Transposable Elements: A Common Feature of Neurodevelopmental and Neurodegenerative Disorders

Toward understanding the role of genomic repeat elements in neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases cause great medical and economic burdens for both patients and society; however, the complex molecular mechanisms thereof are not yet well understood. With the development of high-coverage sequencing technology, researchers have started to notice that genomic repeat regions, previously neglected in search of disease culprits, are active contributors to multiple neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we describe the association between repeat element variants and multiple degenerative diseases through genome-wide association studies and targeted sequencing. We discuss the identification of disease-relevant repeat element variants, further powered by the advancement of long-read sequencing technologies and their related tools, and summarize recent findings in the molecular mechanisms of repeat element variants in brain degeneration, such as those causing transcriptional silencing or RNA-mediated gain of toxic function. Furthermore, we describe how in silico predictions using innovative computational models, such as deep learning language models, could enhance and accelerate our understanding of the functional impact of repeat element variants. Finally, we discuss future directions to advance current findings for a better understanding of neurodegenerative diseases and the clinical applications of genomic repeat elements.

Mini-heterochromatin domains constrain the cis-regulatory impact of SVA transposons in human brain development and disease

SVA (SINE (short interspersed nuclear element)-VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats)-Alu) retrotransposons remain active in humans and contribute to individual genetic variation. Polymorphic SVA alleles harbor gene regulatory potential and can cause genetic disease. However, how SVA insertions are controlled and functionally impact human disease is unknown. Here we dissect the epigenetic regulation and influence of SVAs in cellular models of X-linked dystonia parkinsonism (XDP), a neurodegenerative disorder caused by an SVA insertion at the TAF1 locus. We demonstrate that the KRAB zinc finger protein ZNF91 establishes H3K9me3 and DNA methylation over SVAs, including polymorphic alleles, in human neural progenitor cells. The resulting mini-heterochromatin domains attenuate the cis-regulatory impact of SVAs. This is critical for XDP pathology; removal of local heterochromatin severely aggravates the XDP molecular phenotype, resulting in increased TAF1 intron retention and reduced expression. Our results provide unique mechanistic insights into how human polymorphic transposon insertions are recognized and how their regulatory impact is constrained by an innate epigenetic defense system.

Need of orthogonal approaches in neurological disease modeling in mouse

Over the years, advancements in modeling neurological diseases have revealed innovative strategies aimed at gaining deeper insights and developing more effective treatments for these complex conditions. However, these progresses have recently been overshadowed by an increasing number of failures in clinical trials, raising doubts about the reliability and translatability of this type of disease modeling. This mini-review does not aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in disease mouse modeling. Instead, it offers a brief excursus over some recent approaches in modeling neurological diseases to pinpoint a few intriguing strategies applied in the field that may serve as sources of inspiration for improving currently available animal models. In particular, we aim to guide the reader toward the potential success of adopting a more orthogonal approach in the study of human diseases.

Activation of human endogenous retroviruses and its physiological consequences

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are abundant sequences that persist within the human genome as remnants of ancient retroviral infections. These sequences became fixed and accumulate mutations or deletions over time. HERVs have affected human evolution and physiology by providing a unique repertoire of coding and non-coding sequences to the genome. In healthy individuals, HERVs participate in immune responses, formation of syncytiotrophoblasts and cell-fate specification. In this Review, we discuss how endogenized retroviral motifs and regulatory sequences have been co-opted into human physiology and how they are tightly regulated. Infections and mutations can derail this regulation, leading to differential HERV expression, which may contribute to pathologies including neurodegeneration, pathological inflammation and oncogenesis. Emerging evidence demonstrates that HERVs are crucial to human health and represent an understudied facet of many diseases, and we therefore argue that investigating their fundamental properties could improve existing therapies and help develop novel therapeutic strategies.

Correlation of Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cell Expansion with Upregulated Transposable Elements in Severe COVID-19 Unveiled in Single-Cell RNA Sequencing Reanalysis

Some studies have investigated the potential role of transposable elements (TEs) in COVID-19 pathogenesis and complications. However, to the best of our knowledge, there is no study to examine the possible association of TE expression in cell functions and its potential role in COVID-19 immune response at the single-cell level. In this study, we reanalyzed single-cell RNA seq data of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) samples obtained from six severe COVID-19 patients and three healthy donors to assess the probable correlation of TE expression with the immune responses induced by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) in COVID-19 patients. Our findings indicate that the expansion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) may be a characteristic feature of COVID-19. Additionally, a significant increase in TE expression in MDSCs was observed. This upregulation of TEs in COVID-19 may be linked to the adaptability of these cells in response to their microenvironments. Furthermore, it appears that the identification of overexpressed TEs by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in MDSCs may enhance the suppressive capacity of these cells. Thus, this study emphasizes the crucial role of TEs in the functionality of MDSCs during COVID-19.

The Potential Harmful Effects of Genetically Engineered Microorganisms (GEMs) on the Intestinal Microbiome and Public Health

Gut luminal dysbiosis and pathobiosis result in compositional and biodiversified alterations in the microbial and host co-metabolites. The primary mechanism of bacterial evolution is horizontal gene transfer (HGT), and the acquisition of new traits can be achieved through the exchange of mobile genetic elements (MGEs). Introducing genetically engineered microbes (GEMs) might break the harmonized balance in the intestinal compartment. The present objectives are: 1. To reveal the role played by the GEMs' horizontal gene transfers in changing the landscape of the enteric microbiome eubiosis 2. To expand on the potential detrimental effects of those changes on the human genome and health. A search of articles published in PubMed/MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Scielo from 2000 to August 2023 using appropriate MeSH entry terms was performed. The GEMs' horizontal gene exchanges might induce multiple human diseases. The new GEMs can change the long-term natural evolution of the enteric pro- or eukaryotic cell inhabitants. The worldwide regulatory authority's safety control of GEMs is not enough to protect public health. Viability, biocontainment, and many other aspects are only partially controlled and harmful consequences for public health should be avoided. It is important to remember that prevention is the most cost-effective strategy and primum non nocere should be the focus.

Transposable elements acquire time- and sex-specific transcriptional and epigenetic signatures along mouse fetal gonad development

Gonadal sex determination in mice is a complex and dynamic process, which is crucial for the development of functional reproductive organs. The expression of genes involved in this process is regulated by a variety of genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. Recently, there has been increasing evidence that transposable elements (TEs), which are a class of mobile genetic elements, play a significant role in regulating gene expression during embryogenesis and organ development. In this study, we aimed to investigate the involvement of TEs in the regulation of gene expression during mouse embryonic gonadal development. Through bioinformatics analysis, we aimed to identify and characterize specific TEs that operate as regulatory elements for sex-specific genes, as well as their potential mechanisms of regulation. We identified TE loci expressed in a time- and sex-specific manner along fetal gonad development that correlate positively and negatively with nearby gene expression, suggesting that their expression is integrated to the gonadal regulatory network. Moreover, chromatin accessibility and histone post-transcriptional modification analyses in differentiating supporting cells revealed that TEs are acquiring a sex-specific signature for promoter-, enhancer-, and silencer-like elements, with some of them being proximal to critical sex-determining genes. Altogether, our study introduces TEs as the new potential players in the gene regulatory network that controls gonadal development in mammals.

Cell-Specific Transposable Element Gene Expression Analysis Identifies Associations with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Phenotypes

There is an established yet unexplained link between interferon (IFN) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). The expression of sequences derived from transposable elements (TEs) may contribute to production of type I IFNs and generation of autoantibodies. We profiled cell-sorted RNA-seq data (CD4+ T cells, CD14+ monocytes, CD19+ B cells, and NK cells) from PBMCs of 120 SLE patients and quantified TE expression identifying 27,135 TEs. We tested for differential TE expression across 10 SLE phenotypes including autoantibody production and disease activity and discovered 731 differentially expressed (DE) TEs whose effects were mostly cell-specific and phenotype-specific. DE TEs were enriched for specific families and viral genes encoded in TE sequences. Increased expression of DE TEs was associated with genes involved in antiviral activity such as LY6E, ISG15, TRIM22 and pathways such as interferon signaling. These findings suggest that expression of TEs contributes to activation of SLE-related mechanisms in a cell-specific manner, which can impact disease diagnostics and therapeutics.

Single-cell transcriptomics of human traumatic brain injury reveals activation of endogenous retroviruses in oligodendroglia

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of chronic brain impairment and results in a robust, but poorly understood, neuroinflammatory response that contributes to the long-term pathology. We used single-nuclei RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) to study transcriptomic changes in different cell populations in human brain tissue obtained acutely after severe, life-threatening TBI. This revealed a unique transcriptional response in oligodendrocyte precursors and mature oligodendrocytes, including the activation of a robust innate immune response, indicating an important role for oligodendroglia in the initiation of neuroinflammation. The activation of an innate immune response correlated with transcriptional upregulation of endogenous retroviruses in oligodendroglia. This observation was causally linked in vitro using human glial progenitors, implicating these ancient viral sequences in human neuroinflammation. In summary, this work provides insight into the initiating events of the neuroinflammatory response in TBI, which has therapeutic implications.

LINE-1 retrotransposons drive human neuronal transcriptome complexity and functional diversification

The genetic mechanisms underlying the expansion in size and complexity of the human brain remain poorly understood. Long interspersed nuclear element-1 (L1) retrotransposons are a source of divergent genetic information in hominoid genomes, but their importance in physiological functions and their contribution to human brain evolution are largely unknown. Using multiomics profiling, we here demonstrate that L1 promoters are dynamically active in the developing and the adult human brain. L1s generate hundreds of developmentally regulated and cell type-specific transcripts, many that are co-opted as chimeric transcripts or regulatory RNAs. One L1-derived long noncoding RNA, LINC01876, is a human-specific transcript expressed exclusively during brain development. CRISPR interference silencing of LINC01876 results in reduced size of cerebral organoids and premature differentiation of neural progenitors, implicating L1s in human-specific developmental processes. In summary, our results demonstrate that L1-derived transcripts provide a previously undescribed layer of primate- and human-specific transcriptome complexity that contributes to the functional diversification of the human brain.

Cellular senescence and neurodegeneration

Advancing age is a major risk factor of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The worldwide prevalence of AD is approximately 50 million people, and this number is projected to increase substantially. The molecular mechanisms underlying the aging-associated susceptibility to cognitive impairment in AD are largely unknown. As a hallmark of aging, cellular senescence is a significant contributor to aging and age-related diseases including AD. Senescent neurons and glial cells have been detected to accumulate in the brains of AD patients and mouse models. Importantly, selective elimination of senescent cells ameliorates amyloid beta and tau pathologies and improves cognition in AD mouse models, indicating a critical role of cellular senescence in AD pathogenesis. Nonetheless, the mechanisms underlying when and how cellular senescence contributes to AD pathogenesis remain unclear. This review provides an overview of cellular senescence and discusses recent advances in the understanding of the impact of cellular senescence on AD pathogenesis, with brief discussions of the possible role of cellular senescence in other neurodegenerative diseases including Down syndrome, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Transposable Elements: Epigenetic Silencing Mechanisms or Modulating Tools for Vertebrate Adaptations? Two Sides of the Same Coin

Transposable elements constitute one of the main components of eukaryotic genomes. In vertebrates, they differ in content, typology, and family diversity and played a crucial role in the evolution of this taxon. However, due to their transposition ability, TEs can be responsible for genome instability, and thus silencing mechanisms were evolved to allow the coexistence between TEs and eukaryotic host-coding genes. Several papers are highlighting in TEs the presence of regulatory elements involved in regulating nearby genes in a tissue-specific fashion. This suggests that TEs are not sequences merely to silence; rather, they can be domesticated for the regulation of host-coding gene expression, permitting species adaptation and resilience as well as ensuring human health. This review presents the main silencing mechanisms acting in vertebrates and the importance of exploiting these mechanisms for TE control to rewire gene expression networks, challenging the general view of TEs as threatening elements.

TDP-43 pathology in Drosophila induces glial-cell type specific toxicity that can be ameliorated by knock-down of SF2/SRSF1

Accumulation of cytoplasmic inclusions of TAR-DNA binding protein 43 (TDP-43) is seen in both neurons and glia in a range of neurodegenerative disorders, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Disease progression involves non-cell autonomous interactions among multiple cell types, including neurons, microglia and astrocytes. We investigated the effects in Drosophila of inducible, glial cell type-specific TDP-43 overexpression, a model that causes TDP-43 protein pathology including loss of nuclear TDP-43 and accumulation of cytoplasmic inclusions. We report that TDP-43 pathology in Drosophila is sufficient to cause progressive loss of each of the 5 glial sub-types. But the effects on organismal survival were most pronounced when TDP-43 pathology was induced in the perineural glia (PNG) or astrocytes. In the case of PNG, this effect is not attributable to loss of the glial population, because ablation of these glia by expression of pro-apoptotic reaper expression has relatively little impact on survival. To uncover underlying mechanisms, we used cell-type-specific nuclear RNA sequencing to characterize the transcriptional changes induced by pathological TDP-43 expression. We identified numerous glial cell-type specific transcriptional changes. Notably, SF2/SRSF1 levels were found to be decreased in both PNG and in astrocytes. We found that further knockdown of SF2/SRSF1 in either PNG or astrocytes lessens the detrimental effects of TDP-43 pathology on lifespan, but extends survival of the glial cells. Thus TDP-43 pathology in astrocytes or PNG causes systemic effects that shorten lifespan and SF2/SRSF1 knockdown rescues the loss of these glia, and also reduces their systemic toxicity to the organism.

Immortalization Reversibility in the Context of Cell Therapy Biosafety

Immortalization (genetically induced prevention of replicative senescence) is a promising approach to obtain cellular material for cell therapy or for bio-artificial organs aimed at overcoming the problem of donor material shortage. Immortalization is reversed before cells are used in vivo to allow cell differentiation into the mature phenotype and avoid tumorigenic effects of unlimited cell proliferation. However, there is no certainty that the process of de-immortalization is 100% effective and that it does not cause unwanted changes in the cell. In this review, we discuss various approaches to reversible immortalization, emphasizing their advantages and disadvantages in terms of biosafety. We describe the most promising approaches in improving the biosafety of reversibly immortalized cells: CRISPR/Cas9-mediated immortogene insertion, tamoxifen-mediated self-recombination, tools for selection of successfully immortalized cells, using a decellularized extracellular matrix, and ensuring post-transplant safety with the use of suicide genes. The last process may be used as an add-on for previously existing reversible immortalized cell lines.

The role of transposable elements in aging and cancer

Transposable elements (TEs) constitute a large portion of the human genome. Various mechanisms at the transcription and post-transcription levels developed to suppress TE activity in healthy conditions. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that TE dysregulation is involved in various human diseases, including age-related diseases and cancer. In this review, we explained how sensing TEs by the immune system could induce innate immune responses, chronic inflammation, and following age-related diseases. We also noted that inflammageing and exogenous carcinogens could trigger the upregulation of TEs in precancerous cells. Increased inflammation could enhance epigenetic plasticity and upregulation of early developmental TEs, which rewires the transcriptional networks and gift the survival advantage to the precancerous cells. In addition, upregulated TEs could induce genome instability, activation of oncogenes, or inhibition of tumor suppressors and consequent cancer initiation and progression. So, we suggest that TEs could be considered therapeutic targets in aging and cancer.

Whole-genome identification of transposable elements reveals the equine repetitive element insertion polymorphism in Chinese horses

Transposable elements (TEs) are diverse, abundant, and complicated in genomes. They not only can drive the genome evolution process but can also act as special resources for adaptation. However, little is known about the evolutionary processes that shaped horses. In this work, 126 horse assemblages involved in most horse breeds in China were used to investigate the patterns of TE variation for the first time. By using RepeatMasker and melt software, we found that the horse-specific short interspersed repetitive elements family, equine repetitive elements (ERE1), exhibited polymorphisms in horse genomes. Phylogenetic analysis based on these ERE1 loci (minor allele frequency ≥0.05) revealed three major horse groups, namely, those in northern China, southern China, and Qinghai-Tibetan, which mirrors the result determined by SNPs to some extent. The present ERE1 family emerged ~0.26 to 1.77 Mya ago, with an activity peak at ~0.49 Mya, which matches the early stage of the horse lineage and decreases after the divergence of Equus caballus and Equus ferus przewalskii. To detect the functional ERE1(s) associated with adaptation, locus-specific branch length, genome-wide association study, and absolute allele frequency difference analyses were conducted and resulted in two common protein-coding genes annotated by candidate ERE1s. They were clustered into the vascular smooth muscle contraction (p = 0.01, EDNRA) and apelin signalling pathways (p = 0.02, NRF1). Notably, ERE1 insertion into the EDNRA gene showed a higher association with adaptation among southern China horses and other horses in 15 populations and 451 individuals (p = 4.55 e-8). Our results provide a comprehensive understanding of TE variations to analyse the phylogenetic relationships and traits relevant to adaptive evolution in horses.

Endogenous retroviruses and TDP-43 proteinopathy form a sustaining feedback driving intercellular spread of Drosophila neurodegeneration

Inter-cellular movement of "prion-like" proteins is thought to explain propagation of neurodegeneration between cells. For example, propagation of abnormally phosphorylated cytoplasmic inclusions of TAR-DNA-Binding protein (TDP-43) is proposed to underlie progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). But unlike transmissible prion diseases, ALS and FTD are not infectious and injection of aggregated TDP-43 is not sufficient to cause disease. This suggests a missing component of a positive feedback necessary to sustain disease progression. We demonstrate that endogenous retrovirus (ERV) expression and TDP-43 proteinopathy are mutually reinforcing. Expression of either Drosophila mdg4-ERV (gypsy) or the human ERV, HERV-K (HML-2) are each sufficient to stimulate cytoplasmic aggregation of human TDP-43. Viral ERV transmission also triggers TDP-43 pathology in recipient cells that express physiological levels of TDP-43, whether they are in contact or at a distance. This mechanism potentially underlies the TDP-43 proteinopathy-caused neurodegenerative propagation through neuronal tissue.

Amniotes co-opt intrinsic genetic instability to protect germ-line genome integrity

Unlike PIWI-interacting RNA (piRNA) in other species that mostly target transposable elements (TEs), >80% of piRNAs in adult mammalian testes lack obvious targets. However, mammalian piRNA sequences and piRNA-producing loci evolve more rapidly than the rest of the genome for unknown reasons. Here, through comparative studies of chickens, ducks, mice, and humans, as well as long-read nanopore sequencing on diverse chicken breeds, we find that piRNA loci across amniotes experience: (1) a high local mutation rate of structural variations (SVs, mutations ≥ 50 bp in size); (2) positive selection to suppress young and actively mobilizing TEs commencing at the pachytene stage of meiosis during germ cell development; and (3) negative selection to purge deleterious SV hotspots. Our results indicate that genetic instability at pachytene piRNA loci, while producing certain pathogenic SVs, also protects genome integrity against TE mobilization by driving the formation of rapid-evolving piRNA sequences.

Transposable Elements Co-Option in Genome Evolution and Gene Regulation

The genome is no longer deemed as a fixed and inert item but rather as a moldable matter that is continuously evolving and adapting. Within this frame, Transposable Elements (TEs), ubiquitous, mobile, repetitive elements, are considered an alive portion of the genomes to date, whose functions, although long considered "dark", are now coming to light. Here we will review that, besides the detrimental effects that TE mobilization can induce, TEs have shaped genomes in their current form, promoting genome sizing, genomic rearrangements and shuffling of DNA sequences. Although TEs are mostly represented in the genomes by evolutionarily old, short, degenerated, and sedentary fossils, they have been thoroughly co-opted by the hosts as a prolific and original source of regulatory instruments for the control of gene transcription and genome organization in the nuclear space. For these reasons, the deregulation of TE expression and/or activity is implicated in the onset and progression of several diseases. It is likely that we have just revealed the outermost layers of TE functions. Further studies on this portion of the genome are required to unlock novel regulatory functions that could also be exploited for diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

WiFi Related Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields Promote Transposable Element Dysregulation and Genomic Instability in Drosophila melanogaster

Exposure to artificial radio frequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) has greatly increased in recent years, thus promoting a growing scientific and social interest in deepening the biological impact of EMFs on living organisms. The current legislation governing the exposure to RF-EMFs is based exclusively on their thermal effects, without considering the possible non-thermal adverse health effects from long term exposure to EMFs. In this study we investigated the biological non-thermal effects of low-level indoor exposure to RF-EMFs produced by WiFi wireless technologies, using Drosophila melanogaster as the model system. Flies were exposed to 2.4 GHz radiofrequency in a Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) cell device to ensure homogenous controlled fields. Signals were continuously monitored during the experiments and regulated at non thermal levels. The results of this study demonstrate that WiFi electromagnetic radiation causes extensive heterochromatin decondensation and thus a general loss of transposable elements epigenetic silencing in both germinal and neural tissues. Moreover, our findings provide evidence that WiFi related radiofrequency electromagnetic fields can induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, genomic instability, and behavioural abnormalities. Finally, we demonstrate that WiFi radiation can synergize with Ras^V12 to drive tumor progression and invasion. All together, these data indicate that radiofrequency radiation emitted from WiFi devices could exert genotoxic effects in Drosophila and set the stage to further explore the biological effects of WiFi electromagnetic radiation on living organisms.

LINE-1 activation in the cerebellum drives ataxia

Dysregulation of long interspersed nuclear element 1 (LINE-1, L1), a dominant class of transposable elements in the human genome, has been linked to neurodegenerative diseases, but whether elevated L1 expression is sufficient to cause neurodegeneration has not been directly tested. Here, we show that the cerebellar expression of L1 is significantly elevated in ataxia telangiectasia patients and strongly anti-correlated with the expression of epigenetic silencers. To examine the role of L1 in the disease etiology, we developed an approach for direct targeting of the L1 promoter for overexpression in mice. We demonstrated that L1 activation in the cerebellum led to Purkinje cell dysfunctions and degeneration and was sufficient to cause ataxia. Treatment with a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor blunted ataxia progression by reducing DNA damage, attenuating gliosis, and reversing deficits of molecular regulators for calcium homeostasis in Purkinje cells. Our study provides the first direct evidence that L1 activation can drive neurodegeneration.

Krüppel-like factor 5 rewires NANOG regulatory network to activate human naive pluripotency specific LTR7Ys and promote naive pluripotency

Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) have been reported to participate in pre-implantation development of mammalian embryos. In early human embryogenesis, different ERV sub-families are activated in a highly stage-specific manner. How the specificity of ERV activation is achieved remains largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate the mechanism of how LTR7Ys, the human morula-blastocyst-specific HERVH long terminal repeats, are activated by the naive pluripotency transcription network. We find that KLF5 interacts with and rewires NANOG to bind and regulate LTR7Ys; in contrast, the primed-specific LTR7s are preferentially bound by NANOG in the absence of KLF5. The specific activation of LTR7Ys by KLF5 and NANOG in pluripotent stem cells contributes to human-specific naive pluripotency regulation. KLF5-LTR7Y axis also promotes the expression of trophectoderm genes and contributes to the expanded cell potential toward extra-embryonic lineage. Our study suggests that HERVs are activated by cell-state-specific transcription machinery and promote stage-specific transcription network and cell potency.

Comprehensive In Silico Analysis of Retrotransposon Insertions within the Survival Motor Neuron Genes Involved in Spinal Muscular Atrophy

Transposable elements (TEs) are interspersed repetitive and mobile DNA sequences within the genome. Better tools for evaluating TE-derived sequences have provided insights into the contribution of TEs to human development and disease. Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive motor neuron disease that is caused by deletions or mutations in the Survival Motor Neuron 1 (SMN1) gene but retention of its nearly perfect orthologue SMN2. Both genes are highly enriched in TEs. To establish a link between TEs and SMA, we conducted a comprehensive, in silico analysis of TE insertions within the SMN1/2 loci of SMA, carrier and healthy genomes. We found an Alu insertion in the promoter region and one L1 element in the 3'UTR that may play an important role in alternative promoter as well as in alternative transcriptional termination. Additionally, several intronic Alu repeats may influence alternative splicing via RNA circularization and causes the presence of new alternative exons. These Alu repeats present throughout the genes are also prone to recombination events that could lead to SMN1 exons deletions and, ultimately, SMA. TE characterization of the SMA genomic region could provide for a better understanding of the implications of TEs on human disease and genomic evolution.

A retrotransposon storm marks clinical phenoconversion to late-onset Alzheimer's disease

Recent reports have suggested that the reactivation of otherwise transcriptionally silent transposable elements (TEs) might induce brain degeneration, either by dysregulating the expression of genes and pathways implicated in cognitive decline and dementia or through the induction of immune-mediated neuroinflammation resulting in the elimination of neural and glial cells. In the work we present here, we test the hypothesis that differentially expressed TEs in blood could be used as biomarkers of cognitive decline and development of AD. To this aim, we used a sample of aging subjects (age > 70) that developed late-onset Alzheimer’s disease (LOAD) over a relatively short period of time (12–48 months), for which blood was available before and after their phenoconversion, and a group of cognitive stable subjects as controls. We applied our developed and validated customized pipeline that allows the identification, characterization, and quantification of the differentially expressed (DE) TEs before and after the onset of manifest LOAD, through analyses of RNA-Seq data. We compared the level of DE TEs within more than 600,000 TE-mapping RNA transcripts from 25 individuals, whose specimens we obtained before and after their phenotypic conversion (phenoconversion) to LOAD, and discovered that 1790 TE transcripts showed significant expression differences between these two timepoints (logFC ± 1.5, logCMP > 5.3, nominal p value < 0.01). These DE transcripts mapped both over- and under-expressed TE elements. Occurring before the clinical phenoconversion, this TE storm features significant increases in DE transcripts of LINEs, LTRs, and SVAs, while those for SINEs are significantly depleted. These dysregulations end with signs of manifest LOAD. This set of highly DE transcripts generates a TE transcriptional profile that accurately discriminates the before and after phenoconversion states of these subjects. Our findings suggest that a storm of DE TEs occurs before phenoconversion from normal cognition to manifest LOAD in risk individuals compared to controls, and may provide useful blood-based biomarkers for heralding such a clinical transition, also suggesting that TEs can indeed participate in the complex process of neurodegeneration.

Neuroprotective Effects of PARP Inhibitors in Drosophila Models of Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an irreversible age-related neurodegenerative disorder clinically characterized by severe memory impairment, language deficits and cognitive decline. The major neuropathological hallmarks of AD include extracellular deposits of the β-amyloid (Aβ) peptides and cytoplasmic neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) of hyperphosphorylated tau protein. The accumulation of plaques and tangles in the brain triggers a cascade of molecular events that culminate in neuronal damage and cell death. Despite extensive research, our understanding of the molecular basis of AD pathogenesis remains incomplete and a cure for this devastating disease is still not available. A growing body of evidence in different experimental models suggests that poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) overactivation might be a crucial component of the molecular network of interactions responsible for AD pathogenesis. In this work, we combined genetic, molecular and biochemical approaches to investigate the effects of two different PARP-1 inhibitors (olaparib and MC2050) in Drosophila models of Alzheimer’s disease by exploring their neuroprotective and therapeutic potential in vivo. We found that both pharmacological inhibition and genetic inactivation of PARP-1 significantly extend lifespan and improve the climbing ability of transgenic AD flies. Consistently, PARP-1 inhibitors lead to a significant decrease of Aβ42 aggregates and partially rescue the epigenetic alterations associated with AD in the brain. Interestingly, olaparib and MC2050 also suppress the AD-associated aberrant activation of transposable elements in neuronal tissues of AD flies.

Single-Cell Analysis Reveals Unexpected Cellular Changes and Transposon Expression Signatures in the Colonic Epithelium of Treatment-Naïve Adult Crohn's Disease Patients

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The intestinal barrier comprises a monolayer of specialized intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) that are critical in maintaining mucosal homeostasis. Dysfunction within various IEC fractions can alter intestinal permeability in a genetically susceptible host, resulting in a chronic and debilitating condition known as Crohn's disease (CD). Defining the molecular changes in each IEC type in CD will contribute to an improved understanding of the pathogenic processes and the identification of cell type-specific therapeutic targets. We performed, at single-cell resolution, a direct comparison of the colonic epithelial cellular and molecular landscape between treatment-naïve adult CD and non-inflammatory bowel disease control patients.

METHODS

Colonic epithelial-enriched, single-cell sequencing from treatment-naïve adult CD and non-inflammatory bowel disease patients was investigated to identify disease-induced differences in IEC types.

RESULTS

Our analysis showed that in CD patients there is a significant skew in the colonic epithelial cellular distribution away from canonical LGR5+ stem cells, located at the crypt bottom, and toward one specific subtype of mature colonocytes, located at the crypt top. Further analysis showed unique changes to gene expression programs in every major cell type, including a previously undescribed suppression in CD of most enteroendocrine driver genes as well as L-cell markers including GCG. We also dissect an incompletely understood SPIB+ cell cluster, revealing at least 4 subclusters that likely represent different stages of a maturational trajectory. One of these SPIB+ subclusters expresses crypt-top colonocyte markers and is up-regulated significantly in CD, whereas another subcluster strongly expresses and stains positive for lysozyme (albeit no other canonical Paneth cell marker), which surprisingly is greatly reduced in expression in CD. In addition, we also discovered transposable element markers of colonic epithelial cell types as well as transposable element families that are altered significantly in CD in a cell type-specific manner. Finally, through integration with data from genome-wide association studies, we show that genes implicated in CD risk show heretofore unknown cell type-specific patterns of aberrant expression in CD, providing unprecedented insight into the potential biological functions of these genes.

CONCLUSIONS

Single-cell analysis shows a number of unexpected cellular and molecular features, including transposable element expression signatures, in the colonic epithelium of treatment-naïve adult CD.

Somatic piRNAs and Transposons are Differentially Expressed Coincident with Skeletal Muscle Atrophy and Programmed Cell Death

PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are small single-stranded RNAs that can repress transposon expression via epigenetic silencing and transcript degradation. They have been identified predominantly in the ovary and testis, where they serve essential roles in transposon silencing in order to protect the integrity of the genome in the germline. The potential expression of piRNAs in somatic cells has been controversial. In the present study we demonstrate the expression of piRNAs derived from both genic and transposon RNAs in the intersegmental muscles (ISMs) from the tobacco hawkmoth Manduca sexta. These piRNAs are abundantly expressed, ∼27 nt long, map antisense to transposons, are oxidation resistant, exhibit a 5’ uridine bias, and amplify via the canonical ping-pong pathway. An RNA-seq analysis demonstrated that 19 piRNA pathway genes are expressed in the ISMs and are developmentally regulated. The abundance of piRNAs does not change when the muscles initiate developmentally-regulated atrophy, but are repressed coincident with the commitment of the muscles undergo programmed cell death at the end of metamorphosis. This change in piRNA expression is correlated with the repression of several retrotransposons and the induction of specific DNA transposons. The developmentally-regulated changes in the expression of piRNAs, piRNA pathway genes, and transposons are all regulated by 20-hydroxyecdysone, the steroid hormone that controls the timing of ISM death. Taken together, these data provide compelling evidence for the existence of piRNA in somatic tissues and suggest that they may play roles in developmental processes such as programmed cell death.

The Dynamism of Transposon Methylation for Plant Development and Stress Adaptation

Plant development processes are regulated by epigenetic alterations that shape nuclear structure, gene expression, and phenotypic plasticity; these alterations can provide the plant with protection from environmental stresses. During plant growth and development, these processes play a significant role in regulating gene expression to remodel chromatin structure. These epigenetic alterations are mainly regulated by transposable elements (TEs) whose abundance in plant genomes results in their interaction with genomes. Thus, TEs are the main source of epigenetic changes and form a substantial part of the plant genome. Furthermore, TEs can be activated under stress conditions, and activated elements cause mutagenic effects and substantial genetic variability. This introduces novel gene functions and structural variation in the insertion sites and primarily contributes to epigenetic modifications. Altogether, these modifications indirectly or directly provide the ability to withstand environmental stresses. In recent years, many studies have shown that TE methylation plays a major role in the evolution of the plant genome through epigenetic process that regulate gene imprinting, thereby upholding genome stability. The induced genetic rearrangements and insertions of mobile genetic elements in regions of active euchromatin contribute to genome alteration, leading to genomic stress. These TE-mediated epigenetic modifications lead to phenotypic diversity, genetic variation, and environmental stress tolerance. Thus, TE methylation is essential for plant evolution and stress adaptation, and TEs hold a relevant military position in the plant genome. High-throughput techniques have greatly advanced the understanding of TE-mediated gene expression and its associations with genome methylation and suggest that controlled mobilization of TEs could be used for crop breeding. However, development application in this area has been limited, and an integrated view of TE function and subsequent processes is lacking. In this review, we explore the enormous diversity and likely functions of the TE repertoire in adaptive evolution and discuss some recent examples of how TEs impact gene expression in plant development and stress adaptation.

Genomic approaches to trace the history of human brain evolution with an emerging opportunity for transposon profiling of ancient humans

Transposable elements (TEs) significantly contribute to shaping the diversity of the human genome, and lines of evidence suggest TEs as one of driving forces of human brain evolution. Existing computational approaches, including cross-species comparative genomics and population genetic modeling, can be adapted for the study of the role of TEs in evolution. In particular, diverse ancient and archaic human genome sequences are increasingly available, allowing reconstruction of past human migration events and holding the promise of identifying and tracking TEs among other evolutionarily important genetic variants at an unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution. However, highly degraded short DNA templates and other unique challenges presented by ancient human DNA call for major changes in current experimental and computational procedures to enable the identification of evolutionarily important TEs. Ancient human genomes are valuable resources for investigating TEs in the evolutionary context, and efforts to explore ancient human genomes will potentially provide a novel perspective on the genetic mechanism of human brain evolution and inspire a variety of technological and methodological advances. In this review, we summarize computational and experimental approaches that can be adapted to identify and validate evolutionarily important TEs, especially for human brain evolution. We also highlight strategies that leverage ancient genomic data and discuss unique challenges in ancient transposon genomics.

Primate-specific retrotransposons and the evolution of circadian networks in the human brain

The circadian rhythm of the human brain is attuned to sleep-wake cycles that entail global alterations in neuronal excitability. This periodicity involves a highly coordinated regulation of gene expression. A growing number of studies are documenting a fascinating connection between primate-specific retrotransposons (Alu elements) and key epigenetic regulatory processes in the primate brain. Collectively, these studies indicate that Alu elements embedded in the human neuronal genome mediate post-transcriptional processes that unite human-specific neuroepigenetic landscapes and circadian rhythm. Here, we review evidence linking Alu retrotransposon-mediated posttranscriptional pathways to circadian gene expression. We hypothesize that Alu retrotransposons participate in the organization of circadian brain function through multidimensional neuroepigenetic pathways. We anticipate that these pathways are closely tied to the evolution of human cognition and their perturbation contributes to the manifestation of human-specific neurological diseases. Finally, we address current challenges and accompanying opportunities in studying primate- and human-specific transposable elements.

Transposable elements and their KZFP controllers are drivers of transcriptional innovation in the developing human brain

Transposable elements (TEs) account for more than 50% of the human genome and many have been co-opted throughout evolution to provide regulatory functions for gene expression networks. Several lines of evidence suggest that these networks are fine-tuned by the largest family of TE controllers, the KRAB-containing zinc finger proteins (KZFPs). One tissue permissive for TE transcriptional activation (termed "transposcription") is the adult human brain, however comprehensive studies on the extent of this process and its potential contribution to human brain development are lacking. To elucidate the spatiotemporal transposcriptome of the developing human brain, we have analyzed two independent RNA-seq data sets encompassing 16 brain regions from eight weeks postconception into adulthood. We reveal a distinct KZFP:TE transcriptional profile defining the late prenatal to early postnatal transition, and the spatiotemporal and cell type-specific activation of TE-derived alternative promoters driving the expression of neurogenesis-associated genes. Long-read sequencing confirmed these TE-driven isoforms as significant contributors to neurogenic transcripts. We also show experimentally that a co-opted antisense L2 element drives temporal protein relocalization away from the endoplasmic reticulum, suggestive of novel TE dependent protein function in primate evolution. This work highlights the widespread dynamic nature of the spatiotemporal KZFP:TE transcriptome and its importance throughout TE mediated genome innovation and neurotypical human brain development. To facilitate interactive exploration of these spatiotemporal gene and TE expression dynamics, we provide the "Brain TExplorer" web application freely accessible for the community.

Non-codon Optimized PiggyBac Transposase Induces Developmental Brain Aberrations: A Call for in vivo Analysis

In this perspective article, we briefly review tools for stable gain-of-function expression to explore key fate determinants in embryonic brain development. As the piggyBac transposon system has the highest insert size, a seamless integration of the transposed sequence into the host genome, and can be delivered by transfection avoiding viral vectors causing an immune response, we explored its use in the murine developing forebrain. The original piggyBac transposase PBase or the mouse codon-optimized version mPB and the construct to insert, contained in the piggyBac transposon, were introduced by in utero electroporation at embryonic day 13 into radial glia, the neural stem cells, in the developing dorsal telencephalon, and analyzed 3 or 5 days later. When using PBase, we observed an increase in basal progenitor cells, often accompanied by folding aberrations. These effects were considerably ameliorated when using the piggyBac plasmid together with mPB. While size and strength of the electroporated region was not correlated to the aberrations, integration was essential and the positive correlation to the insert size implicates the frequency of transposition as a possible mechanism. We discuss this in light of the increase in transposing endogenous viral vectors during mammalian phylogeny and their role in neurogenesis and radial glial cells. Most importantly, we aim to alert the users of this system to the phenotypes caused by non-codon optimized PBase application in vivo.

PiWi RNA in Neurodevelopment and Neurodegenerative disorders

Shedding light on the mysterious dark matter of the genome gears up the knowledge of modern biology. Beyond the genome, epigenome layers an untraveled path of fundamental biological and functional roles of gene regulation. Extraordinary character- P element wimpy testis-induced (PiWi)-interacting RNA (piRNA) is a type of small non-coding RNA that serves as a defender that imposes genomic and cellular defense by silencing nucleic and structural invaders. PIWI proteins and piRNAs appear in both reproductive and somatic cells, though germ line richness is partially unraveled more as it was originally discovered. The foremost function is to suppress invasive DNA sequences, which move within genomic DNA referred to as transposon elements (TEs) and downstream target genes via Transcriptional gene silencing (TGS) and Post-translational gene silencing (PTGS). Germline piRNAs maintain genomic integrity, stability, sternness, and impact imprinting expression. Somatic tissue-specific piRNAs have been surprised by their novel roles. piRNA regulates neurodevelopmental processes in metazoans, including humans. Neural heterogeneity, neurogenesis, neural plasticity, and transgenerational inheritance of adaptive and long-term memory are governed by the PIWI pathway. Neuro-developmental, neurodegenerative or psychiatric illness are the outcome of dysregulated piRNA. Aberrant piRNA signature causes inappropriate switching on or off genes by activation of TEs, incorrect epigenetic tags on DNA, and or histones. Defective piRNA regulation leads to abnormal brain development and neurodegenerative etiology, promoting life-threatening disorders. Exemplification of exciting roles of piRNA is in infancy, so future investigation may expand on these observations using innovative techniques and launch them as impending biomarkers for diagnostics and therapeutics. In this current review, we have summarized the possible gene molecular role of piRNAs regulating neurobiology and contributing as uncharted biomarkers and therapeutic targets for life-threatening diseases.

New Perspectives on the Evolution of Within-Individual Genome Variation and Germline/Soma Distinction

Genomes can vary significantly even within the same individual. The underlying mechanisms are manifold, ranging from somatic mutation and recombination, development-associated ploidy changes and genetic bottlenecks, over to programmed DNA elimination during germline/soma differentiation. In this perspective piece, we briefly review recent developments in the study of within-individual genome variation in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. We highlight a Society for Molecular Biology and Evolution 2020 virtual symposium entitled "Within-individual genome variation and germline/soma distinction" and the present Special Section of the same name in Genome Biology and Evolution, together fostering cross-taxon synergies in the field to identify and tackle key open questions in the understanding of within-individual genome variation.

Losing DNA methylation at repetitive elements and breaking bad

Background

DNA methylation is an epigenetic chromatin mark that allows heterochromatin formation and gene silencing. It has a fundamental role in preserving genome stability (including chromosome stability) by controlling both gene expression and chromatin structure. Therefore, the onset of an incorrect pattern of DNA methylation is potentially dangerous for the cells. This is particularly important with respect to repetitive elements, which constitute the third of the human genome.

Main body

Repetitive sequences are involved in several cell processes, however, due to their intrinsic nature, they can be a source of genome instability. Thus, most repetitive elements are usually methylated to maintain a heterochromatic, repressed state. Notably, there is increasing evidence showing that repetitive elements (satellites, long interspersed nuclear elements (LINEs), Alus) are frequently hypomethylated in various of human pathologies, from cancer to psychiatric disorders. Repetitive sequences’ hypomethylation correlates with chromatin relaxation and unscheduled transcription. If these alterations are directly involved in human diseases aetiology and how, is still under investigation.

Conclusions

Hypomethylation of different families of repetitive sequences is recurrent in many different human diseases, suggesting that the methylation status of these elements can be involved in preservation of human health. This provides a promising point of view towards the research of therapeutic strategies focused on specifically tuning DNA methylation of DNA repeats.

Aging of the Retina: Molecular and Metabolic Turbulences and Potential Interventions

Multifaceted and divergent manifestations across tissues and cell types have curtailed advances in deciphering the cellular events that accompany advanced age and contribute to morbidities and mortalities. Increase in human lifespan during the past century has heightened awareness of the need to prevent age-associated frailty of neuronal and sensory systems to allow a healthy and productive life. In this review, we discuss molecular and physiological attributes of aging of the retina, with a goal of understanding age-related impairment of visual function. We highlight the epigenome-metabolism nexus and proteostasis as key contributors to retinal aging and discuss lifestyle changes as potential modulators of retinal function. Finally, we deliberate promising intervention strategies for promoting healthy aging of the retina for improved vision. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Vision Science, Volume 7 is September 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

HSV-1 and Endogenous Retroviruses as Risk Factors in Demyelination

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a neurotropic alphaherpesvirus that can infect the peripheral and central nervous systems, and it has been implicated in demyelinating and neurodegenerative processes. Transposable elements (TEs) are DNA sequences that can move from one genomic location to another. TEs have been linked to several diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS), including multiple sclerosis (MS), a demyelinating disease of unknown etiology influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Exogenous viral transactivators may activate certain retrotransposons or class I TEs. In this context, several herpesviruses have been linked to MS, and one of them, HSV-1, might act as a risk factor by mediating processes such as molecular mimicry, remyelination, and activity of endogenous retroviruses (ERVs). Several herpesviruses have been involved in the regulation of human ERVs (HERVs), and HSV-1 in particular can modulate HERVs in cells involved in MS pathogenesis. This review exposes current knowledge about the relationship between HSV-1 and human ERVs, focusing on their contribution as a risk factor for MS.

New insights into the functional role of retrotransposon dynamics in mammalian somatic cells

Retrotransposons are genetic elements present across all eukaryotic genomes. While their role in evolution is considered as a potentially beneficial natural source of genetic variation, their activity is classically considered detrimental due to their potentially harmful effects on genome stability. However, studies are increasingly shedding light on the regulatory function and beneficial role of somatic retroelement reactivation in non-pathological contexts. Here, we review recent findings unveiling the regulatory potential of retrotransposons, including their role in noncoding RNA transcription, as modulators of mammalian transcriptional and epigenome landscapes. We also discuss technical challenges in deciphering the multifaceted activity of retrotransposable elements, highlighting an unforeseen central role of this neglected portion of the genome both in early development and in adult life.

The L1-dependant and Pol III transcribed Alu retrotransposon, from its discovery to innate immunity

The 300 bp dimeric repeats digestible by AluI were discovered in 1979. Since then, Alu were involved in the most fundamental epigenetic mechanisms, namely reprogramming, pluripotency, imprinting and mosaicism. These Alu encode a family of retrotransposons transcribed by the RNA Pol III machinery, notably when the cytosines that constitute their sequences are de-methylated. Then, Alu hijack the functions of ORF2 encoded by another transposons named L1 during reverse transcription and integration into new sites. That mechanism functions as a complex genetic parasite able to copy-paste Alu sequences. Doing that, Alu have modified even the size of the human genome, as well as of other primate genomes, during 65 million years of co-evolution. Actually, one germline retro-transposition still occurs each 20 births. Thus, Alu continue to modify our human genome nowadays and were implicated in de novo mutation causing diseases including deletions, duplications and rearrangements. Most recently, retrotransposons were found to trigger neuronal diversity by inducing mosaicism in the brain. Finally, boosted during viral infections, Alu clearly interact with the innate immune system. The purpose of that review is to give a condensed overview of all these major findings that concern the fascinating physiology of Alu from their discovery up to the current knowledge.

Activation of endogenous retroviruses during brain development causes an inflammatory response

Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) make up a large fraction of mammalian genomes and are thought to contribute to human disease, including brain disorders. In the brain, aberrant activation of ERVs is a potential trigger for an inflammatory response, but mechanistic insight into this phenomenon remains lacking. Using CRISPR/Cas9‐based gene disruption of the epigenetic co‐repressor protein Trim28, we found a dynamic H3K9me3‐dependent regulation of ERVs in proliferating neural progenitor cells (NPCs), but not in adult neurons. In vivo deletion of Trim28 in cortical NPCs during mouse brain development resulted in viable offspring expressing high levels of ERVs in excitatory neurons in the adult brain. Neuronal ERV expression was linked to activated microglia and the presence of ERV‐derived proteins in aggregate‐like structures. This study demonstrates that brain development is a critical period for the silencing of ERVs and provides causal in vivo evidence demonstrating that transcriptional activation of ERV in neurons results in an inflammatory response.

De Novo Transcriptome Profiling of Brain Tissue from the Annual Killifish Nothobranchius guentheri

Nothobranchius is a genus of small annual killifish found in Africa. Due to the relatively short lifespan, as well as easy breeding and care, Nothobranchius fish are becoming widely used as a vertebrate model system. Studying the genome and transcriptome of these fish is essential for advancing the field. In this study, we performed de novo transcriptome assembly of brain tissues from Nothobranchius guentheri using Trinity. Annotation of 104,271 potential genes (with transcripts longer than 500 bp) was carried out; for 24,967 genes (53,654 transcripts), in which at least one GO annotation was derived. We also analyzed the effect of a long-term food supplement with Torin 2, second-generation ATP-competitive inhibitor of mTOR, on the gene expression changes in brain tissue of adult N. guentheri. Overall, 1491 genes in females and 249 genes in males were differently expressed under Torin 2-supplemented diet. According to the Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA), the majority of identified genes were predominantly involved in the regulation of metabolic process, dendritic spine maintenance, circadian rhythms, retrotransposition, and immune response. Thus, we have provided the first transcriptome assembly and assessed the differential gene expression in response to exposure to Torin 2, which allow a better understanding of molecular changes in the brain tissues of adult fish in the mTOR pathway inhibition.

TEfinder: A Bioinformatics Pipeline for Detecting New Transposable Element Insertion Events in Next-Generation Sequencing Data

Transposable elements (TEs) are mobile elements capable of introducing genetic changes rapidly. Their importance has been documented in many biological processes, such as introducing genetic instability, altering patterns of gene expression, and accelerating genome evolution. Increasing appreciation of TEs has resulted in a growing number of bioinformatics software to identify insertion events. However, the application of existing tools is limited by either narrow-focused design of the package, too many dependencies on other tools, or prior knowledge required as input files that may not be readily available to all users. Here, we reported a simple pipeline, TEfinder, developed for the detection of new TE insertions with minimal software and input file dependencies. The external software requirements are BEDTools, SAMtools, and Picard. Necessary input files include the reference genome sequence in FASTA format, an alignment file from paired-end reads, existing TEs in GTF format, and a text file of TE names. We tested TEfinder among several evolving populations of Fusarium oxysporum generated through a short-term adaptation study. Our results demonstrate that this easy-to-use tool can effectively detect new TE insertion events, making it accessible and practical for TE analysis.

Host Gene Regulation by Transposable Elements: The New, the Old and the Ugly

The human genome has been under selective pressure to evolve in response to emerging pathogens and other environmental challenges. Genome evolution includes the acquisition of new genes or new isoforms of genes and changes to gene expression patterns. One source of genome innovation is from transposable elements (TEs), which carry their own promoters, enhancers and open reading frames and can act as ‘controlling elements’ for our own genes. TEs include LINE-1 elements, which can retrotranspose intracellularly and endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) that represent remnants of past retroviral germline infections. Although once pathogens, ERVs also represent an enticing source of incoming genetic material that the host can then repurpose. ERVs and other TEs have coevolved with host genes for millions of years, which has allowed them to become embedded within essential gene expression programmes. Intriguingly, these host genes are often subject to the same epigenetic control mechanisms that evolved to combat the TEs that now regulate them. Here, we illustrate the breadth of host gene regulation through TEs by focusing on examples of young (The New), ancient (The Old), and disease-causing (The Ugly) TE integrants.