Uptake of the veterinary antibiotics chlortetracycline, enrofloxacin, and sulphathiazole from soil by radish

Method development of multi pesticide residue analysis in country beans collected from Dhaka, Bangladesh, and their dietary risk assessment

The aim of the study was to develop a modified QuEChERS method coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for the simultaneous determination of five multi-class pesticides in country beans collected from Dhaka, Bangladesh. Pesticides were extracted using ACN, and to minimize the co-extraction matrix, optimized d-SPE cleanup was done using sorbents (GCB, PSA, and C18). In the calibration range, the method showed excellent linearity with a correlation coefficient of R2 ≥ 0.9990 both in solvent- and matrix-matched calibration. For the selected pesticides, average recoveries (at four spiking levels (n = 5) of 10, 20, 100, and 200 µg/kg) of 70-100 % were achieved with relative standard deviations (RSDs) ≤ 9.5 %. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) ranged from 0.3333 to 1.3333 μg/kg and 1.0 to 4.0 μg/kg, respectively. The dietary risk assessment, in terms of hazard quotient (HQ), was calculated to assess consumers' health risks.

Optimization and validation of multiresidual extraction methods for pharmaceuticals in Soil, Lettuce, and Earthworms

The presence of human and veterinary pharmaceuticals (PhACs) in the environment poses potential risks. To comprehensively assess these risks, robust multiresidual analytical methods are essential for determining a broad spectrum of PhAC classes in various environmental compartments (soil, plants, and soil organisms). This study optimized extraction methods for analyzing over 40 PhACs from various matrices, including soil, lettuce, and earthworms. A four-step ultrasonic extraction method with varying extraction conditions and subsequent solid phase extraction was developed for soil samples. QuEChERS methods were optimized for extracting PhACs from lettuce and earthworm samples, addressing a literature gap in these less-studied matrices. The quantification of PhACs in soil, lettuce, and earthworm extracts was performed using a single LC-MS/MS method. Following thorough method validation, earthworms and lettuce were exposed to a mixture of 27 pharmaceuticals in a soil environment. The method validation results demonstrated the robustness of these methods for a broad spectrum of PhACs. Specifically, 29 out of 42 PhACs were extracted with an average efficiency > 50% and RSD < 30% from the soil; 40 out of 42 PhACs exhibited average efficiency > 50% and %RSD < 30% from the earthworms, while 39 out of 42 PhACs showed average efficiency > 50% and RSD < 30% from the lettuce. Exposure experiments confirmed the viability of these methods for quantifying a diverse range of PhACs in different environmental compartments. This study presents three thoroughly validated methods for determining more than 40 PhACs in diverse matrices, enabling a comprehensive assessment of PhAC dissemination in the environment.

Urea promoted soil microbial community and reduced the residual ciprofloxacin in soil and its uptake by Chinese flowering cabbage

Antibiotics in agricultural soil can be accumulated in crops and might pose a potential risk to human health. Nevertheless, there is a lack of knowledge about the impact of nitrogen fertilizers on the dissipation and uptake of antibiotics in soils. Therefore, our aim in this study is to investigate the effects of urea fertilizer on the residues of ciprofloxacin and its uptake by Chinese flowering cabbage (Brassica parachinensis L.) as affected by the associated changes on the soil microbial community. A pot experiment has been conducted using spiked soil with 20 mg ciprofloxacin /kg soil and fertilized with urea at dosages equal to 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8 t/ha. Application urea especially at 0.4 t/ha decreased the residue of ciprofloxacin in the soil and its uptake by the roots and its translocation to the shoots of Chinese flowering cabbage. The translocation factors (TFs) for ciprofloxacin were significantly decreased (P < 0.05) only at the treatment of 0.4 t/ha, while no significant difference of bio-concentration factors (BCFs). The average well color development (AWCD) values, Shannon diversity, and richness index were higher in the fertilized than the un-fertilized soils, and all such indicators were greater at the treatment of 0.4 t/ha than at 0.2 and 0.8 t/ha. The carbon substrate utilization of phenolic acids at the treatments of 0.4 t/ha were greater than with other levels of urea fertilizer. In conclusion, moderate urea addition significantly increased soil microbial activity and abundance, which in turn promoted the ciprofloxacin dissipation in soil and plant tissue. The present study provides an economical and operational strategy for the remediation of ciprofloxacin contaminated soils.

A landscape source-sink model to understanding the seasonal dynamics of antibiotics in soils at watershed scale

Human and veterinary antibiotics occur widely in soil ecosystems and pose a serious threat to soil health. Landscape structure can be linked to Earth surface processes and anthropogenic footprints and may influence the variability of antibiotics in soil. In this study, an improved landscape source-sink model was used to characterize source-sink structures using the location-weighted landscape index (LWLI), which can be linked to antibiotic seasonality. The topographic wetness index was employed to identify source and sink landscapes, which represent antibiotic transport pathways via topography-driven hydrological processes. The results indicate that LWLI values and antibiotic seasonality are typically higher in farmland soils than in forest and orchard soils. LWLI values exhibit significant positive correlations with antibiotic seasonality in soils (R2: 0.33-0.58). Furthermore, landscape source-sink structures have a significant influence on antibiotic seasonality between winter and other seasons in farmland soils; however, these structures affect antibiotic seasonality between summer and other seasons in forest and orchard soils. The results of this study indicate that water movement regulated by landscape structure may play a crucial role in influencing antibiotic seasonality in soils at the watershed scale, and the landscape source-sink model can be used to quantitatively evaluate antibiotic seasonality in soil environment.

Evaluation of antibiotic residues in honey: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Nowadays, incorrect apply of antibiotics to treat infections in honey has led to health risks for humans and antibiotic resistance. Current systematic review and meta-analysis conducted to study antibiotic residues in honey. Data were obtained through searching the databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and other internal databases. The pooled concentration of antibiotic residues was 5.032 (µg/kg) that ranged from 4.72 to 5.33 (µg/kg). The ranking of antibiotics concentration was found in order of fluoroquinolone (8.59 µg/kg) > tetracycline (5.68 µg/kg) > sulfonamides (5.54 µg/kg) > macrolides (4.19µg/kg), respectively. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method (37.9.7%), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method (34.4%), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method (27.5.8%) were the most used methods in various studies. In order to avoid contamination, proper use of antibiotics, placement of hives at a suitable distance from agricultural environment, and regular control of antibiotic residues in honey seems to be necessary.

Prediction models and major controlling factors of antibiotics bioavailability in hyporheic zone

Recently, antibiotics have been frequently detected in the hyporheic zone (HZ) as a novel contaminant. Bioavailability assessment has gradually attracted more attention in order to provide a more realistic assessment of human health risks. In this study, two typical antibiotics, oxytetracycline (OTC) and sulfamethoxazole (SMZ), were used as target pollutants in the HZ of the Zaohe-Weihe River, and the polar organics integrated sampler was used to analyze the variation of antibiotics bioavailability. According to the characteristics of the HZ, the total concentration of pollutants, pH, and dissolved oxygen (DO) were selected as major predictive factors to analyze their correlation with the antibiotics bioavailability. Then the predictive antibiotic bioavailability models were constructed by stepwise multiple linear regression method. The results showed that there was a highly significant negative correlation between OTC bioavailability and DO (P < 0.001), while SMZ bioavailability showed a highly significant negative correlation with total concentration of pollutants (P < 0.001) and a significant negative correlation with DO (P < 0.01). The results of correlation analysis were further verified by Principal Component Analysis. Based on the experimental data, we constructed eight prediction models for the bioavailability of two antibiotics and verified them. The data points of the six prediction models were distributed in the 95% prediction band, indicating that the models were more reliable and accurate. The prediction models in this study provide reference for the accurate ecological risk assessment of the bioavailability of pollutants in the HZ, and also provide a new idea for predicting the bioavailability of pollutants in practical applications.

Exploration of an efficient method for removing antibiotics from water and digested sewage sludge using Fe(VI): Kinetics and P phytoavailability and compostability in treated sludge

Potassium ferrate (K₂FeO₄) containing hexavalent iron [Fe(VI)] is an environmentally friendly oxidant, which possesses strong oxidizing power to treat wastewater and sludge. Therefore, the present study investigated degradation of selected antibiotics, namely levofloxacin (LEV), ciprofloxacin (CIP), oxytetracycline (OTC), and azithromycin (AZI), in water and anaerobically digested sewage sludge samples using Fe(VI). The effects of different Fe(VI) concentrations and initial pH values on antibiotic removal efficiency were evaluated. Under the studied conditions, LEV and CIP were almost completely removed from water samples, following second-order kinetics. In addition, over 60% of the four selected antibiotics were removed from sludge samples using 1 g L^-1 Fe(VI). Furthermore, P phytoavailability and compostability of Fe(VI)-treated sludge were evaluated using different extraction reagents and a small composting unit. The extraction efficiency of phytoavailable P using 2% citric acid and neutral ammonium citrate was approximately 40% and 70%, respectively. The mixture of Fe(VI)-treated sludge and rice husk was self-heated in a closed composting reactor through the biodegradation of organic matter derived from the treated sludge. Therefore, Fe(VI)-treated sludge may be used as an organic material containing phytoavailable P for compost.

Biotransformation of chloramphenicol by white-rot-fungi Trametes versicolor under cadmium stress

The recalcitrant chloramphenicol (CAP) combined with heavy metals cadmium (Cd) commonly co-existed in the environment, posing threat to environment health. The capacity of Trametes versicolor to remove/biodegrade CAP in air-pulse fluidized-bed reactor was evaluated, even under Cd stress. T. versicolor could remove 44 % CAP of 5 mg/L in 15 days, even 51 % CAP under 1 mg/L Cd stress. Sustained Cd stress inhibited CAP biodegradation and Cd removal in a 5-batches of a 5-days cycle sequential batch reactor. Nine transformation products and two novel pathways were proposed, with initial multi-step transformation reaction into CP2 and allylic alcohol, respectively. Furthermore, the main mechanism of Cd removal by T. versicolor was extracellular surface bioadsorption and intracellular accumulation. This study filled the gap of the mechanism of simultaneous CAP removal/biodegradation and Cd removal by white-rot fungi T. versicolor, which offer a theoretical basis for future application of biological removal of CAP containing wastewater.

Using radish (Raphanus lativus L.) germination to establish a benchmark dose for the toxicity of ozonated-petroleum byproducts in soil

The concentration-response relationship between the germination outcome of radish (Raphanus lativus L.) and ozonated petroleum residuals was determined experimentally. The outcomes were used to produce an ecological risk assessment model to predict the extra risk of adverse outcomes based on the concentration of ozonated residuals. A test soil with low organic matter (0.5% w/w) was mixed with raw crude oil, artificially weathered, and treated at three doses of ozone (O₃) gas (5 g, 10 g, and 40 g O₃ per 600 g of soil). Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) and produced dissolved organic carbon (DOC) were measured. TREATMENT categories (control, petroleum, petroleum + 5 g O₃, petroleum + 10 g O₃, and petroleum + 40 g O₃) were then used to create a dilution series using different proportions of the test soil and a commercially available potting mix (∼75% w/w organic matter) to evaluate the effects of background organic matter (b-ORGANIC) in conjunction with TPH and DOC. Multivariable logistic regression was performed on the adverse germination outcome as a function of TPH, DOC, TREATMENT, and b-ORGANIC. The parameters controlling germination were the continuous variable DOC and the categorical variables TREATMENT and b-ORGANIC. Radish germination was strongly harmed by DOC from ozonation, but DOC's ecotoxicity decreased with increasing O₃ dose and the presence of b-ORGANIC beyond 10% (w/w). We used the germination outcome of radish to produce a logistic regression model that computes margins of DOC (± std. error) that create 10%, 25%, and 50% extra risk of adverse germination effects.

The residue of tetracycline antibiotics in soil and Brassica juncea var. gemmifera, and the diversity of soil bacterial community under different livestock manure treatments

Tetracycline antibiotics (TCs) are a broad-spectrum antibiotic, widely used in livestock and poultry breeding. Residue of tetracycline antibiotics in animal manure may cause changes in vegetable TCs content and soil microbial community. On the basis of the investigation and analysis of TCs pollution in the soil of main vegetable bases and the livestock manure of major large-scale farms in Chongqing, China, field experiment was conducted to study the residues of tetracycline antibiotics in Brassica juncea var. gemmifera and soil under different kinds and different dosages of livestock manures. Effects of tetracycline antibiotics on the structure and diversity of soil microbial community were also investigated by high-throughput sequencing. TCs content in soil was increased by applying livestock manure. The contents of tetracycline, oxytetracycline (OTC) and chlortetracycline (CTC) in the soil under pig manure treatment were 171.07-660.20 μg kg^-1, 25.38-345.78 μg kg^-1 and 170.77-707.47 μg kg^-1, respectively. The contents of TC, OTC and CTC in the soil under the treatment of chicken manure were 166.62-353.61 μg kg^-1, 122.25-251.23 μg kg^-1 and 15.12-80.91 μg kg^-1, respectively. TCs in edible parts of Brassica juncea var. gemmifera was increased after livestock manure treatment Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Chioroflexi and Bacteroidetes under livestock manure treatment were the dominant phyla, accounting for 85.2-92.4% of the total abundance of soil bacteria. The soil OTUs under the treatment of pig manure was higher than that under the treatment of chicken manure. Biogas residue (Livestock manure after fermentation treatment) can effectively reduce the environmental and ecological risks caused by antibiotic residues.

A review on antibiotics removal: Leveraging the combination of grey and green techniques

Antibiotics are currently a major source of concern around the world due to the serious risks posed to human health and the environment. The performance of the secondary wastewater treatment processes/technologies (representing grey process) and constructed wetlands (CWs) (typical green process) in removing antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARG) was reviewed. The result showed that the grey process mainly removes antibiotics, but does not significantly remove ARG, and some processes may even cause ARG enrichment. The overall treatment in CWs is better than WWTPs, especially for ARG. Vertical subsurface flow CWs (VFCWs) are more conductive to antibiotics removal, while horizontal subsurface flow CWs (HFCWs) have a better ARG removal. More importantly, this review admits and suggests that the combination of grey process with green process is an effective strategy to remove antibiotics and ARG. The most advantage of the combination lies in realizing complementary advantages, i.e. the grey process as the primary treatment while CWs as the polishing stage. The efficiency of such the hybrid system is much higher than either single treatment process.

Uptake of Pharmaceutical Pollutants and Their Metabolites from Soil Fertilized with Manure to Parsley Tissues

Manure is a major source of soil and plant contamination with veterinary drugs residues. The aim of this study was to evaluate the uptake of 14 veterinary pharmaceuticals by parsley from soil fertilized with manure. Pharmaceutical content was determined in roots and leaves. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was used for targeted analysis. Screening analysis was performed to identify transformation products in the parsley tissues. A solid-liquid extraction procedure was developed combined with solid-phase extraction, providing recoveries of 61.9–97.1% for leaves and 51.7–95.6% for roots. Four analytes were detected in parsley: enrofloxacin, tylosin, sulfamethoxazole, and doxycycline. Enrofloxacin was detected at the highest concentrations (13.4–26.3 ng g⁻¹). Doxycycline accumulated mainly in the roots, tylosin in the leaves, and sulfamethoxazole was found in both tissues. 14 transformation products were identified and their distribution were determined. This study provides important data on the uptake and transformation of pharmaceuticals in plant tissues.

Seasonal Pollution Characteristics of Antibiotics on Pig Farms of Different Scales

Scientific interest in pollution from veterinary antibiotics (VAs) on intensive animal farms has been increasing in recent years. However, limited information is available on the seasonal pollution characteristics and the associated ecological risks of VAs, especially about the different scale farms. Therefore, this study investigated the seasonal pollution status and ecological risks of 42 typical VAs (5 classes) on three different scale pig farms (breeding scales of about 30,000, 1200, and 300 heads, respectively) in Tianjin, China. The results showed that large-scale pig farms usually had the highest antibiotic pollution levels, followed by small-scale pig farms and medium-scale pig farms. Among different seasons, antibiotic contamination was more severe in winter and spring than that in the other seasons. Tetracyclines (TCs) usually had higher proportions (over 51.46%) and the residual concentration detected in manure, and wastewater samples ranged from not detected (ND)-1132.64 mg/kg and ND-1692.50 μg/L, respectively, which all occurred for oxytetracycline (OTC) during winter. For the antibiotic ecological risks in the effluent, we found high-risk level of 12 selected VAs accounted for 58% in spring, and 7 kinds of VAs were selected in the amended soil, but nearly all the antibiotics had no obvious ecological risks except OTC (spring and summer). All these data provided an insight into the seasonal variability and the associated ecological risks of antibiotics on intensive pig farms, which can provide scientific guidance on decreasing antibiotic contamination to enhance environmental security in similar areas.

Antibiotic Use in Livestock and Residues in Food-A Public Health Threat: A Review

The usage of antibiotics has been, and remains, a topic of utmost importance; on the one hand, for animal breeders, and on the other hand, for food safety. Although many countries have established strict rules for using antibiotics in animal husbandry for the food industry, their misuse and irregularities in compliance with withdrawal periods are still identified. In addition to animal-origin foods that may cause antibiotic residue problems, more and more non-animal-origin foods with this type of non-compliance are identified. In this context, we aim to summarize the available information regarding the presence of antibiotic residues in food products, obtained in various parts of the world, as well as the impact of consumption of food with antibiotic residues on consumer health. We also aim to present the methods of analysis that are currently used to determine antibiotic residues in food, as well as methods that are characterized by the speed of obtaining results or by the possibility of identifying very small amounts of residues.

Contaminants of emerging concerns in recycled water: Fate and risks in agroecosystems

Recycled water (RW) has been increasingly recognized as a valuable source of water for alleviating the global water crisis. When RW is used for agricultural irrigation, many contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) are introduced into the agroecosystem. The ubiquity of CECs in field soil, combined with the toxic, carcinogenic, or endocrine-disrupting nature of some CECs, raises significant concerns over their potential risks to the environment and human health. Understanding such risks and delineating the fate processes of CECs in the water-soil-plant continuum contributes to the safe reuse of RW in agriculture. This review summarizes recent findings and provides an overview of CECs in the water-soil-plant continuum, including their occurrence in RW and irrigated soil, fate processes in agricultural soil, offsite transport including runoff and leaching, and plant uptake, metabolism, and accumulation. The potential ecological and human health risks of CECs are also discussed. Studies to date have shown limited accumulation of CECs in irrigated soils and plants, which may be attributed to multiple attenuation processes in the rhizosphere and plant, suggesting minimal health risks from RW-fed food crops. However, our collective understanding of CECs is rather limited and knowledge of their offsite movement and plant accumulation is particularly scarce for field conditions. Given a large number of CECs and their occurrence at trace levels, it is urgent to develop strategies to prioritize CECs so that future research efforts are focused on CECs with elevated risks for offsite contamination or plant accumulation. Irrigating specific crops such as feed crops and fruit trees may be a viable option to further minimize potential plant accumulation under field conditions. To promote the beneficial reuse of RW in agriculture, it is essential to understand the human health and ecological risks imposed by CEC mixtures and metabolites.

A novel multiscale biophysical model to predict the fate of ionizable compounds in the soil-plant continuum

Soil pollution from emerging contaminants poses a significant threat to water resources management and food production. The development of numerical models to describe the reactive transport of chemicals in both soil and plant is of paramount importance to elaborate mitigation strategies. To this aim, in the present study, a multiscale biophysical model is developed to predict the fate of ionizable compound in the soil-plant continuum. The modeling framework connects a multi-organelles model to describe processes at the cell level with a semi-mechanistic soil-plant model, which includes the widely used Richards-based solver, HYDRUS. A Bayesian probabilistic framework is used to calibrate and assess the capability of the model in reproducing the observations from an experiment on the translocation of five pharmaceuticals in green pea plants. Results show satisfactory fitting performance and limited predictive uncertainty. The subsequent validation with the cell model indicates that the estimated soil-plant parameters preserve a physically realistic meaning, and their calibrated values are comparable with the existing literature values, thus confirming the overall reliability of the analysis. Model results further suggest that pH conditions in both soil and xylem play a crucial role in the uptake and translocation of ionizable compounds.

Determination of multiple antibiotics in agricultural soil using a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe method coupled with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

In this study, we combined ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry to establish a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe method of detecting 21 target antibiotics in agricultural soil samples. Antibiotics were extracted with mixed solvents consisting of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid disodium salt dihydrate and phosphoric acid citric acid buffer and acetonitrile which were purified with octadecylsilyl as an adsorbent and anhydrous sodium sulfate as a desiccant. This method was able to effectively extract all of the target antibiotics from agricultural soils, with recovery efficiencies ranging from 55 to 108% and limits of detection between 0.09-0.68 μg/kg. We also validated this new method for selectivity, sensitivity, and reliability of detecting multiple antibiotics in 12 samples. Considering the potential environmental and public health effects of antibiotics in agricultural soils, our new method can help analyze the degree of antibiotic contamination and provide valuable information for soil quality and risk assessment.

Strategies to Control Human Health Risks Arising from Antibiotics in the Environment: Molecular Modification of QNs for Enhanced Plant-Microbial Synergistic Degradation

In the present work, a comprehensive screening and evaluation system was established to improve the plant-microbial synergistic degradation effects of QNs. The study included the construction of a 3D-QSAR model, the molecular modification, environmental friendliness and functional evaluation of drugs, degradation pathway simulation, and human health risk assessment. Molecular dynamics was applied to quantify the binding capacity of QNs toward the plant degradation enzyme (peroxidase) and microbial degradation enzymes (manganese peroxidase, lignin peroxidase, and laccase). The fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method was used in combination with the weighted average method for normalization and assigning equal weights to the plant and microbial degradation effect values of the QNs. Considering the synergistic degradation effect value as the dependent variable and the molecular information of the QNs as the independent variable, a 3D-QSAR model was constructed for the plant-microbial synergistic degradation effect of QNs. The constructed model was then employed to conduct the molecular modification, environmental friendliness and functional evaluation, degradation pathway simulation, and human health risk assessment of transformation products using pharmacokinetics and toxicokinetics. The results revealed that the synergistic degradation effect 3D-QSAR (CoMSIA) model exhibited good internal and external prediction ability, fitting ability, stability, and no overfitting phenomenon. Norfloxacin (NOR) was used as the target molecule in the molecular modification. A total of 35 NOR derivatives with enhanced plant-microbial synergistic degradation effect (1.32-21.51%) were designed by introducing small-volume, strongly electronegative, and hydrophobic hydrogen bond receptor groups into the active group of the norfloxacin structure. The environment-friendliness and the functionality of NOR were evaluated prior to and after the modification, which revealed seven environment-friendly FQs derivatives exhibiting moderate improvement in stability and bactericidal efficacy. The simulation of the NOR plant and microbial degradation pathways prior to and after the modification and the calculation of the reaction energy barrier revealed Pathway A (D-17 to D-17-2) and Pathway B (D-17 to D-17-4) as the most prone degradation pathways in plants and Pathway A (D-17 to D-17-1) and Pathway B (D-17 to D-17-4) as the most prone degradation pathways in microorganisms. This demonstrated that the degradation of the modified NOR derivatives was significantly enhanced, with the hydroxylation and piperazine ring substitution reaction playing an important role in the degradation process. Finally, the parameters, including hepatotoxicity, mutagenicity, and rodent carcinogenicity, among others, predicted using the pharmacokinetics and toxicokinetics analyses revealed a significant reduction in the human health risk associated with the modified NOR, along with a considerable reduction in the toxicity of its transformation products, implying that the human health risk associated with the transformation products was reduced remarkably. The present study provides a theoretical basis for novel ideas and evaluation programs for improving the plant-microbial synergistic degradation of the QNs antibiotics for source control and drug design, thereby reducing the residues of these antibiotics and the associated hazard in the complex plant-soil environment, ultimately decreasing the potential risks to human health.

Determination of chloramphenicol in meat samples using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Chloramphenicol (CAP), a bacteriostatic antibiotic, is used for the treatment of bacterial infections in human and animals. Continual exposure of CAP residues into animal tissues may lead to antibiotic resistance. For the protection of humans and animals from this problem, a fast and highly sensitive analytical method based on ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was developed and validated in this study for the quantitative determination of CAP in poultry meat and beef samples. Quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) method was used for the extraction of CAP residues. The developed method was validated in terms of linearity, accuracy, precision, and specificity. Poultry meat and beef samples were extracted with 20 ml water-acetonitrile (1:1, v/v) and cleaned up by MgSO4, primary secondary amine, and C18 powder. The method was found to be linear in a wide concentration range, with correlation coefficient of higher than 0.999. The repeatability and reproducibility of this method were satisfactory. The achieved limit of detection and limit of quantification were 0.16 and 0.50 ng/g, respectively. Recoveries were estimated at 5 and 10 ng/g spiking levels in the range of 99%-111% with the coefficient of variation 0.48%-12.48% for spiked samples, and the matrix enhancement effects were mild in the range of 80%-85%. In this study, the levels of CAP residue in tested real samples were found below the detection limit. The method proved to be suitable for CAP determination in all kinds of samples tested and also efficient for the application of routine analysis.

One-step extraction and analysis of 45 contaminants of emerging concern using QuEChERS methodology and HR-MS in radish leaves and roots

The scarcity of freshwater has led to a considerable increase of the reuse of reclaimed wastewater for irrigation of field crops [1,2]. This practice potentially exposes agricultural produce to a large variety of xenobiotic compounds including contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) which have been widely recognized to be present in wastewater [3]. Common approaches for the extraction of CECs from crops rely on solid-liquid extraction [4], assisted solvent extraction [5], ultra-sound solvent extraction [6] and recently QuEChERS (QUick, Easy, CHeap, Effective, Rugged and Safe) [[7], [8]–9]. Here, eight QuEChERS-based methodologies were compared for their suitability to determine 45 CECs in roots and leaves of soil-grown radish.

The key points of the method development were:•

The development of two single-step analytical methods specific for radish root and leaves, after testing eight different approaches using QuEChERS extraction for the quantitation of 45 CECs. The analytical methodology selected requires minimal time and solvent, making it cost-effective.

•

Methods validation were performed at five concentrations levels (2, 5, 10, 50 and 200 ng g⁻¹), with low limits of quantification between 0.01 and 0.32 ng g⁻¹.

•

The two optimized methodologies may be applied to identify large number of compounds of different families in radish crop. However, validation will be needed to quantify compounds different from the target compounds of this paper.

A review targeting veterinary antibiotics removal from livestock manure management systems and future outlook

Veterinary antibiotics (VAs) contamination has been considered as a worldwide environmental and health concern in recent decades. This paper reviewed the variability of contents of VAs and their release from the animal breeding industry into the surrounding environment along with the performance of the manure treatment technologies. The data collected revealed that VAs were mostly excreted in animal feces and observed in manure, soil, water, and sediment. The findings illustrate the disparity of VAs in excretion rates, consumption, and their residues in the environment with relatively high distribution for tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones, and sulfonamides. Anaerobic digestion has a capacity to remove of 73% VAs while manure composting and constructed wetlands can remove 84.7%, and 90% VAs. Due to the profound effect of antibiotics on the environment, further research and intensive management strategies for livestock manure need to be designed to improve the removal efficiency and manure management technologies.

Crop irrigation (soybean, bean, and corn) with enrofloxacin-contaminated water leads to yield reductions and antibiotic accumulation

The increasing use of antibiotics in animal production has become an emergent environmental problem. The large percentages of applied antibiotic doses eliminated in animal excrement often end up contaminating water resources, which are then used for irrigation - compromising agricultural production and/or food security. Here, we evaluated the effects of crop irrigation with water artificially contaminated by enrofloxacin (10 μg l-1) and its accumulation in soybean, bean, and corn tissues. Grain production was evaluated on the basis of grain dry weight plant-1, while enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin (its breakdown metabolite) concentrations in plant tissues were evaluated by HPLC after harvesting. Diminished production was observed only in soybean plants irrigated with antibiotic-contaminated water. Enrofloxacin [1.68 ng g fresh weight (FW)-1 to 26.17 µg g FW-1] and ciprofloxacin (8.23 ng g FW-1 to 51.05 ng g FW-1), were found in all of the plant tissues (roots, leaves, and seeds) of the three species. Regardless of the species, the highest enrofloxacin concentrations were observed in their roots, followed by the leaves and seeds, while ciprofloxacin concentrations varied among the different plant tissues of the different species. The presence of enrofloxacin in the water used for irrigating soybeans can result in productivity losses and, as that antibiotic was encountered in plant tissues (leaves and seeds) of all of the three species analyzed that are consumed in the diets of both humans and animals, it can interfere with food security.

Optimization of a Method for Extraction and Determination of Residues of Selected Antimicrobials in Soil and Plant Samples Using HPLC-UV-MS/MS

The residues of antimicrobials used in human and veterinary medicine are popular pollutants of anthropogenic origin. The main sources of introducing antimicrobials into the environment are sewage treatment plants and the agricultural industry. Antimicrobials in animal manure contaminate the surrounding soil as well as groundwater, and can be absorbed by plants. The presence of antimicrobials in food of plant origin may pose a threat to human health due to their high biological activity. As part of the research, a procedure was developed for the extraction and determination of ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, cefuroxime, nalidixic acid and metronidazole in environmental samples (soil and parsley root). An optimized solid-liquid extraction (SLE) method was used to separate antimicrobials from the solid samples and a mixture of citrate buffer (pH = 4): methanol (1:1; v/v) was used as the extraction solvent. Solid phase extraction (SPE) with OASIS^® HLB cartridges was used to purify and pre-concentrate the sample. The recovery of the developed method was in the range of 55–108%. Analytes were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with an ultraviolet (UV) detector and a tandem mass spectrometer (HPLC-UV-MS/MS). The procedure was validated and applied to the determination of selected antimicrobials in soil and parsley root samples. Five types of soil and five types of parsley roots of different origins were analyzed. The presence of nalidixic acid in the parsley root samples was found in the concentration range of 0.14–0.72 ng g⁻¹. It has been shown that antimicrobials are absorbed by the plant and can accumulate antimicrobials in its edible parts.

Flower-Shaped C-Dots/Co3O4{111} Constructed with Dual-Reaction Centers for Enhancement of Fenton-Like Reaction Activity and Peroxymonosulfate Conversion to Sulfate Radical

Novel flower-shaped C-dots/Co3O4{111} with dual-reaction centers were constructed to improve the Fenton-like reaction activity and peroxymonosulfate (PMS) conversion to sulfate radicals. Due to the exposure of a high surface area and Co3O4{111} facets, flower-shaped C-dots/Co3O4{111} could provide more Co(II) for PMS activation than traditional spherical Co3O4{110}. Meanwhile, PMS was preferred for adsorption on Co3O4{111} facets because of a high adsorption energy and thereby facilitated the electron transfer from Co(II) to PMS. More importantly, the Co–O–C linkage between C-dots and Co3O4{111} induced the formation of the dual-reaction center, which promoted the production of reactive organic radicals (R•). PMS could be directly reduced to SO4−• by R• over C-dots. On the other hand, electron transferred from R• to Co via Co–O–C linkage could accelerate the redox of Co(II)/(III), avoiding the invalid decomposition of PMS. Thus, C-dots doped on Co3O4{111} improved the PMS conversion rate to SO4−• over the single active site, resulting in high turnover numbers (TONs). In addition, TPR analysis indicated that the optimal content of C-dots doped on Co3O4{111} is 2.5%. More than 99% of antibiotics and dyes were degraded over C-dots/Co3O4{111} within 10 min. Even after six cycles, C-dots/Co3O4{111} still remained a high catalytic activity.

Occurrence and human health risk assessment of antibiotics and their metabolites in vegetables grown in field-scale agricultural systems

The occurrence of antibiotics (ABs) in four types of commercially grown vegetables (lettuce leaves, tomato fruits, cauliflower inflorescences, and broad bean seeds) was analyzed to assess the human exposure and health risks associated with different agronomical practices. Out of 16 targeted AB residues, seven ABs belonging to three groups (i.e., benzyl pyrimidines, fluoroquinolones, and sulfonamides) were above the method detection limit in vegetable samples ranging from 0.09 ng g^-1 to 3.61 ng g^-1 fresh weight. Data analysis (quantile regression models, principal component and hierarchical cluster analysis) showed manure application, irrigation with river water (indirect wastewater reuse), and vegetable type to be the most significant factors for AB occurrence in the targeted crops. Metabolites were detected in 70 of the 80 vegetable samples analyzed, and their occurrence was both plant- and compound-specific. In 73 % of the total samples, the concentration of AB metabolites was higher than the concentration of their parent compound. Finally, the potential human health risk estimated using the hazard quotient approach, based on the acceptable daily intake and the estimated daily intake, showed a negligible risk for human health from vegetable consumption. However, canonical-correspondence analysis showed that detected ABs explained 54 % of the total variation in AB resistance genes abundance in the vegetable samples. Thus, further studies are needed to assess the risks of antibiotic resistance promotion in vegetables and the significance of the occurrence of their metabolites.

Fluoroquinolone-contaminated poultry litter strongly affects earthworms as verified through lethal and sub-lethal evaluations

Poultry litter is one of the main sources of fluoroquinolones (FQs) in agricultural soils. In this study, our main goal was to investigate FQ-contaminated poultry litter effects on Eisenia andrei earthworms. To achieve this, acute and chronic tests covered several endpoints, such as avoidance, biomass, lethality, reproduction and changes to immune cells. FQs (enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin) were determined in a poultry litter sample through high performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector. The avoidance test indicates that poultry litter strongly repels earthworms, even at the lowest concentration (50 g kg^-1). In the acute test, the lethal concentration of poultry litter to 50% of the earthworms (LC₅₀), was estimated at 28.5 g kg^-1 and a significant biomass loss (p < 0.05) occurred at 40 g kg^-1. In the chronic test, a significant reproduction effect was observed at 20 g kg^-1. Cell typing, density and feasibility indicated significant effects ranging from 5 to 20 g kg^-1. A high risk quotient was estimated based on recommended poultry litter applications in field studies. Although FQ contamination in poultry litter and soils has been widely reported in previous studies, this is, to the best of our knowledge, the first toxicological assessment concerning earthworms exposed to FQ-contaminated poultry litter.

Synthesis and evaluation of bisulfate/mesylate-conjugated chlortetracycline with high solubility and bioavailability

The aim of this work is to improve the solubility and bioavailability of chlortetracycline and the function of the immune response. Chlortetracycline bisulfate and chlortetracycline mesylate were successfully synthesized and characterized with several techniques, including spectroscopy, chromatography and mass spectrometry, which demonstrated that the C4-dimethylamino group of chlortetracycline can accept a proton from sulfuric acid and methanesulfonic acid to form the corresponding salts. In addition, chlortetracycline bisulfate and chlortetracycline mesylate were more soluble in water than chlortetracycline hydrochloride, but the antibacterial activity was not enhanced. The influences of chlortetracycline hydrochloride, chlortetracycline bisulfate and chlortetracycline mesylate on chlortetracycline and immunoglobulin concentrations in mouse serum were also investigated. These results suggested that the chlortetracycline bisulfate and chlortetracycline mesylate have good bioavailability and strong immune response and have potential applications in animal breeding and formulation technologies.

Degradation of Veterinary Antibiotics in Swine Manure via Anaerobic Digestion

Antibiotic-resistant microorganisms are drawing a lot of attention due to their severe and irreversible consequences on human health. The animal industry is considered responsible in part because of the enormous volume of antibiotics used annually. In the current research, veterinary antibiotic (VA) degradation, finding the threshold of removal and recognizing the joint effects of chlortetracycline (CTC) and Tylosin combination on the digestion process were studied. Laboratory scale anaerobic digesters were utilized to investigate potential mitigation of VA in swine manure. The digesters had a working volume of 1.38 L (in 1.89-L glass jar), with a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 21 days and a loading rate of 1.0 g-VS L-1 d-1. Digesters were kept at 39 ± 2 °C in incubators and loaded every two days, produced biogas every 4 days and digester pH were measured weekly. The anaerobic digestion (AD) process was allowed 1.5 to 2 HRT to stabilize before adding the VAs. Tests were conducted to compare the effects of VAs onto manure nutrients, volatile solid removal, VA degradation, and biogas production. Concentrations of VA added to the manure samples were 263 to 298 mg/L of CTC, and 88 to 263 mg/L of Tylosin, respectively. Analysis of VA concentrations before and after the AD process was conducted to determine the VA degradation. Additional tests were also conducted to confirm the degradation of both VAs dissolved in water under room temperature and digester temperature. Some fluctuations of biogas production and operating variables were observed because of the VA addition. All CTC was found degraded even only after 6 days of storage in water solution; thus, there was no baseline to estimate the effects of AD. As for Tylosin, 100% degradation was observed due to the AD (removal was 100%, compared with 24-40% degradation observed in the 12-day water solution storage). Besides, complete Tylosin degradation was also observed in the digestate samples treated with a mixture of the two VAs. Lastly, amplicon sequencing was performed on each group by using the 50 most variable operational taxonomic units (OTUs)s and perfect discriminations were detected between groups. The effect of administration period and dosage of VAs on Phyla Firmicutes Proteobacteria, Synergistetes and Phylum Bacteroides was investigated. These biomarkers' abundance can be employed to predict the sample's treatment group.

Manure anaerobic digestion effects and the role of pre- and post-treatments on veterinary antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes removal efficiency

This review was aimed to summarize and critically evaluate studies on removal of veterinary antibiotics (VAs), antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) with anaerobic digestion (AD) of manure and demonstrate areas of focus for improved removal efficiency. The environmental risks associated to the release of the same were also critically evaluated. The potential of AD and advanced AD of manure on removal rate of VAs, ARGs and MGEs was thoroughly assessed. In addition, the role of post and pre-AD treatments and their potential to support VAs and ARGs removal efficiency were evaluated. The overall review results show disparity among the different groups of VAs in terms of removal rate with relatively higher efficiency for β-lactams and tetracyclines compared to the other groups. Some of sulfonamides, fluoroquinolones and macrolides were reported to be highly persistent with removal rates as low as zero. Within group differences were also reported in many literatures. Moreover, removal of ARGs and MGEs by AD was widely reported although complete removal was hardly possible. Even in rare scenarios, some AD conditions were reported to increase copies of specific groups of the genes. Temperature pretreatments and temperature phased advanced AD were also reported to improve removal efficiency of VAs while contributing to increased biogas production. Moreover, a few studies also showed the possibility of further removal by post-AD treatments such as liquid-solid separation, drying and composting. In conclusion, the various studies revealed that AD in its current technological level is not a guarantee for complete removal of VAs, ARGs and MGEs from manure. Consequently, their possible release to the soils with digestate could threaten the healthcare and disturb soil microbial ecology. Thus, intensive management strategies need to be designed to increase removal efficiency at the different manure management points along the anaerobic digestion process.

Doxycycline transfer from substrate to white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) and assessment of the potential consumer exposure

The presence of antibiotic residues in the food chain may pose a serious risk to human health. Locating and evaluating new sources of consumer exposure to antibiotic residues in food is a very important element of health protection. The possibility of doxycycline uptake from the substrate for mushroom cultivation by the white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) fruit body was investigated. Mushrooms were experimentally cultivated on substrate contaminated with 8 different doxycycline concentrations in substrate and analyte concentrations in mushroom samples were measured using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography - triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) The obtained results clearly indicated that doxycycline transfers from contaminated substrate to mushrooms at concentrations ranging from 0.87 to 72.3 µg/kg, depending on substrate contamination concentration level and order of harvesting.

Bioaccumulation, trophic transfer, and human health risk of quinolones antibiotics in the benthic food web from a macrophyte-dominated shallow lake, North China

The bioaccumulation and trophic transfer of 12 Quinolones (QNs) have been studied in a macrophyte dominated lake-Baiyangdian Lake, China. QNs concentrations were detected in surface water, sediments, and 25 biological samples. The average concentrations of QNs varied from 3.01 ng/L for Oxolinic Acid (OXO) to 174 ng/L for Flumequine (FLU) in water, 3.28 ng/g (dry weight, dw) for OXO to 97.0 ng/g (dw) for FLU in sediments, and from 2.88 ng/g (dw) for Pipemidic Acid (PIP) to 37.7 ng/g (dw) for FLU in biological samples. The values of bioconcentration factors (BCFs) or bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) (in the range of 98.0-723 L/kg) and biota sediment accumulation factor (BSAFs) (in the range of 0.000300-0.124) were indicated that low bioaccumulation ability of target QNs in biological species. Due to the detected frequencies of FLU, Enrofloxacin (ENR), Norfloxacin (NOR), and Ofloxacin (OFL) were higher than 50%, the trophic magnification factors (TMFs) values for those QNs were calculated from three different habitats. The TMFs for those QNs were ranged from 0.840 to 1.10. Thereinto, ENR and NOR were appeared trophic magnification, while FLU and OFL were appeared trophic dilution in the food web of Baiyangdian Lake. Although the TMFs values of QNs were not showed significantly difference among three habitats, the TMFs values of those QNs showed significantly difference between the foodweb with macrophyte species and without macrophyte species. Except FLU, the other TMFs values of these QNs without macrophyte species (in the range of 0.700-1.01) were lower than the TMFs for QNs with macrophyte species. Finally, the results of human health risk for QNs suggested that consumption of fish from Baiyangdian Lake with a considerable risk, thus more standard and residue limits of QNs should be set to decrease the human health risk around this region. CAPSULE ABSTRACT: The spatial variation of bioaccumulation, trophic transfer, and human health risk for 12 QNs has been studied in the benthic foodweb from a macrophyte-dominated shallow lake.

Occurrence of antibiotic residues in Apulian honey: potential risk of environmental pollution by antibiotics

The presence of antibiotic residues in honey is widely documented and is attributed almost exclusively to improper beekeeping practices, due to the frequent use of drugs for the treatment of beehive diseases. Therefore, the aim of our research was to evaluate the presence of antibiotics in honeycomb using the Anti-Microbial Array II (AM II) and IV (AM IV) method and to assess the relationship between environmental context and antibiotic residues in honey. The results show the presence of antibiotic residues in 26/50 honey from brood nests samples, confirming the impact of environmental contamination on the health quality of this food product. In addition, subsequent analyses conducted on positive samples reveal the instability over time of antimicrobial molecules in honey. These results highlight the need for further studies in order to understand all likely sources of contamination and to implement a comprehensive safety management plan for honey.

Insight into dynamics and bioavailability of antibiotics in paddy soils by in situ soil moisture sampler

Plant-soil systems have complex regulatory mechanisms for xenobiotics uptake by plant, and these chemicals in soil pore water (SPW) are regarded as the bioavailable fraction. To date, little is known about the role of SPW in regard to the bioavailability of antibiotics for plant. In this study, in situ soil moisture sampler (SMS) was adopted to collect SPW from four paddy soils without disrupting the rhizosphere zone to evaluate antibiotic uptake in rice. The results show that SMS is applicable for antibiotics that have small molecular sizes and Log K_ow values, e.g., sulfadiazine (SDZ), sulfamethoxazole (SMZ), trimethoprim (TRM), and florfenicol (FLR). However, SMS performance was not feasible for large size and medium hydrophobic clarithromycin (CLR). Antibiotics in SPW demonstrated differences among chemicals and soils. Relatively higher levels of SDZ, SMZ, and FLR were observed in SPW than TRM, and neutral Panjin soil had the highest levels of antibiotics in SPW among four soils. The levels of antibiotics in SPW were negatively correlated with their soil partition parameter, K_d. Rapid decreases of SMZ, FLR, and SDZ in the SPW were consistent with their low residues in the final soils. All antibiotics were detectable in rice roots, followed by low detection levels in a few shoot samples, while no antibiotics were detectable in the grains of four soils. Relatively higher levels of SDZ, SMZ and FLR were observed in the roots of Panjin soil, consistent with their levels in SPW and K_d values. Furthermore, CLR and TRM were observed to have higher levels in roots, which was regarded as a consequence of their relatively longer persistence. Our study indicates that SMS is an applicable technique for in situ sampling of SPW, and level of antibiotics in SPW can work as a useful indicator to explore their bioavailability to plants.

Toxic Effects of Single Antibiotics and Antibiotics in Combination on Germination and Growth of Sinapis alba L

Antibiotics enter agro-ecosystems via the application of farmyard manure, sewage sludge, animal by-products, or digestates. There are many open questions regarding the behavior of such compounds in the soil like their adsorption, degradation, half-life, and their effects on soil organisms and plants. The impact of antibiotics on the development of antibiotic resistance genes in the environment is regarded as the most important effect that endangers the environment as well as human health. Nevertheless, direct plant toxicity, especially of different antibiotics and heavy metals at the same time, can be of importance as well. In the current study, commercially available phytotoxkits were tested with regard to the toxicity of single antibiotics and antibiotics in combination with the root growth of Sinapis alba L. Additionally, a pot trial was conducted to study the transfer of the observed phytotoxkits results in more complex systems. The phytotoxkits revealed direct toxicity of antibiotics on root development only at high concentrations. The highest toxicity was determined for sulfadiazine, followed by tetracycline and enrofloxacin, showing the least toxicity. When two antibiotics were tested at the same time in the phytotoxkit, synergistic effects were detected. The pot trial indicated lower effect concentrations for enrofloxacin than determined in the phytotoxkit and, therefore, to higher toxicity on plant growth.

An innovative modeling approach of linking land use patterns with soil antibiotic contamination in peri-urban areas

Due to the intensive use and continuous release, high and persistent concentrations of antibiotics are found in soils worldwide. This severe contamination elevates the risks associated with antibiotic exposure and resistance for soil ecosystems and human health. Estimating antibiotic concentrations in soils is a complex and important challenge because the limited information is available on antibiotic use and emission and the high exposure risk to human health occurred in peri-urban areas. In this study, soil antibiotic contamination was linked with land use patterns in a data-scarce peri-urban area in four different seasons, and we established a modeling framework based on land use to estimate spatially explicit distribution of antibiotics in soils. The soil antibiotic concentration was found to be substantially affected by surrounding land use patterns in buffer zones with a radius of 350 m. Agricultural land was the main source of antibiotics entering the soil. Notably, road networks also had considerable impacts on antibiotic residues in soils. Then, a statistical model was developed in describing the linkage between land use patterns and soil antibiotic concentration. Model evaluation suggested that the proposed model successfully simulated the variation of antibiotics in soil with good statistical performance (R² > 0.7). Finally, the model was extrapolated to investigate detailed distribution of antibiotics in soils. Clear spatial and seasonal dynamics can be found in soil antibiotic concentration. To our knowledge, this was the first attempt to adopt a model focusing on land use pattern to estimate the spatially explicit distribution of antibiotics in soils. Despite of some uncertainties, the research provides a land-use-based modeling approach as a reference for preventing and controlling soil antibiotic contamination in the future.

Current progress in the adsorption, transport and biodegradation of antibiotics in soil

Antibiotic residues in soil may cause potential risks to human health and soil ecosystems. To avoid these potential risks, comprehensive study of the adsorption, transport and biodegradation of antibiotics in soil is very imperative. This review provided current views about the most recent studies, which have been conducted toward the adsorption, transport and biodegradation of antibiotics in soil. The influencing factors affecting the adsorption behaviors of antibiotics in soil, including the antibiotics properties (e.g., molecular structure, hydrophobicity, polarity, polarizability, and spatial configuration) and the soil characteristics (e.g., soil type, soil pH, coexisting ions, and soil organic matter), were discussed. The effects of fertilizer colloids, porous media, and pH of soil on the transport behaviors of antibiotics were analyzed. The biodegradation of antibiotics in soil were also highlighted by investigating the effects of soil microbiome, soil pH, soil temperature, and interactions between antibiotics. Prospects of antibiotics adsorption, transport and biodegradation were also proposed.

Analysis of Multiclass Antibiotics in Lettuce by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry to Monitor Their Plant Uptake

The main entry routes of antibiotics in the environment are the application of organic wastes to improve soil quality and the irrigation with recycled water. Once in the environment, antibiotics can be introduced in the food chain through their uptake by crops. This paper describes the development of an analytical method based on ultrasound-assisted extraction for the determination of seven antibiotics in lettuce. The developed method was applied to evaluate antibiotic uptake by lettuce grown in pots fertilized with composted poultry litter doped with a mixture of antibiotics to reach a final concentration of 2.5 µg/g in soil. Lettuce were harvested after 21, 36, and 55 days. Five of the seven studied antibiotics were found in all samples. The highest uptake was found for lincomycin (51 ng/g fresh weight) followed by sulfamethoxazole (44 ng/g fresh weight) and sulfamethazine (21 ng/g fresh weight) in lettuce harvested after 21 days. An important decrease of their levels was observed after 36 days, but these levels remained similar after 55 days. Although levels found in lettuce were low, the presence of antibiotics demonstrates the need for further assessing food safety risks related with the use of soil amendments or irrigation water contaminated with antibiotics.

The accumulation and distribution of five antibiotics from soil in 12 cultivars of pak choi

There is a lack of understanding about the potential accumulation of antibiotics in plants exposed to low-dose contaminated soil. 12 Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis cultivars were used to investigate the different accumulation capacities of sulfamethoxypyridazine, tetracycline, ofloxacin, norfloxacin and difloxacin from the soil. The results showed a significant variation (p < 0.05) among the 12 cultivars in the accumulation of antibiotics. Cultivars Y1 and Y2 had the highest accumulation capacity with average concentrations of 3.26 and 3.00 μg kg^-1, respectively, while cultivars Y4 and Y9 had the lowest accumulation capacity with average concentrations of 0.83 and 0.89 μg kg^-1. The average antibiotic concentration in all edible part samples (2.74 μg kg^-1) of the treatment group was about 3.0-fold of that of the control group (0.93 μg kg^-1). The average bioconcentration factors of sulfamethoxypyridazine, tetracycline, ofloxacin, norfloxacin and difloxacin were 0.051, 0.031, 0.017, 0.036 and 0.034, respectively, indicating a higher uptake of sulfamethoxypyridazine compared to ofloxacin. And the mobility of antibiotics in soil is a main factor affecting the bioavailability for plants. The average concentration of antibiotics in edible parts of cultivar Y12 on the 25th and 45th day were 1.52 and 1.73 μg kg^-1 and that of the roots were 3.73 and 6.61 μg kg^-1, respectively. The concentrations of tetracycline and difloxacin in the edible parts and roots significantly increased with growing time, while the concentration of sulfamethoxypyridazine and ofloxacin changed little throughout the growing period. The potential risks of antibiotics in vegetables on human health cannot be ignored. Overall, attention should be paid to the translocation of antibiotics from soil to plants.

A Rapid and Green Method for the Determination of Veterinary Pharmaceuticals in Swine Wastewater by Fluorescence Spectrophotometry

A growing concern exists over water contamination by veterinary pharmaceuticals from small pig farms in Yucatan, Mexico, where the anaerobic digesters installed as the wastewater treatment system are not operated properly. Therefore, considerable interest exists to develop analytical methods to detect these compounds and characterize their fate in the environment. In this study, the detection of three antibiotics (enrofloxacin, oxytetracycline and sulfamethoxazole) and a β-agonist (ractopamine) was carried out using fluorescence spectrophotometry, with a semi-quantitative approach and a low environmental impact. Wastewater samples from 10 pig farms were analyzed, detecting concentrations of approximately 0.043 μg mL^-1 for enrofloxacin, 1.427 μg mL^-1 for oxytetracycline, and 9.748 μg mL^-1 for sulfamethoxazole. The detection of these pharmaceuticals in the effluents of treated wastewater from the biodigesters of the pig farms suggests the need to optimize the system and prevent the entry of these compounds into the environment.

Effect of sulfonamide pollution on the growth of manure management candidate Hermetia illucens

Antibiotics are commonly used in livestock and poultry farming. Residual antibiotics in manure may lead to antibiotic pollution of soil, surface water, and groundwater through land application and run-off rainfall. The black soldier fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens is a good candidate for manure management. We evaluated the effect of sulfonamide pollution on the growth of H. illucens. Four treatments were considered with a sulfonamide content in the feed of 0 (control group), 0.1, 1, and 10 mg/kg. The control larvae were fed without sulfonamide. Survival and development status of the individuals were recorded daily. The weights of the fifth instar larvae, prepupae, and pupae were checked. Antioxidant enzyme activity was determined with the fifth instar larvae. The results showed that a low (0.1 and 1 mg/kg) concentration of sulfonamides had no effects on larval survival, pupation, and eclosion of BSFs. A high sulfonamide concentration of 10 mg/kg had a significant effect on the survival of larvae and pupae and on the body weight of larvae, prepupae and pupae. Peak of the cumulated pupation rate and eclosion rate in the sulfonamide treatment of 10 mg/kg was very low. Pupation and eclosion in this group peaked later than that of the control and low sulfonamide concentration treatment groups (0.1 mg/kg and 1 mg/kg). Larvae from the sulfonamides group showed lower antioxidase activities than that of the control. In sulfonamide groups, the activity of peroxidase and superoxide dismutase was reduced in a concentration-dependent manner. Sulfamonomethoxine, sulfamethoxazole, and sulfamethazine were not detected in the harvested prepupae. Only sulfadiazine was discovered in the sulfonamide treatments of 1 and 10 mg/kg. In conclusion, BSFs can tolerate certain concentrations of sulfonamide contamination.

Multi-class determination of steroid hormones and antibiotics in fatty hotpot ingredients by pressurized liquid extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Due to the misuse of hormones and antibiotics resulting in drug residues in meat products, serious concerns have arisen regarding to the potential risks for human health. In this paper, a simple and efficient method was developed to simultaneously quantify six steroid hormones and six antibiotics in fatty foods by combining pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Adsorbents, extraction temperature, extraction time, recycle time and several other parameters were optimized in current investigation. The optimized PLE method was employed by using n-hexane-methanol-acetonitrile (2:1:1, v/v/v) as extraction solvent, silica gel as lipid sorbent, and the optimum parameters were 60 °C, 1500 psi and 10 min, respectively. Under the optimal conditions, the recoveries of spiked samples ranged from 82.2% to 115.0%. The limits of quantifications (LODs) were from 0.4 to 25.0 μg/kg. The developed PLE method was successfully applied to analyze steroid hormones and antibiotics in 27 fatty foods of hotpot ingredients without any additional clean-up steps. The results showed that the residues of estradiol benzoate (EB) and enrofloxacin (EN) in some matrices were much higher than maximum residue limits (MRLs) value, especially EB in fish, which exceeded 176.7 μg/kg. The results demonstrated that the developed method was sensitive and efficient in testing hotpot ingredients, and was an excellent analytical tool for monitoring residues of steroid hormones and antibiotics in fatty foods.

Root uptake of atenolol, sulfamethoxazole and carbamazepine, and their transformation in three soils and four plants

Soils can be contaminated by pharmaceuticals. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of soil conditions (influencing sorption and persistence of pharmaceuticals in soils) and plant type on the root uptake of selected pharmaceuticals and their transformation in plant-soil systems. Four plants (lamb's lettuce, spinach, arugula, radish) planted in 3 soils were irrigated for 20 days (26) with water contaminated by one of 3 pharmaceuticals (carbamazepine, atenolol, sulfamethoxazole) or their mixture. The concentrations of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in soils and plant tissues were evaluated after the harvest. Sulfamethoxazole and atenolol dissipated rapidly from soils. The larger concentrations of both compounds and an atenolol metabolite were found in roots than in leaves. Sulfamethoxazole metabolites were below the limits of quantifications. Carbamazepine was stable in soils, easily uptaken, accumulated, and metabolized in plant leaves. The efficiency of radish and arugula (both family Brassicaceae) in metabolizing was very low contrary to the high and moderate efficiencies of lamb's lettuce and spinach, respectively. Compounds' transformations mostly masked the soil impact on their accumulation in plant tissues. The negative relationships were found between the carbamazepine sorption coefficients and its concentrations in roots of radish, lamb's lettuce, and spinach.

QuEChERS - Fundamentals, relevant improvements, applications and future trends

The Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe (QuEChERS) method is a simple and straightforward extraction technique involving an initial partitioning followed by an extract clean-up using dispersive solid-phase extraction (d-SPE). Originally, the QuEChERS approach was developed for recovering pesticide residues from fruits and vegetables, but rapidly gained popularity in the comprehensive isolation of analytes from different matrices. According to PubMed, since its development in 2003 up to November 2018, about 1360 papers have been published reporting QuEChERS as extraction method. Several papers have reported different improvements and modifications to the original QuEChERS protocol to ensure more efficient extractions of pH-dependent analytes and to minimize the degradation of labile analytes. This analytical approach shows several advantages over traditional extraction techniques, requiring low sample and solvent volumes, as well as less time for sample preparation. Furthermore, most of the published studies show that the QuEChERS protocol provides higher recovery rate and a better analytical performance than conventional extraction procedures. This review proposes an updated overview of the most recent developments and applications of QuEChERS beyond its original application to pesticides, mycotoxins, veterinary drugs and pharmaceuticals, forensic analysis, drugs of abuse and environmental contaminants. Their pros and cons will be discussed, considering the factors influencing the extraction efficiency. Whenever possible, the performance of the QuEChERS is compared to other extraction approaches. In addition to the evolution of this technique, changes and improvements to the original method are discussed.

Bioaccumulation of antibiotics in crops under long-term manure application: Occurrence, biomass response and human exposure

Long-term manure application gives rise to the uptake of antibiotics by plants and antibiotics subsequent entry into the food chain, representing an important alternative pathway for human exposure to antibiotics. The antibiotics can cause negative effects on crop growth and productivity. The bioaccumulation and translocation of 14 target antibiotics in peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.) and their effects on peanut relative biomass in fields with long-term (≥15 years) manure application were studied. The results showed that all the target antibiotics were found in manures and rhizosphere soils, and most of them were found in all peanut tissues (roots, shells, kernels, stem, and leaves). The antibiotic concentrations in peanut tissues were varied with the characteristics of antibiotics in soils. Tetracyclines were the dominating antibiotic compounds in all peanut tissues, accounting for 61%-80% of total antibiotics due to their relatively high concentration in rhizosphere soil. Most tetracyclines and quinolones preferentially accumulated in the roots and translocated to other peanut tissues than sulfonamides and macrolides. Furthermore, the influence of antibiotics in soil and crops on relative biomass of crop tissues varied with tissues and antibiotic types. Antibiotics significantly inhibited the tissue relative biomass in most cases, although stimulation of some antibiotics to crop biomass was also observed. We found that 18.3% of the variance of the peanut relative biomass was explained by antibiotics in soils and tissues. The estimated threshold of daily intake values suggests that the consumption of peanut kernels grown in field conditions with long-term manure application presents a moderate risk to human health.

Negative bottom-up effects of sulfadiazine, but not penicillin and tetracycline, in soil substitute on plants and higher trophic levels

Veterinary antibiotics are widely used in livestock production and can be released to the environment via manure, affecting non-target organisms. Recent studies provide evidence that antibiotics can adversely affect both plants and insects but whether antibiotics in soil also affect trophic interactions is unknown. We tested whether antibiotics grown in sand as soil substitute with environmentally relevant concentrations of penicillin, sulfadiazine and tetracycline affect the survival of aphids feeding on plants (two crop and one non-crop plant species). Apera spica-venti, Brassica napus, and Triticum aestivum individuals were infested with aphids that were monitored over four weeks. We did not observe effects of penicillin or tetracycline on plants or aphids. However, sulfadiazine treatments reduced plant growth and increased mortality in the two tested grass species, but not in B. napus. Sulfadiazine subsequently decreased aphid density indirectly through reduced host plant biomass. We thus show that an antibiotic at realistic concentrations in a soil substitute can affect several trophic levels, i.e. plants and herbivores. This study contributes to the environmental risk assessment of veterinary antibiotics as it implies that their use potentially affects plant-insect interactions at environmentally relevant concentrations.