, up to 90% of women of child-bearing age. We investigated whether BFP (Bak Foong Pills), a traditional Chinese medicine treatment for dysmenorrhoea, possesses analgesic properties. Results showed that BFP was able to significantly reduce pain responses following subchronic treatment for 3 days, but not following acute (1 h) treatment in response to acetic acid-induced writhing in C57/B6 mice. The analgesic effect was not due to inhibition of COX (cyclo-oxygenase) activity, evidenced by the lack of inhibition of prostacyclin and PGE2 (prostaglandin E2) production. Molecular analysis revealed that BFP treatment modulated the expression of a number of genes in the spinal cord of mice subjected to acetic acid writhing. RT-PCR (reverse transcription-PCR) analysis of spinal cord samples showed that both sst4 (somatostatin receptor 4) and sst2 receptor mRNA, but not μOR (μ-opiate receptor) and NK1 (neurokinin-1) receptor mRNA, were down-regulated following BFP treatment, thus implicating somatostatin involvement in BFP-induced analgesia. Administration of c-som (cyclo-somatostatin), a somatostatin antagonist, prior to acetic acid-induced writhing inhibited the analgesic effect. Thus subchronic treatment with BFP has anti-nociceptive qualities mediated via the somatostatin pathway.

Octreotide inhibits capsaicin-induced activation of C and Aδ afferent fibres in rat hairy skin in vivo

1. The present study investigated whether the somatostatin receptor (SSTR) agonist, octreotide, could inhibit the activation of dorsal skin afferent fibres induced by local injection of capsaicin in the rat. 2. Single unit activity from Aδ mechano-heat sensitive (AMH; n = 41) and C mechano-heat sensitive (CMH; n = 30) afferents was recorded after their isolation in thin filaments from the dorsal cutaneous nerve branches. The effect of subcutaneous octreotide injection on the change in discharge rate and mechanical threshold induced by capsaicin was determined. 3. Capsaicin (0.05%) injection into the edge of the receptive field of both AMH and CMH units increased their discharge rate and decreased their mechanical threshold. Pre-injection of octreotide inhibited these responses, and co-application of SSTR antagonist, cyclosomatostatin, reversed the inhibitory effect of octreotide. 4. The present study provides electrophysiological evidence that the signal evoked by the somatostatin receptor inhibits the activation and mechanical sensitization evoked by capsaicin in the terminals in small-diameter sensory neurons.

Monoamines and neuropeptides interact to inhibit aversive behaviour in Caenorhabditis elegans

Pain modulation is complex, but noradrenergic signalling promotes anti-nociception, with α(2)-adrenergic agonists used clinically. To better understand the noradrenergic/peptidergic modulation of nociception, we examined the octopaminergic inhibition of aversive behaviour initiated by the Caenorhabditis elegans nociceptive ASH sensory neurons. Octopamine (OA), the invertebrate counterpart of norepinephrine, modulates sensory-mediated reversal through three α-adrenergic-like OA receptors. OCTR-1 and SER-3 antagonistically modulate ASH signalling directly, with OCTR-1 signalling mediated by Gα(o). In contrast, SER-6 inhibits aversive responses by stimulating the release of an array of 'inhibitory' neuropeptides that activate receptors on sensory neurons mediating attraction or repulsion, suggesting that peptidergic signalling may integrate multiple sensory inputs to modulate locomotory transitions. These studies highlight the complexity of octopaminergic/peptidergic interactions, the role of OA in activating global peptidergic signalling cascades and the similarities of this modulatory network to the noradrenergic inhibition of nociception in mammals, where norepinephrine suppresses chronic pain through inhibitory α(2)-adrenoreceptors on afferent nociceptors and stimulatory α(1)-receptors on inhibitory peptidergic interneurons.

Differential antiinflammatory and antinociceptive effects of the somatostatin analogs octreotide and pasireotide in a mouse model of immune-mediated arthritis

OBJECTIVE

Clinical and preclinical evidence suggests that somatostatin exhibits potent antiinflammatory and antinociceptive properties. However, it is not known which of the 5 somatostatin receptor subtypes (SSTRs 1-5) is involved in these actions. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of the stable somatostatin analogs octreotide and pasireotide (SOM230) in a mouse model of antigen-induced arthritis (AIA).

METHODS

Studies were performed in SSTR2-deficient mice (SSTR2(-/-)) and their wild-type littermates (SSTR2(+/+)). The expression of SSTR1, SSTR2A, SSTR3, and SSTR5 in dorsal root ganglia was examined by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Untreated SSTR2(-/-) mice with AIA displayed joint swelling and mechanical hyperalgesia similar to that seen in SSTR2(+/+) mice. In wild-type mice, both octreotide and pasireotide significantly attenuated knee joint swelling and histopathologic manifestations of arthritis to an extent comparable to that of dexamethasone. In SSTR2(-/-) mice, the antiinflammatory effects of both octreotide and pasireotide were completely abrogated. Prolonged administration of pasireotide also inhibited joint swelling and protected against joint destruction during AIA flare reactions. In addition, both octreotide and pasireotide reduced inflammatory hyperalgesia. The antinociceptive actions of octreotide were abolished in SSTR2(-/-) mice, but those of pasireotide were retained. In dorsal root ganglia of naive wild-type mice, only SSTR1 and SSTR2A, but not SSTR3 or SSTR5, were detected in a subset of small- and medium-diameter neurons.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that the antinociceptive and antiinflammatory actions of octreotide and pasireotide are largely mediated via the SSTR2 receptor. In addition, we identified the SSTR1 receptor as a novel pharmacologic target for somatostatin-mediated peripheral analgesia in inflammatory pain.

Reflections on the theory of "silver bullet" octreotide tracers: implications for ligand-receptor interactions in the age of peptides, heterodimers, receptor mosaics, truncated receptors, and multifractal analysis

The classical attitude of Nuclear Medicine practitioners on matters of peptide-receptor interactions has maintained an intrinsic monogamic character since many years. New advances in the field of biochemistry and even in clinical Nuclear Medicine have challenged this type of thinking, which prompted me to work on this review. The central issue of this paper will be the use of somatostatin analogs, i.e., octreotide, in clinical imaging procedures as well as in relation to neuroendocirne tumors. Newly described characteristics of G-protein coupled receptors such as the formation of receptor mosaics will be discussed. A small section will enumerate the regulatory processes found in the cell membrane. Possible new interpretations, other than tumor detection, based on imaging procedures with somatostatin analogs will be presented. The readers will be taken to situations such as inflammation, nociception, mechanosensing, chemosensing, fibrosis, taste, and vascularity where somatostatin is involved. Thyroid-associated orbitopathy will be used as a model for the development of multi-agent therapeutics. The final graphical summary depicts the multifactorial properties of ligand binding.

Update on peripheral mechanisms of pain: beyond prostaglandins and cytokines

The peripheral nociceptor is an important target of pain therapy because many pathological conditions such as inflammation excite and sensitize peripheral nociceptors. Numerous ion channels and receptors for inflammatory mediators were identified in nociceptors that are involved in neuronal excitation and sensitization, and new targets, beyond prostaglandins and cytokines, emerged for pain therapy. This review addresses mechanisms of nociception and focuses on molecules that are currently favored as new targets in drug development or that are already targeted by new compounds at the stage of clinical trials--namely the transient receptor potential V1 receptor, nerve growth factor, and voltage-gated sodium channels--or both.

The somatostatin analogue octreotide inhibits capsaicin-mediated activation of nociceptive primary afferent fibres in spinal cord lamina II (substantia gelatinosa)

Somatostatin (SST) in spinal cord has been linked with the inhibition of nociceptive neurotransmission in several experimental paradigms. The SST2 receptor (SSTR2) is the main SST receptor subtype in the superficial dorsal horn (DH) and is activated, besides to the naïve peptide, by the SST synthetic analogue octreotide (OCT). In the present work, we have studied the central effects of SSTR2 activation on capsaicin (CAP)-induced glutamate release in mouse DH. In neurons of the lamina II of DH, CAP (2 μM) induced a strong increase of mEPSC frequency that was significantly reduced (70%) by OCT. SSTR2 involvement was assessed by using the specific antagonist CYN 154806. No differences were observed between frequency increase in CAP alone vs. CAP in the presence of CYN 154806+OCT. The effect of OCT was further investigated by studying c-fos expression in spinal cord slices. The CAP-induced increase in density of Fos immunoreactive nuclei in the superficial DH was strongly prevented by OCT. SSTR2a (a splicing variant of SSTR2) immunoreactivity was found in both pre- and post-synaptic compartments of laminae I-II synapses. By light and electron microscopy, SSTR2a was mainly localized onto non-peptidergic isolectin B4 (IB4)-positive primary afferent fibres (PAFs). A subset of them was also found to express the CAP receptor TRPV1. These data show that the SST analogue OCT inhibits CAP-mediated activation of non-peptidergic nociceptive PAFs in lamina II. Our data indicate that SSTR2a plays an important role in the pre-synaptic modulation of central excitatory nociceptive transmission in mouse.

Inhibition of inflammatory pain by activating B-type natriuretic peptide signal pathway in nociceptive sensory neurons

B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) has been known to be secreted from cardiac myocytes and activate its receptor, natriuretic peptide receptor-A (NPR-A), to reduce ventricular fibrosis. However, the function of BNP/NPR-A pathway in the somatic sensory system has been unknown. In the present study, we report a novel function of BNP in pain modulation. Using microarray and immunoblot analyses, we found that BNP and NPR-A were expressed in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) of rats and upregulated after intraplantar injection of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA). Immunohistochemistry showed that BNP was expressed in calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)-containing small neurons and IB4 (isolectin B4)-positive neurons, whereas NPR-A was present in CGRP-containing neurons. Application of BNP reduced the firing frequency of small DRG neurons in the presence of glutamate through opening large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels (BKCa channels). Furthermore, intrathecal injection of BNP yielded inhibitory effects on formalin-induced flinching behavior and CFA-induced thermal hyperalgesia in rats. Blockade of BNP signaling by BNP antibodies or cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) inhibitor KT5823 [(9S,10R,12R)-2,3,9,10,11,12-hexahydro-10-methoxy-2,9-dimethyl-1-oxo-9,12-epoxy-1H-diindolo[1,2,3-fg:3',2',1'-kl]pyrrolo[3,4-i][1,6]benzodiazocine-10-carboxylic acid methyl ester] impaired the recovery from CFA-induced thermal hyperalgesia. Thus, BNP negatively regulates nociceptive transmission through presynaptic receptor NPR-A, and activation of the BNP/NPR-A/PKG/BKCa channel pathway in nociceptive afferent neurons could be a potential strategy for inflammatory pain therapy.

Somatostatin modulates mast cell-induced responses in murine spinal neurons and satellite cells

The course of intestinal inflammatory responses is tightly coordinated by the extensive communication between the immune system and the enteric nervous system, among which the bidirectional mast cell-neuron interaction within the intestinal wall plays a prominent role. Recent research suggests that somatostatin (SOM) is able to inhibit this self-reinforcing network by simultaneously suppressing the inflammatory activities of both neurons and mast cells. Therefore, we assessed the modulatory effects of SOM on both the short-term and long-term effects induced by the main mast cell mediators histamine (HIS) and 5-HT on spinal sensory neurons. Short-term incubation of dorsal root ganglion cultures with HIS and 5-HT induced neuronal CGRP-release and calcium-mediated activation of both neurons and nonneuronal cells, both of which effects were significantly reduced by SOM. In addition, SOM was also able to suppress the increased neuronal expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory peptides induced by long-term exposure to HIS and 5-HT. Immunocytochemical and molecular-biological experiments revealed the possible involvement of somatostatin receptor 1 (SSTR1) and SSTR2A in these profound SOM-dependent effects. These data, combined with the increased expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory peptides and several SSTRs in murine dorsal root ganglia following intestinal inflammation, reveal that intestinal inflammation not only induces the onset of proinflammatory cascades but simultaneously triggers endogenous systems destined to prevent excessive tissue damage. Moreover, these data provide for the first time functional evidence that SOM is able to directly modulate intestinal inflammatory responses by interference with the coordinating mast cell-neuron communication.

Joint pain

Both inflammatory and degenerative diseases of joints are major causes of chronic pain. This overview addresses the clinical problem of joint pain, the nociceptive system of the joint, the mechanisms of peripheral and central sensitization during joint inflammation and long term changes during chronic joint inflammation. While the nature of inflammatory pain is obvious the nature and site of origin of osteoarthritic pain is less clear. However, in both pathological conditions mechanical hyperalgesia is the major pain problem, and indeed, both joint nociceptors and spinal nociceptive neurons with joint input show pronounced sensitization for mechanical stimulation. Molecular mechanisms of mechanical sensitization of joint nociceptors are addressed with an emphasis on cytokines, and molecular mechanisms of central sensitization include data on the role of excitatory amino acids, neuropeptides and spinal prostaglandins. The overview will also address long-term changes of pain-related behavior, response properties of neurons and receptor expression in chronic animal models of arthritis.

Antinociceptive effects of tumor necrosis factor alpha neutralization in a rat model of antigen-induced arthritis: evidence of a neuronal target

OBJECTIVE

The reduction of pain in the course of antiinflammatory therapy can result from an attenuation of the inflammatory process and/or from the neutralization of endogenous mediators of inflammation that act directly on nociceptive neurons. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether analgesic effects of the neutralization of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) are due to an attenuation of inflammation or whether direct neuronal effects significantly contribute to pain relief in the course of therapy.

METHODS

Locomotor and pain-related behavior and histology were assessed in rats with chronic antigen-induced arthritis (AIA) in the knee joint, and the rats were treated with systemic saline, etanercept, or infliximab. The expression of TNF receptors (TNFRs) in dorsal root ganglia was measured using immunohistochemical analysis and polymerase chain reaction. Action potentials were recorded from afferent Adelta fibers and C fibers of the medial knee joint nerve, and etanercept and infliximab were injected intraarticularly into normal or inflamed knee joints (AIA or kaolin/carrageenan-induced inflammation).

RESULTS

In rats with AIA, both etanercept and infliximab significantly decreased inflammation-induced locomotor and pain-related behavior, while joint swelling was only weakly attenuated and histomorphology still revealed pronounced inflammation. A large proportion of dorsal root ganglion neurons showed TNFRI- and TNFRII-like immunoreactivity. Intraarticular injection of etanercept reduced the responses of joint afferents to mechanical stimulation of the inflamed joint starting 30 minutes after injection, but had no effect on responses to mechanical stimulation of the uninflamed joint.

CONCLUSION

Overall, these data show the pronounced antinociceptive effects of TNFalpha neutralization, thus suggesting that reduction of the effects of TNFalpha on pain fibers themselves significantly contributes to pain relief.

Modulation of pain transmission by G-protein-coupled receptors

The heterotrimeric G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) represent the largest and most diverse family of cell surface receptors and proteins. GPCR are widely distributed in the peripheral and central nervous systems and are one of the most important therapeutic targets in pain medicine. GPCR are present on the plasma membrane of neurons and their terminals along the nociceptive pathways and are closely associated with the modulation of pain transmission. GPCR that can produce analgesia upon activation include opioid, cannabinoid, alpha2-adrenergic, muscarinic acetylcholine, gamma-aminobutyric acidB (GABAB), groups II and III metabotropic glutamate, and somatostatin receptors. Recent studies have led to a better understanding of the role of these GPCR in the regulation of pain transmission. Here, we review the current knowledge about the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie the analgesic actions of GPCR agonists, with a focus on their effects on ion channels expressed on nociceptive sensory neurons and on synaptic transmission at the spinal cord level.

Somatostatin inhibits the excitability of rat small-diameter trigeminal ganglion neurons that innervate nasal mucosa and project to the upper cervical dorsal horn via activation of somatostatin 2a receptor

This study investigated whether somatostatin (SST) modulates the excitability of nociceptive trigeminal ganglion (TRG) neurons that innervate the nasal mucosa and project to the upper cervical (C(1)) dorsal horn by using perforated-patch clamping, retrograde-labeling, and immunohistochemistry. Fluorogold (FG) retrograde labeling was used to identify the rat TRG neurons innervating the nasal mucosa, while microbeads (MB) were used to label neurons projected onto the superficial layer of the C(1) dorsal horn. FG-labeled small-diameter TRG neurons exhibited SST(2A) receptor immunoreactivity (19%) and half of these neurons were also labeled with MB. In whole-cell current-clamp mode, most (72%) of the dissociated FG-/MB-labeled TRG neurons were hyperpolarized by application of SST. The hyperpolarization was evoked by SST in a concentration-dependent manner (0.1-10 microM) and the responses were associated with a decrease in the cell input resistance. The minimum concentration to elicit a significant hyperpolarization was 1 microM. The repetitive firings during a depolarizing pulse were significantly reduced by SST (1 microM) application. The hyperpolarization and decreased firing evoked by SST were both blocked by the SST(2) receptor antagonist, CYN154806 (1 microM). Under voltage-clamp conditions, SST (1 microM) significantly increased the voltage-gated K(+) transient (I(A)) and sustained (I(K)) currents and these increases were abolished by coapplication of CYN154806 (1 microM). In the presence of both 4-aminopyridine (6 mM) and tetraethylammonium (10 mM), no significant changes in the membrane potential in response to SST application were found. These results suggest that modulation of trigeminal nociceptive transmission in the C(1) dorsal horn by activation of SST(2A) receptors occurs at the level of small-diameter TRG cell bodies and/or their afferent terminals, and that this may be related to regulation of protective upper-airway reflexes.

Peripheral and central mechanisms of pain generation

Pain research has uncovered important neuronal mechanisms that underlie clinically relevant pain states such as inflammatory and neuropathic pain. Importantly, both the peripheral and the central nociceptive system contribute significantly to the generation of pain upon inflammation and nerve injury. Peripheral nociceptors are sensitized during inflammation, and peripheral nerve fibres develop ectopic discharges upon nerve injury or disease. As a consequence a complex neuronal response is evoked in the spinal cord where neurons become hyperexcitable, and a new balance is set between excitation and inhibition. The spinal processes are significantly influenced by brain stem circuits that inhibit or facilitate spinal nociceptive processing. Numerous mechanisms are involved in peripheral and central nociceptive processes including rapid functional changes of signalling and long-term regulatory changes such as up-regulation of mediator/receptor systems. Conscious pain is generated by thalamocortical networks that produce both sensory discriminative and affective components of the pain response.

Effects of the somatostatin receptor subtype 4 selective agonist J-2156 on sensory neuropeptide release and inflammatory reactions in rodents

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Substance P (SP) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) released from capsaicin-sensitive sensory nerves induce local neurogenic inflammation; somatostatin exerts systemic anti-inflammatory actions presumably via sst4/sst1 receptors. This study investigates the effects of a high affinity, sst4-selective, synthetic agonist, J-2156, on sensory neuropeptide release in vitro and inflammatory processes in vivo.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Electrically-induced SP, CGRP and somatostatin release from isolated rat tracheae was measured with radioimmunoassay. Mustard oil-induced neurogenic inflammation in rat hindpaw skin was determined by Evans blue leakage and in the mouse ear with micrometry. Dextran-, carrageenan- or bradykinin-induced non-neurogenic inflammation was examined with plethysmometry or Evans blue, respectively. Adjuvant-induced chronic arthritis was assessed by plethysmometry and histological scoring. Granulocyte accumulation was determined with myeloperoxidase assay and IL-1beta with ELISA.

KEY RESULTS

J-2156 (10-2000 nM) diminished electrically-evoked neuropeptide release in a concentration-dependent manner. EC50 for the inhibition of substance P, CGRP and somatostatin release were 11.6 nM, 14.3 nM and 110.7 nM, respectively. J-2156 (1-100 microg kg(-1) i.p.) significantly, but not dose-dependently, inhibited neurogenic and non-neurogenic acute inflammatory processes and adjuvant-induced chronic oedema and arthritic changes. Endotoxin-evoked myeloperoxidase activity and IL-1beta production in the lung, but not IL-1beta- or zymosan-induced leukocyte accumulation in the skin were significantly diminished by J-2156.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

J-2156 acting on sst4 receptors inhibits neuropeptide release, vascular components of acute inflammatory processes, endotoxin-induced granulocyte accumulation and IL-1beta synthesis in the lung and synovial and inflammatory cells in chronic arthritis. Therefore it might be a promising lead for the development of novel anti-inflammatory drugs.

Analgesic activity of a non-peptide imidazolidinedione somatostatin agonist: in vitro and in vivo studies in rat

Several lines of evidence support an important role for somatostatin receptors (SSTRs) in pain modulation. The therapeutic use of established SSTR peptide agonists for this indication is limited by their broad range of effects, need for intrathecal delivery, and short half-life. Therefore, the goal of the present study was to investigate the analgesic effect of SCR007, a new, highly selective SSTR2 non-peptide agonist. Behavioral studies demonstrated that paw withdrawal latencies to heat were significantly increased following intraplantar SCR007. Furthermore, both intraperitoneal and intraplantar injection of SCR007 significantly reduced formalin- and capsaicin-induced flinching and lifting/licking nociceptive behaviors. Recordings from nociceptors using an in vitro glabrous skin-nerve preparation showed that SCR007 reduced heat responses in a dose-dependent fashion, bradykinin-induced excitation, heat sensitization and capsaicin-induced excitation. In both the behavioral and single fiber studies, the SCR007 effects were reversed by the SSTR antagonist cyclo-somatostatin, demonstrating receptor specificity. In the single fiber studies, the opioid antagonist naloxone did not reverse SCR007-induced anti-nociception suggesting that SCR007 did not exert its effects through activation of opioid receptors. Analysis of cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA) involvement demonstrated that SCR007 prevented forskolin- and Sp-8-Br-cAMPS (a PKA activator)-induced heat sensitization, supporting the hypothesis that SCR007-induced inhibition could involve a down-regulation of the cAMP/PKA pathway. These data provide several lines of evidence that the non-peptide imidazolidinedione SSTR2 agonist SCR007 is a promising anti-nociceptive and analgesic agent for the treatment of pain of peripheral and/or central origin.

A potential role of somatostatin and its receptor SSTR4 in the migration of hepatic oval cells

Somatostatin (SST) is a regulatory peptide that activates G protein-coupled receptors comprised of five members (somatostatin receptors (SSTRs) 1-5). Despite the broad use of SST and its analogs in clinical practice, the spectrum of SST activities has been incompletely defined. Recently, it has been demonstrated that SST can be a chemoattractant for hematopoietic precursor cells. Since hepatic oval cells (HOCs) share common characteristics with hematopoietic stem cells, we hypothesized that SST could act as a chemoattractant for HOCs by stimulating SSTRs. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot assay revealed an increased expression of SST in the 2-acetyl-aminofluorene (2AAF)/partial hepatectomy (PHx) HOC induction model. Immunohistochemical staining showed the expression of SST in 2AAF/PHx-treated rat liver, as compared to normal liver. Proliferation and migration assays demonstrated that the increase of SST was related to migration of HOCs, but not their proliferation. RT-PCR and quantitative real-time PCR showed that SSTR4 was preferentially expressed by HOCs. Western blot assay and immunohistochemical staining confirmed the expression of SSTR4 by HOCs. In addition, pretreatment with anti-SSTR4 antibody cultures resulted in a dramatic reduction of cell migration as compared to that of control. Lastly, SST stimulated the rearrangement of actin filaments in HOCs, while HOCs treated with anti-SSTR4 antibody failed to do so. These results suggest a positive role for SST in the migration of HOCs, and that this effect is mediated through SSTR4.

Satellite glial cells in sensory ganglia: from form to function

Current information indicates that glial cells participate in all the normal and pathological processes of the central nervous system. Although much less is known about satellite glial cells (SGCs) in sensory ganglia, it appears that these cells share many characteristics with their central counterparts. This review presents information that has been accumulated recently on the physiology and pharmacology of SGCs. It appears that SGCs carry receptors for numerous neuroactive agents (e.g., ATP, bradykinin) and can therefore receive signals from other cells and respond to changes in their environment. Activation of SGCs might in turn influence neighboring neurons. Thus SGCs are likely to participate in signal processing and transmission in sensory ganglia. Damage to the axons of sensory ganglia is known to contribute to neuropathic pain. Such damage also affects SGCs, and it can be proposed that these cells have a role in pathological changes in the ganglia.

Neurogenic Aspects of Inflammation

The relationship between the inflammatory process and the nervous system is twofold. The nervous system is activated by inflammation which causes inflammatory pain and impaired motor function. Conversely, the nervous system acts back on the peripheral process. This is achieved by output systems at different levels, including primary afferent fibers (neurogenic inflammation), spinal cord (reflexes), and the brain (eg, neuroendocrine functions). This article first addresses the activation of the nociceptive system by inflammation; the second part describes the effects of the nervous system on inflamed tissue.