Delivery of bioactives in food for optimal efficacy: What inspirations and insights can be gained from pharmaceutics?

Preparation of cellulose-based nanoparticles via electrostatic self-assembly for the pH-responsive delivery of astaxanthin

Oral administration of astaxanthin (AST), a potent antioxidant, is limited owing to its low solubility, physicochemical stability, and bioavailability. This study developed pH-responsive nanocarriers by the electrostatic self-assembly of 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyradical (TEMPO)-oxidized cellulose nanofibers (TCNFs) and chitosan (CS) to enhance the intestinal delivery of AST. The TCNF/CS@AST nanoparticles were optimized through single-factor experiments and Box-Behnken design, subsequently overcoming the hydrophobicity of AST and demonstrating improved stability against environmental stressors and controlled release in the intestinal environment. Transmission electron microscopy confirmed the near-spherical shape of these nanoparticles, with an average hydrodynamic diameter of 64 nm. TCNF/CS@AST enhanced the antioxidant effectiveness of AST after digestion and in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells while demonstrating good cellular compatibility. These nanoparticles present a promising strategy for the oral delivery of hydrophobic bioactive compounds orally, with potential applications in precision nutrition.

Enhancing bioactive compounds in plant-based foods: Influencing factors and technological advances

Plant-based foods are natural sources of phytochemicals, which exhibit free radical scavenging capacity. However, the bioaccessibility of phytochemicals in foods are limited due to their poor stability and solubility within food matrix. Moreover, chemical degradation induced by processing further diminish the levels of these bioactive compounds. This review explores the impacts of thermal and non-thermal processing on fruits and vegetables, emphasizing the application of emerging technologies to enhance food quality. Innovative non-thermal technologies, which align with sustainable and environmentally friendly principles of green development, are particularly promising. Supercritical CO2 and cold plasma can be applied in extraction of phytochemicals, and these extracts also can be used as natural preservatives in food products, as well as improve the texture and sensory properties of food products, offering significant potential to advance the field of food science and technology while adhering to eco-friendly practices.

Unveiling the breadmaking transformation: Structural and functional insights into Arabinoxylan

To understand the changes in arabinoxylan (AX) during breadmaking, multi-step enzyme digestion was conducted to re-extract arabinoxylan (AX-B) from AX-fortified bread. Their structural changes were compared using HPSEC, HPAEC, FT-IR, methylation analysis, and 1H NMR analysis; their properties changes in terms of enzymatic inhibition activities and in vitro fermentability against gut microbiota were also compared. Results showed that AX-B contained a higher portion of covalently linked protein while the molecular weight was reduced significantly after breadmaking process (from 677.1 kDa to 15.6 kDa); the structural complexity of AX-B in terms of the degree of branching was increased; the inhibition activity against α-amylase (76.81 % vs 73.89 % at 4 mg/mL) and α-glucosidase (64.43 % vs 58.08 % at 4 mg/mL) was improved; the AX-B group produced a higher short-chain fatty acids concentration than AX (54.68 ± 7.86 mmol/L vs 44.03 ± 4.10 mmol/L). This study provides novel knowledge regarding the structural and properties changes of arabinoxylan throughout breadmaking, which help to predict the health benefits of fibre-fortified bread and achieve precision nutrition.

Polymorphic nanostarch-mediated assembly of bioactives

Starch as an edible, biosafe, and functional biopolymer, has been tailored at nanoscale to deliver bioactive guests. Nanostarches fabricated in various morphologies including nanosphere, nanorod, nanoworm, nanovesicle, nanopolyhedron, nanoflake, nanonetwork etc., enable them to assemble different kinds of bioactives due to structural particularity and green modification. Previous studies have reviewed nanostarch for its preparation and application in food, however, no such work has been done for the potential of delivery system via polymorphic nanostarches. In this review, we focus on the merits of nanostarch empowered by multi-morphology for delivery system, and also conclude the assembly strategies and corresponding properties of nanostarch-based carrier. Additionally, the advantages, limitations, and future perspectives of polymorphic nanostarch are summarized to better understand the micro/nanostarch architectures and their regulation for the compatibility of bioactive molecules. According to the morphology of carrier, nanostarch effectively captures bioactives on the surface and/or inside core to form tight complexes, which maintains their stability in the human microenvironment. It improves the bioavailability of bioactive guests by different assembly approaches of carrier/guest surface combination, guest@carrier embedment, and nanostarch-mediated encapsulation. Targeted release of delivery systems is stimulated by the microenvironment conditions based on the complex structure of nanostarch loaded with bioactives.

Natural compounds as lactate dehydrogenase inhibitors: potential therapeutics for lactate dehydrogenase inhibitors-related diseases

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is a crucial enzyme involved in energy metabolism and present in various cells throughout the body. Its diverse physiological functions encompass glycolysis, and its abnormal activity is associated with numerous diseases. Targeting LDH has emerged as a vital approach in drug discovery, leading to the identification of LDH inhibitors among natural compounds, such as polyphenols, alkaloids, and terpenoids. These compounds demonstrate therapeutic potential against LDH-related diseases, including anti-cancer effects. However, challenges concerning limited bioavailability, poor solubility, and potential toxicity must be addressed. Combining natural compounds with LDH inhibitors has led to promising outcomes in preclinical studies. This review highlights the promise of natural compounds as LDH inhibitors for treating cancer, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Improving the biological activities of astaxanthin using targeted delivery systems

The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of astaxanthin (AST) enable it to protect against oxidative stress-related and inflammatory diseases with a range of biological effects. These activities provide the potential to develop healthier food products. Therefore, it would be beneficial to design delivery systems for AST to overcome its low stability, control its release, and/or improve its bioavailability. This review discusses the basis for AST's various biological activities and the factors limiting these activities, including stability, solubility, and bioavailability. It also discusses the different systems available for the targeted delivery of AST and their applications in enhancing the biological activity of AST. These include systems that are candidates for preventive and therapeutic effects, which include nerves, liver, and skin, particularly for possible cancer reduction. Targeted delivery of AST to specific regions of the gastrointestinal tract, or more selectively to target tissues and cells, can be achieved using targeted delivery systems to increase the biological activities of AST.

Analytical and toxicological aspects of nanomaterials in different product groups: Challenges and opportunities

The widespread integration of engineered nanomaterials into consumer and industrial products creates new challenges and requires innovative approaches in terms of design, testing, reliability, and safety of nanotechnology. The aim of this review article is to give an overview of different product groups in which nanomaterials are present and outline their safety aspects for consumers. Here, release of nanomaterials and related analytical challenges and solutions as well as toxicological considerations, such as dose-metrics, are discussed. Additionally, the utilization of engineered nanomaterials as pharmaceuticals or nutraceuticals to deliver and release cargo molecules is covered. Furthermore, critical pathways for human exposure to nanomaterials, namely inhalation and ingestion, are discussed in the context of risk assessment. Analysis of NMs in food, innovative medicine or food contact materials is discussed. Specific focus is on the presence and release of nanomaterials, including whether nanomaterials can migrate from polymer nanocomposites used in food contact materials. With regard to the toxicology and toxicokinetics of nanomaterials, aspects of dose metrics of inhalation toxicity as well as ingestion toxicology and comparison between in vitro and in vivo conclusions are considered. The definition of dose descriptors to be applied in toxicological testing is emphasized. In relation to potential exposure from different products, opportunities arising from the use of advanced analytical techniques in more unique scenarios such as release of nanomaterials from medical devices such as orthopedic implants are addressed. Alongside higher product performance and complexity, further challenges regarding material characterization and safety, as well as acceptance by the general public are expected.

Improving the Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Carotenoids by Means of Nanostructured Delivery Systems: A Comprehensive Review

Carotenoids are bioactive compounds provided by the diet playing a key role in maintaining human health. Therefore, they should be ingested daily in an adequate amount. However, even a varied and well-balanced diet does not guarantee an adequate intake, as both the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of the compounds significantly affect their absorption. This review summarizes the main results achieved in improving the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of carotenoids by means of nanostructured delivery systems, discussing in detail the available lipid-based and biopolymeric nanocarriers at present, with a focus on their formulation and functional efficiency. Although the toxicity profile of these innovative delivery systems is not fully understood, especially for long-term intake, these systems are an effective and valuable approach to increase the availability of compounds of nutritional interest.

A review of sugar beet pectin-stabilized emulsion: extraction, structure, interfacial self-assembly and emulsion stability

In recent years, sugar beet pectin as a natural emulsifier has shown great potential in food and pharmaceutical fields. However, the emulsification performance depends on the molecular structure of sugar beet pectin, and the molecular structure is closely related to the extraction method. This review summarizes the extraction methods of pectin, structure characterization methods and the current research status of sugar beet pectin-stabilized emulsions. The structural characteristics of sugar beet pectin (such as degree of methylation, degree of acetylation, degree of blockiness, molecular weight, ferulic acid content, protein content, neutral sugar side chains, etc.) are of great significance to the emulsifying activity and stability of sugar beet pectin. Compared with traditional hot acid extraction method, ultrasonic-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, subcritical water-assisted extraction, induced electric field-assisted extraction and enzyme-assisted extraction can improve the yield of sugar beet pectin. At the same time, compared with harsh extraction conditions (too high temperature, too strong acidity, too long extraction time, etc.), mild extraction conditions can better preserve these emulsifying groups in sugar beet pectin molecules, which are beneficial to improve the emulsifying properties of sugar beet pectin. In addition, the interfacial self-assembly behavior of sugar beet pectin induced by the molecular structure is crucial to the long-term stability of the emulsion. This review provides a direction for extracting or modifying sugar beet pectin with specific structure and function, which is instructive for finding alternatives to gum arabic.

Enhancing bioaccessibility and bioavailability of carotenoids using emulsion-based delivery systems

The consumption of foods rich in antioxidants, vitamins, minerals including carotenoids etc. can boost the immune system to help fight off various infections including SARS- CoV 2 and other viruses. Carotenoids have been gaining attention particularly in food and pharmaceutical industries owing to their diverse functions including their role as pro-vitamin A activity, potent antioxidant properties, and quenching of reactive oxygen (ROS), such as singlet oxygen and lipid peroxides within the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. Nevertheless, carotenoids being lipophilic, have poor solubility in aqueous medium and are also chemically instable. They are susceptible to degrade under stimuli environmental conditions during food processing, storage and gastrointestinal passage. They also exhibit poor oral bioavailability, thus, their applications in aqueous-based foods are limited. As a consequent, suitable delivery systems including colloids-based are needed to enhance the solubility, stability and bioavailability of carotenoids. This review presents challenges of incorporation and delivery of carotenoids focusing on stability and factors affecting bioavailability. Furthermore, designed factors impacting bioaccessibility and bioavailability of carotenoids using emulsion-based delivery systems are explicitly explained. Each delivery system exhibits its own advantages and disadvantages; thus, the delivery systems should be designed based on their targets and their further applications.

Novel porous starch/alginate hydrogels for controlled insulin release with dual response to pH and amylase

An important principle in the development of oral insulin is to protect insulin from the harsh conditions of the stomach and release it in a controlled manner in the intestine. In the present study, novel insulin-loaded porous starch-alginate hydrogel systems (In-S-Alg) including In-MS-Alg (prepared with porous maize starch), In-WS-Alg (porous waxy maize starch), and In-RS-Alg (porous rice starch) were successfully developed. As a representative, In-MS-Alg was further coated with gelatinized-retrograded high amylose maize starch (HA) films with different thicknesses to prepare In-MS-HA/Alg hydrogel beads for improving the functionality of controlled release of insulin under the action of α-amylase. The In-S-Alg and In-MS-HA/Alg hydrogel beads were evaluated in terms of structural and morphological properties, encapsulation effect on insulin as well as its release behavior. The results show that insulin was distributed in the pores and cavities of porous starch granules. In In-MS-HA/Alg hydrogel beads, insulin was increasingly blocked inside porous starch with the increased thickness of the HA film. Encapsulation efficiency of insulin in all In-S-Alg and In-MS-HA/Alg hydrogel beads was >80%. Amazingly, both the hydrogel beads successfully achieved the goal of triggered release upon pH changes and α-amylase addition. Most of the insulin (about 90%) was retained in the simulated gastric fluid; while the release rate of insulin in the simulated intestinal fluid increased gradually, and was further accelerated in the presence of α-amylase. Furthermore, for the In-MS-HA/Alg hydrogel beads, the insulin release rate can be gradually reduced by increasing the thickness of the HA film, which provided the possibility to match the rate of increase of the blood glucose level after the intake of food with different glycemic indices. Therefore, the novel hydrogel prepared in this study may be a promising and safe delivery carrier for oral insulin.

The Effect of Yellow Tea Leaves Camellia sinensis on the Quality of Stored Chocolate Confectionery

Chocolate and tea leaves are considered the most valuable sources of highly bioactive polyphenols due to their potential anti-cancer properties and beneficial effects on the cardiovascular and nervous systems. The objective of the present study was the development of a sensory profiling modality that is correlated with the taste of the chocolate enriched with yellow tea phytochemicals. The additive concentration was optimized in white chocolate and the designed product was evaluated using the sensory profiling method. It was shown that the yellow tea extract in chocolate had a significant effect on the taste and color of the product. Addition of 2.0% yellow tea powdered extract increased the value of color acceptance and caused an intensification of the aromas, particularly the leafy taste, compared to the control samples. The next step of the study was to determine the influence of tea addition in white, milk and dark chocolate subjected to 6 months of storage. The designed chocolates were tested for their activity as antioxidants (DPPH, ABTS and ORAC assay) and cholinesterase inhibitors (AChE, BChE assay). It was confirmed that the yellow tea addition affected the activity of prepared chocolates with respect to radical scavenging activity and was highest for dark chocolate with yellow tea where the values were as follows: 4373 mg Tx/100 g (DPPH), 386 mg Tx/100 g (ABTS) and 4363 µM Tx/100 g (ORAC). An increase in the anti-radical activity of chocolate with yellow tea was found after 3 months of storage, but the subsequent 3 months of storage resulted in its reduction. AChE values ranged from 0.118 to 0.730 [µM eserine/g dw] and from 0.095 to 0.480 [µM eserine/g dw] for BChE assay. Total capacity to inhibit AChE and BChE differed depending on the type of chocolate and was negatively influenced by the half-year storage. Summarizing tested values for individual samples were higher, with increasing content of cocoa liquor and yellow tea extract in the product. The results of the research show that the use of yellow tea in confectionery is promising and may appoint a new direction in functional foods.

Interactions between caseins and food-derived bioactive molecules: A review

Caseins are recognized as safe for consumption, abundant, renewable and have high nutritional value. Casein molecules are found in different aggregation states and their multiple binding sites offer the potential for delivering biomolecules with nutritional and/or health benefits, such as vitamins, phytochemicals, fibers, lipids, minerals, proteins, peptides, and pharmaceutical compounds. In the present review, we highlight the interactions between caseins and food-derived bioactive molecules, with a special focus on the aggregation states of caseins and the techniques used to produce and study the particles used for delivering. Research on interactions between caseins-minerals and casein-pharmaceutical molecules are not included here. This review aims to support the development of new and innovative functional foods in which caseins can be used as designed delivery systems.

In Vitro Gastrointestinal Stability of Lipophilic Polyphenols is Dependent on their Oil-Water Partitioning in Emulsions: Studies on Curcumin, Resveratrol, and Quercetin

Many lipophilic polyphenols have low bioavailability because of their poor solubility and chemical stability within the human gut. The encapsulation of these polyphenols within digestible lipid droplets can improve their solubility and stability. However, there is currently a poor understanding of how the molecular and physicochemical properties of specific polyphenols impact these characteristics. In this study, the factors influencing the solubility and stability of different polyphenols (curcumin, resveratrol, and quercetin) under simulated gastrointestinal conditions were examined when they were delivered in the form of soybean oil-in-water nanoemulsions containing quillaja saponin-coated droplets (d₃₂ ≈ 0.15 μm; ζ = -63 mV; pH 5). The polyphenols were loaded into the lipid droplets using a pH-driven method, which is based on the pH-dependent electrical charge, oil-water partitioning, and water-solubility of these molecules. The encapsulation efficiency of all three polyphenols was relatively high (75-87%). However, their chemical stability under gastrointestinal conditions (i.e., the % remaining after exposure to gastrointestinal conditions) differed considerably: quercetin (44%), curcumin (92%), and resveratrol (100%). This effect was mainly attributed to the lower logD value of quercetin (2.17) than those of resveratrol (3.39) and curcumin (4.12). As a result, a high fraction (>50%) of quercetin was located within the aqueous gastrointestinal fluids, where it would be more prone to chemical degradation or precipitation. The fraction of the polyphenols solubilized in the gastrointestinal fluids (bioaccessibility) followed a different trend: curcumin (57%) < quercetin (73%) < resveratrol (76%). This effect was attributed to the chemical instability and/or binding of curcumin with other molecules in the simulated intestinal conditions. These results provide useful information for designing nanoemulsion-based delivery systems to improve the efficacy of lipophilic polyphenols.

Functionality of Food Components and Emerging Technologies

This review article introduces nutrition and functional food ingredients, explaining the widely cited terms of bioactivity, bioaccessibility, and bioavailability. The factors affecting these critical properties of food components are analyzed together with their interaction and preservation during processing. Ultimately, the effect of emerging (non-thermal) technologies on different food components (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, minerals, vitamins, polyphenols, glucosinolates, polyphenols, aroma compounds, and enzymes) is discussed in spite of preserving their functional properties. Non-thermal technologies can maintain the bioavailability of food components, improve their functional and technological properties, and increase the recovery yields from agricultural products. However, the optimization of operational parameters is vital to avoid degradation of macromolecules and the oxidation of labile compounds.

Assessment of binding interaction dihydromyricetin and myricetin with bovine lactoferrin and effects on antioxidant activity

The binding interactions of bovine lactoferrin (BLF) with two flavonoids dihydromyricetin (DMY) and myricetin (MY) were investigated by the multi-spectroscopic, microscale thermophoresis (MST) techniques, molecular docking, and then their antioxidant activities were studied by detection of free radical scavenging activity against DPPH. Results of UV-vis and fluorescence spectroscopies showed that DMY/MY and BLF formed the ground state complex through the static quenching mechanism. Moreover, MY with more planar stereochemical structure had higher affinity for BLF than DMY with twisted stereochemical structure, according to the binding constant (K_b), free energy change (ΔG°), dissociation constant (K_d) and donor-acceptor distance (r). Thermodynamic parameters revealed that hydrogen bond and van der Waals force were major forces in the formation of BLF-DMY complex, while hydrophobic interactions played major roles in the formation of BLF-DMY complex. The circular dichroism (CD) study indicated that MY induced more conformational change in BLF than DMY. Furthermore, molecular modeling provided insights into the difference of binding interactions between BLF and two flavonoids. Finally, the radical scavenging activity assays indicated the presence of BLF delayed the decrease in antioxidant capacities of two flavonoids. These results were helpful to understand the binding mechanism and biological effects of non-covalent BLF-flavonoid interaction.

The Link between the Consumer and the Innovations in Food Product Development

New lifestyles, higher incomes and better consumer awareness are increasing the demand for a year-round supply of innovative food products. In past decades, important developments have been achieved in areas related to food and the food industry. This review shows that factors influencing performance in new product development (NPD) are dynamic and continuously guiding project development. The data obtained by direct involvement of consumers can impact positively successful product development and enhance the company's financial performance. The study of consumer behaviour and attitudes towards new foods encompasses multiple aspects, such as preference, choice, desire to eat certain foods, buying intentions and frequency of consumption. Additionally, both the consumers' willingness to purchase and the willingness to pay a premium are important in NPD, launching and success.

Nano-enabled personalized nutrition: Developing multicomponent-bioactive colloidal delivery systems

There is growing interest in the production of foods and beverages with nutrient and nutraceutical profiles tailored to an individual's specific nutritional requirements. In principle, these personalized nutrition products are formulated based on the genetics, epigenetics, metabolism, microbiome, phenotype, lifestyle, age, gender, and health status of a person. A challenge in this area is to create customized functional food and beverage products that contain the required combination of bioactive agents, such as lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, nutraceuticals, prebiotics and probiotics. Nanotechnology may facilitate the development of these kind of products since it can be used to encapsulate one or more bioactive agent in a single colloidal delivery system. This delivery system may contain one or more different kinds of colloidal particle, specifically designed to protect each nutrient in the food, but then deliver it in a bioavailable form after ingestion. This review article provides an overview of the different kinds of bioactives that need to be delivered, as well as some of the challenges associated with incorporating them into functional foods and beverages. It then highlights how nanotech-enabled colloidal delivery systems can be developed to encapsulate multiple bioactive agents in a form suitable for functional food applications, particularly in the personalized nutrition field.

Advances in research on preparation, characterization, interaction with proteins, digestion and delivery systems of starch-based nanoparticles

Starch-based nanoparticles (SNPs) have attracted great interest for their ability to encapsulate, protect, and orally deliver bioactive components because of their diverse functionality, high biocompatibility, and environmental friendliness. SNPs can be synthesized with a broad range of particle sizes, ranging from a few nanometers to a few hundred nanometers (approximately 8-448 nm), which is comparable to the dimensions of proteins (1-10 nm), nucleic acids (2 nm wide, 5-100 nm long), viruses (10-500 nm), and cell organelles (5-100 mm). The ability to tune the dimensions and properties of SNPs allows them to be used to construct complexes with various biological entities, thereby altering their functional performance. SNPs can also be used to enhance the solubility of hydrophobic substances and to improve the nutritional attributes of bioactives. For instance, SNPs can be designed to increase the bioavailability of bioactives or to target their delivery to specific regions of the gastrointestinal tract. In this review, we provide an overview of the methods available for preparing SNPs, the application of SNPs for encapsulating and delivering bioactives, and the potential gastrointestinal fate of SNPs.