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Yu J, Yan W, Zhu B, Xu Z, Hu S, Xi W, Lan Y, Han W, Cheng C. Degradation of carbamazepine by high-voltage direct current gas-liquid plasma with the addition of H 2O 2 and Fe 2. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:77771-77787. [PMID: 35687287 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-21250-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Carbamazepine (CBZ) is a typical psychotropic pharmaceutical which is one of the most commonly detected persistent pharmaceuticals in the environment. The degradation of CBZ in the aqueous solution was studied by a direct current (DC) gas-liquid phase discharge plasma combined with different catalysts (H2O2 or Fe2+) in this study. The concentrations of reactive species (H2O2, O3, and NO3-) and •OH radical yield in the liquid were measured during the discharge process. The various parameters that affect the degradation of CBZ, such as discharge powers, initial concentrations, initial pH values, and addition of catalysts, were investigated. The energy efficiency was 25.2 mg·kW-1·h-1 at 35.7 W, and the discharge power at 35.7 W was selected to achieve the optimal balance on the degradation effect and energy efficiency. Both acidic and alkaline solution conditions were conducive to promoting the degradation of CBZ. Both H2O2 and Fe2+ at low concentration (10-100 mg/L of Fe2+, 0.05-2.0 mmol/L of H2O2) were observed contributing to the improvement of the CBZ degradation rate, while the promotional effect of CBZ degradation was weakened even inhibition would occur at high concentrations (100-200 mg/L of Fe2+, 2.0-5.0 mmol/L of H2O2). The degradation rate of CBZ was up to 99.1%, and the total organic carbon (TOC) removal efficiency of CBZ was up to 67.1% in the plasma/Fe2+ (100 mg/L) system at 48 min, which suggested that high degradation rate and mineralization efficiency on CBZ could be achieved by employing Fe2+ as a catalyst. Based on the intermediate products identified by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-MS), the possible degradation pathways were proposed. Finally, the growth inhibition assay with Escherichia coli (E. coli) showed that the toxicity of plasma/Fe2+-treated CBZ solution decreased and a relatively low solution toxicity could be achieved. Thus, the plasma/catalyst could be an effective technology for the degradation of pharmaceuticals in aqueous solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinming Yu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, People's Republic of China
| | - Weiwen Yan
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, People's Republic of China
| | - Bin Zhu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, People's Republic of China
| | - Zimu Xu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuheng Hu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenhao Xi
- Institute of Plasma Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Lan
- Institute of Plasma Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, People's Republic of China
- Institute of Energy, Hefei Comprehensive National Science Center, Hefei, 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Han
- Institute of Health and Medical Technology, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Cheng Cheng
- Institute of Plasma Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, People's Republic of China.
- Institute of Energy, Hefei Comprehensive National Science Center, Hefei, 230031, People's Republic of China.
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2
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Cavanagh R, Shubber S, Vllasaliu D, Stolnik S. Enhanced permeation by amphiphilic surfactant is spatially heterogenous at membrane and cell level. J Control Release 2022; 345:734-743. [PMID: 35367276 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.03.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In the context of increased interest in permeability enhancement technologies to achieve mucosal delivery of drugs and biologics, we report our study on effects of the amphiphilic surfactant at cell membrane and cell population levels. Our results show that modulation in membrane order and fluidity initially occurs on insertion of individual surfactant molecules into the outer leaflet of membrane lipid bilayer; a process occurring at concentrations below surfactant's critical micellar concentration. The surfactant insertion, and consequent increase in membrane fluidity, are observed to be spatially heterogenous, i.e. manifested as 'patches' of increased membrane fluidity. At the cell population level, spatially heterogeneous activity of surfactant is also manifested, with certain cells displaying high permeability amongst a 'background' population. We propose that this heterogeneity is further manifested in a broad profile of intracellular and nuclear exposure levels to a model drug (doxorubicin) observed in cell population. The study points to heterogeneous nature of surfactant effects at cell membrane and cells in population levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Cavanagh
- School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Saif Shubber
- School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Driton Vllasaliu
- School of Cancer & Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK
| | - Snjezana Stolnik
- School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK.
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Droma D, Kumar S, Paul T, Pal P, Saharan N, Kumar K, Poojary N. Biomarkers for assessing chronic toxicity of carbamazepine, an anticonvulsants drug on Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (Sauvage, 1878). ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2021; 87:103691. [PMID: 34153508 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2021.103691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In recent times, carbamazepine (CBZ) as an anticonvulsants drug has raised attention because of its safety concern in the aquatic environment. The present study aimed to evaluate the sub-lethal effects of CBZ (1%, 0.1 % and 0.01 % of 96 h LC50) on P. hypophthalmus for 60 days based on haematological, biochemical, and genotoxicity biomarkers. Chronic exposure of CBZ altered blood profiles (total erythrocyte count, packed cell volume, haemoglobin) and serum biomarkers such as alkaline phosphates, cholesterol, lactate dehydrogenase and transaminase enzymes. Oxidative stress biomarkers such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activity were also substantially affected in all treatments. Genotoxicity study revealed the formation of micronucleus in erythrocytes of exposed fish. Integrated Biomarker Response (IBR) study showed cholesterol, serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) in serum and SOD, CAT in liver tissue are the best organ-based enzyme biomarkers. The present report concludes that an environmentally realistic concentration of CBZ can pose a serious threat to aquatic organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawa Droma
- Aquatic Environment and Health Management Division, ICAR- Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai, 400 061, India
| | - Saurav Kumar
- Aquatic Environment and Health Management Division, ICAR- Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai, 400 061, India.
| | - Tapas Paul
- Aquatic Environment and Health Management Division, ICAR- Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai, 400 061, India
| | - Prasenjit Pal
- College of Fisheries, Central Agricultural University (I), Lembucherra, Tripura, 799210, India
| | - Neelam Saharan
- Aquatic Environment and Health Management Division, ICAR- Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai, 400 061, India
| | - Kundan Kumar
- Aquatic Environment and Health Management Division, ICAR- Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai, 400 061, India
| | - Nalini Poojary
- Aquatic Environment and Health Management Division, ICAR- Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai, 400 061, India
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4
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Navon G, Novak L, Shenkar N. Proteomic changes in the solitary ascidian Herdmania momus following exposure to the anticonvulsant medication carbamazepine. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2021; 237:105886. [PMID: 34134060 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2021.105886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The increasing use of pharmaceuticals in human and veterinary medicine, along with their poor removal rates at wastewater treatment facilities is resulting in the chronic release of pharmaceutically-active compounds (PhACs) into the marine environment, where they pose a threat to non-target organisms. A useful approach, as applied in the current study for assessing the effects of PhACs on non-target organisms, is the proteomic approach: the large-scale study of an organism's proteins. Using 'shotgun' proteomics, we identified differentially-expressed proteins based on peptide fragments in the solitary ascidian, Herdmania momus, following a 14-day laboratory experimental exposure to the PhAC carbamazepine (CBZ), an anticonvulsant and antidepressant medication, frequently detected in the aquatic environment. Individuals were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations: 5 or 10 µg/L of CBZ, in addition to a control treatment. Out of 199 identified proteins, 24 were differentially expressed (12%) between the treatment groups, and thus can potentially be developed as biomarkers for CBZ contamination. Ascidians' phylogenetic position within the closest sister group to vertebrates presents an advantage in examining the pathological effects of PhACs on vertebrate-related organs and systems. Together with the world-wide distribution of some model ascidian species, and their ability to flourish in pristine and polluted sites, they provide a promising tool through which to study the extent and effects of PhAC contamination on marine organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gal Navon
- School of Zoology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel
| | - Lion Novak
- School of Zoology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel; The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History and National Research Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel
| | - Noa Shenkar
- School of Zoology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel; The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History and National Research Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel.
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Xin X, Huang G, Zhang B. Review of aquatic toxicity of pharmaceuticals and personal care products to algae. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 410:124619. [PMID: 33248823 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) have been frequently detected in the environment around the world. Algae play a significant role in aquatic ecosystem, thus the influence on algae may affect the life of higher trophic organisms. This review provides a state-of-the-art overview of current research on the toxicity of PPCPs to algae. Nanoparticles, contained in personal care products, also have been considered as the ingredients of PPCPs. PPCPs could cause unexpected effects on algae and their communities. Chlorophyta and diatoms are more accessible and sensitive to PPCPs. Multiple algal endpoints should be considered to provide a complete evaluation on PPCPs toxicity. The toxicity of organic ingredients in PPCPs could be predicted through quantitative structure-activity relationship model, whereas the toxicity of nanoparticles could be predicted with limitations. Light irradiation can change the toxicity through affecting algae and PPCPs. pH and natural organic matter can affect the toxicity through changing the existence of PPCPs. For joint and tertiary toxicity, experiments could be conducted to reveal the toxic mechanism. For multiple compound mixture toxicity, concentration addition and independent addition models are preferred. However, there has no empirical models to study nanoparticle-contained mixture toxicity. Algae-based remediation is an emerging technology to prevent the release of PPCPs from water treatment plants. Although many individual algal species are identified for removing a few compounds from PPCPs, algal-bacterial photobioreactor is a preferable alternative, with higher chances for industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaying Xin
- Northern Region Persistent Organic Pollution Control (NRPOP) Laboratory, Civil Engineering, Memorial University, NL A1B 3X5, St. John's Canada; Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainable Communities, University of Regina, SK S4S 0A2 Regina, Canada
| | - Gordon Huang
- Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainable Communities, University of Regina, SK S4S 0A2 Regina, Canada.
| | - Baiyu Zhang
- Northern Region Persistent Organic Pollution Control (NRPOP) Laboratory, Civil Engineering, Memorial University, NL A1B 3X5, St. John's Canada.
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Wang D, Du Y, Zhang W, Han X, Zhang H, Wang Z, Liu N, Li M, Gao X, Zhuang X, Gao J, Zheng A. Development and in vivo evaluation of intranasal formulations of parathyroid hormone (1-34). Drug Deliv 2021; 28:487-498. [PMID: 33657948 PMCID: PMC7935113 DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2021.1889718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
For efficient intranasal transport of parathyroid hormone (1-34) [PTH(1-34)], there is a great medical need to investigate permeation enhancers for intranasal formulations. In this study, the development of PTH(1-34) intranasal formulations was conducted. Based on conformation and chemical stability studies, the most preferable aqueous environment was determined to be 0.008 M acetate buffer solution (ABS). Subsequently, citric acid and Kolliphor® HS·15 were compared as permeation enhancers. The mechanisms of action of citric acid and Kolliphor® HS·15 were investigated using an in vitro model of nasal mucosa, and Kolliphor® HS·15 led to higher permeability of fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled PTH(1-34) (FITC-PTH) by enhancing both the transcellular and paracellular routes. Moreover, citric acid showed severe mucosal toxicity resulting in cilia shedding, while Kolliphor® HS·15 did not cause obvious mucosa damage. Finally, Kolliphor® HS·15 was studied as a permeation enhancer using a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. The results showed that 5% and 10% Kolliphor® HS·15 increased the bioavailability of PTH(1-34) to 14.76% and 30.87%, respectively. In conclusion, an effective and biosafe PTH(1-34) intranasal formulation was developed by using 10% Kolliphor® HS·15 as a permeation enhancer. Intranasal formulations with higher concentrations of Kolliphor® HS·15 for higher bioavailability of PTH(1-34) could be further researched.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Yimeng Du
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Wenpeng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Xiaolu Han
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Zengming Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Nan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Meng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Xiang Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Xiaomei Zhuang
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Jing Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Aiping Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, 100850, China
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Mezzelani M, Nardi A, Bernardini I, Milan M, Peruzza L, d'Errico G, Fattorini D, Gorbi S, Patarnello T, Regoli F. Environmental pharmaceuticals and climate change: The case study of carbamazepine in M. galloprovincialis under ocean acidification scenario. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2021; 146:106269. [PMID: 33248345 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 10/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Contaminants of emerging concern and ocean changes are key environmental stressors for marine species with possibly synergistic, but still unexplored, deleterious effects. In the present study the influence of a simulated ocean acidification scenario (pH = 7.6) was investigated on metabolism and sub-lethal effects of carbamazepine, CBZ (1 µg/L), chosen as one of the most widely diffused pharmaceuticals in marine organisms. A multidisciplinary approach was applied on mussels, M. galloprovincialis, integrating measurement of drug bioaccumulation with changes in the whole transcriptome, responsiveness of various biochemical and cellular biomarkers including immunological parameters, lipid and oxidative metabolism, onset of genotoxic effects. Chemical analyses revealed a limited influence of hypercapnia on accumulation and excretion of CBZ, while a complex network of biological responses was observed in gene expression profile and functional changes at cellular level. The modulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) pathway suggested similarities with the Mechanism of Action known for vertebrates: immune responses, cellular homeostasis and oxidative system represented the processes targeted by combined stressors. The overall elaboration of results through a quantitative Weight of Evidence model, revealed clearly increased cellular hazard due to interactions of CBZ with acidification compared to single stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marica Mezzelani
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell'Ambiente, Università Politecnica delle Marche, via Brecce Bianche (60131), Ancona, Italy
| | - Alessandro Nardi
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell'Ambiente, Università Politecnica delle Marche, via Brecce Bianche (60131), Ancona, Italy
| | - Ilaria Bernardini
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina Comparata e Alimentazione, Università di Padova, Viale dell'Università, 16, 35020 Legnaro (PD), Polo di Agripolis, Italy
| | - Massimo Milan
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina Comparata e Alimentazione, Università di Padova, Viale dell'Università, 16, 35020 Legnaro (PD), Polo di Agripolis, Italy
| | - Luca Peruzza
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina Comparata e Alimentazione, Università di Padova, Viale dell'Università, 16, 35020 Legnaro (PD), Polo di Agripolis, Italy
| | - Giuseppe d'Errico
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell'Ambiente, Università Politecnica delle Marche, via Brecce Bianche (60131), Ancona, Italy
| | - Daniele Fattorini
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell'Ambiente, Università Politecnica delle Marche, via Brecce Bianche (60131), Ancona, Italy
| | - Stefania Gorbi
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell'Ambiente, Università Politecnica delle Marche, via Brecce Bianche (60131), Ancona, Italy
| | - Tomaso Patarnello
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina Comparata e Alimentazione, Università di Padova, Viale dell'Università, 16, 35020 Legnaro (PD), Polo di Agripolis, Italy
| | - Francesco Regoli
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell'Ambiente, Università Politecnica delle Marche, via Brecce Bianche (60131), Ancona, Italy.
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Ünal A, Kocahan Ö, Altunan B, Aksoy Gündoğdu A, Uyanık M, Özder S. Quantitative phase imaging of erythrocyte in epilepsy patients. Microsc Res Tech 2020; 84:1172-1180. [PMID: 33340178 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.23676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The present study focuses on the quantitative phase imaging of erythrocytes with the aim to compare the morphological differences between epilepsy patients under antiepileptic treatment, who have no other disease which may affect the erythrocyte morphology, and the healthy control group. The white light diffraction phase microscopy (WDPM) has been used to obtain the interferogram of the erythrocyte surfaces. The continuous wavelet transform with Paul wavelet has been chosen to calculate the surface profiles from this interferogram image. For the determination of alteration in morphology, besides WDPM, erythrocyte surfaces have been investigated by light microscope and scanning electron microscope. In this way, it has been possible to see the difference in terms of precision and implementation between the most commonly used methods with regard to the quantitative phase imaging. Erythrocytes from all the samples have been examined and displayed in both two- and three-dimensional way. We have observed that erythrocytes of patients with effective antiepileptic blood levels were more affected in morphology than healthy subjects. When we compared the erythrocyte morphological changes of patients who received monotherapy or polytherapy, no difference was observed. In conclusion, antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) cause red blood cell (RBC) morphological changes and a combined usage of WDPM with Paul wavelet and light microscopy methods are very convenient for studying the erythrocyte morphologies on multiple patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aysun Ünal
- Department of Neurology, Tekirdağ Namık Kemal University, Tekirdağ, Turkey
| | - Özlem Kocahan
- Department of Physics, Tekirdağ Namık Kemal University, Tekirdağ, Turkey
| | - Bengü Altunan
- Department of Neurology, Tekirdağ Namık Kemal University, Tekirdağ, Turkey
| | | | - Merve Uyanık
- Department of Physics, Tekirdağ Namık Kemal University, Tekirdağ, Turkey
| | - Serhat Özder
- Department of Physics, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale, Turkey
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Vitale D, Picó Y, Spanò N, Torreblanca A, Del Ramo J. Carbamazepine exposure in the sea anemones Anemonia sulcata and Actinia equina: Metabolite identification and physiological responses. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 744:140891. [PMID: 32711318 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals and other emerging contaminants (EC) have been increasingly detected and measured in coastal waters and large effort has been devoted to knowing the effects these substances have in coastal ecosystems. Anthozoa class is underrepresented in ecotoxicology studies despite some of their species being endangered. Anemonia sulcata and Actinia equina are species widely distributed in the Mediterranean Sea. The objectives of this work have been to evaluate the ability of these species to accumulate carbamazepine (CBZ) from water, to determine the effects of this pharmaceutical on some physiological and biochemical endpoints and to characterize the degradation routes followed by this compound in Anthozoa tissues (biotransformation) and water. Sea anemones were exposed to 1 μg L-1 and 100 μg L-1 of CBZ in artificial sea water in a semi-static system for 8 days. At several times small portions of the tentacles and whole organisms were taken. Ion transport (measured as NKATPase activity), energetic metabolism (measured as glucose and lactate levels) and nitrogen excretion (measured as ammonia concentration in tissues) were determined. CBZ-exposed individuals of A. sulcata and A. equina were analyzed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) on a quadrupole-time-of-flight (QqTOF). The structures of nine metabolites have been tentatively identified using HRMS and HRMS/MS data with the aid of the free available Medline database. The current work constitutes the first study on the identification of Cnidarian metabolites of CBZ in species of the Anthozoa class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dyana Vitale
- Food and Environmental Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV), Desertification Research Centre (CIDE, UV-CSIC-GV), University of Valencia, Spain
| | - Yolanda Picó
- Food and Environmental Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV), Desertification Research Centre (CIDE, UV-CSIC-GV), University of Valencia, Spain
| | - Nunziacarla Spanò
- Department of Dental Biomedical Sciences and Morphological and Functional Images, University of Messina, Italy
| | - Amparo Torreblanca
- Departament of Cell Biology, Functional Biology and Physical Anthropology, University of Valencia, Spain.
| | - Jose Del Ramo
- Departament of Cell Biology, Functional Biology and Physical Anthropology, University of Valencia, Spain
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10
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Podsiedlik M, Markowicz-Piasecka M, Sikora J. Erythrocytes as model cells for biocompatibility assessment, cytotoxicity screening of xenobiotics and drug delivery. Chem Biol Interact 2020; 332:109305. [PMID: 33130048 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2020.109305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Erythrocytes (RBCs) represent the main cell component in circulation and recently have become a topic of intensive scientific interest. The relevance of erythrocytes as a model for cytotoxicity screening of xenobiotics is under the spotlight of this review. Erythrocytes constitute a fundamental cellular model to study potential interactions with blood components of manifold novel polymer or biomaterials. Morphological changes, subsequent disruption of RBC membrane integrity, and hemolysis could be used to determine the cytotoxicity of various compounds. Erythrocytes undergo a programmed death (eryptosis) which could serve as a good model for evaluating certain mechanisms which correspond to apoptosis taking place in nucleated cells. Importantly, erythrocytes can be successfully used as a valuable cellular model in examination of oxidative stress generated by certain diseases or multiple xenobiotics since red cells are subjected to permanent oxidative stress. Additionally, the antioxidant capacity of erythrocytes, and the activity of anti-oxidative enzymes could reflect reactive oxygen species (ROS) generating properties of various substances and allow to determine their effects on tissues. The last part of this review presents the latest findings on the possible application of RBCs as drug delivery systems (DDS). In conclusion, all these findings make erythrocytes highly valuable cells for in vitro biocompatibility assessment, cytotoxicity screening of a wide variety of substances as well as drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Podsiedlik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Drug Analysis and Radiopharmacy, Medical University of Lodz, ul. Muszyńskiego1, 90-151, Lodz, Poland.
| | - Magdalena Markowicz-Piasecka
- Laboratory of Bioanalysis, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Drug Analysis and Radiopharmacy, Medical University of Lodz, ul. Muszyńskiego1, 90-151, Lodz, Poland.
| | - Joanna Sikora
- Laboratory of Bioanalysis, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Drug Analysis and Radiopharmacy, Medical University of Lodz, ul. Muszyńskiego1, 90-151, Lodz, Poland.
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Xin X, Huang G, Liu X, An C, Yao Y, Weger H, Zhang P, Chen X. Molecular toxicity of triclosan and carbamazepine to green algae Chlorococcum sp.: A single cell view using synchrotron-based Fourier transform infrared spectromicroscopy. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2017; 226:12-20. [PMID: 28399502 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Revised: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Although pharmaceuticals and personal care products have been used and introduced into the environment in large quantities, little information on potential ecological risks is currently available considering their effects on living organisms. We verified the feasibility of using synchrotron-based Fourier Transform Infrared (SR-FTIR) spectromicroscopy to explore in vivo toxic effects on single living Chlorococcum sp. cells. The study provided important information to achieve a better understanding of the toxic mechanism of triclosan and carbamazepine on living algae Chlorococcum sp.. Triclosan and carbamazepine had distinctive toxic effects on unicellular living algae. Most strikingly, triclosan had more dramatic toxic effects on biochemical components than carbamazepine. Triclosan can affect algae primarily by inhibiting fatty acid synthesis and causing protein aggregation. The toxicity response was irreversible at higher concentration (100.000 μM), but attenuated at lower concentration (0.391 μM) as time extended. Carbamazepine can produce hydrophobic interactions to affect the phospholipid bilayer and work on specific proteins to disfunction the cell membrane. Carbamazepine-exposed cells developed a resistance while extending exposure time. This is the first demonstration from an ecological standpoint that SR-FTIR can provide an innovative approach to reveal the toxicity of emerging pollutants in aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaying Xin
- Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainable Communities, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan S4S 0A2, Canada
| | - Guohe Huang
- Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainable Communities, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan S4S 0A2, Canada.
| | - Xia Liu
- Canadian Light Source, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 2V3, Canada
| | - Chunjiang An
- Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainable Communities, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan S4S 0A2, Canada
| | - Yao Yao
- Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainable Communities, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan S4S 0A2, Canada
| | - Harold Weger
- Department of Biology, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan S4S 0A2, Canada
| | - Peng Zhang
- Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainable Communities, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan S4S 0A2, Canada
| | - Xiujuan Chen
- Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainable Communities, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan S4S 0A2, Canada
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12
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Piety NZ, Reinhart WH, Pourreau PH, Abidi R, Shevkoplyas SS. Shape matters: the effect of red blood cell shape on perfusion of an artificial microvascular network. Transfusion 2015; 56:844-51. [PMID: 26711854 DOI: 10.1111/trf.13449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2015] [Revised: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The shape of human red blood cells (RBCs) deteriorates progressively throughout hypothermic storage, with echinocytosis being the most prevalent pathway of this morphologic lesion. As a result, each unit of stored blood contains a heterogeneous mixture of cells in various stages of echinocytosis and normal discocytes. Here we studied how the change in shape of RBCs following along the path of the echinocytic transformation affects perfusion of an artificial microvascular network (AMVN). STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS Blood samples were obtained from healthy consenting volunteers. RBCs were leukoreduced, resuspended in saline, and treated with various concentrations of sodium salicylate to induce shape changes approximating the stages of echinocytosis experienced by RBCs during hypothermic storage (e.g., discocyte, echinocyte I, echinocyte II, echinocyte III, spheroechinocyte, and spherocyte). The AMVN perfusion rate was measured for 40% hematocrit suspensions of RBCs with different shapes. RESULTS The AMVN perfusion rates for RBCs with discocyte and echinocyte I shapes were similar, but there was a significant decline in the AMVN perfusion rate between RBCs with shapes approximating each subsequent stage of echinocytosis. The difference in AMVN perfusion between discocytes and spherocytes (the last stage of the echinocytic transformation) was 34%. CONCLUSION The change in shape of RBCs from normal discocytes progressively through various stages of echinocytosis to spherocytes produced a substantial decline in the ability of these cells to perfuse an AMVN. Echinocytosis induced by hypothermic storage could therefore be responsible for a similarly substantial impairment of deformability previously observed for stored RBCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel Z Piety
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cullen College of Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Walter H Reinhart
- Department of Internal Medicine, Kantonsspital Graubünden, Chur, Switzerland
| | - Patrick H Pourreau
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cullen College of Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Rajaa Abidi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cullen College of Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Sergey S Shevkoplyas
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cullen College of Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
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13
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Reinhart WH, Lubszky S, Thöny S, Schulzki T. Interaction of injectable neurotropic drugs with the red cell membrane. Toxicol In Vitro 2014; 28:1274-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2014.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Revised: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 06/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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14
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Shubber S, Vllasaliu D, Rauch C, Jordan F, Illum L, Stolnik S. Mechanism of mucosal permeability enhancement of CriticalSorb® (Solutol® HS15) investigated in vitro in cell cultures. Pharm Res 2014; 32:516-27. [PMID: 25190006 PMCID: PMC4300420 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-014-1481-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Purpose CriticalSorb™, with the principal component Solutol® HS15, is a novel mucosal drug delivery system demonstrated to improve the bioavailability of selected biotherapeutics. The intention of this study is to elucidate mechanism(s) responsible for the enhancement of trans-mucosal absorption of biological drugs by Solutol® HS15. Methods Micelle size and CMC of Solutol® HS15 were determined in biologically relevant media. Polarised airway Calu-3 cell layers were used to measure the permeability of a panel of biological drugs, and to assess changes in TEER, tight junction and F-actin morphology. The rate of cell endocytosis was measured in vitro in the presence of Solutol® HS15 using a membrane probe, FM 2–10. Results This work initially confirms surfactant-like behaviour of Solutol® HS15 in aqueous media, while subsequent experiments demonstrate that the effect of Solutol® HS15 on epithelial tight junctions is different from a ‘classical’ tight junction opening agent and illustrate the effect of Solutol® HS15 on the cell membrane (endocytosis rate) and F-actin cytoskeleton. Conclusion Solutol® HS15 is the principle component of CriticalSorb™ that has shown an enhancement in permeability of medium sized biological drugs across epithelia. This study suggests that its mechanism of action arises primarily from effects on the cell membrane and consequent impacts on the cell cytoskeleton in terms of actin organisation and tight junction opening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saif Shubber
- Division of Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering, School of Pharmacy Boots Science Building, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
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15
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Ficarra S, Misiti F, Russo A, Carelli-Alinovi C, Bellocco E, Barreca D, Laganà G, Leuzzi U, Toscano G, Giardina B, Galtieri A, Tellone E. Antiepileptic carbamazepine drug treatment induces alteration of membrane in red blood cells: possible positive effects on metabolism and oxidative stress. Biochimie 2012; 95:833-41. [PMID: 23246915 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2012.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2012] [Accepted: 11/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Carbamazepine (CBZ) is an iminostilbene derivative commonly used for treatment of neuralgic pain and bipolar affective disorders. CBZ blood levels of treated patients are within the range of micromolar concentrations and therefore, significant interactions of this drug with erythrocytes are very likely. Moreover, the lipid domains of the cell membrane are believed to be one of the sites where iminostilbene derivatives exert their effects. The present study aimed to deeply characterize CBZ effects on erythrocytes, in order to identify extra and/or cytosolic cell targets. Our results indicate that erythrocyte morphological changes promoted by the drug, may be triggered by an alteration in band 3 functionality i.e. at the level of anionic flux. In addition, from a metabolic point of view this perturbation could be considered, at least in part, as a beneficial event because it could favour the CO2 elimination. Since lipid peroxidation, superoxide and free radical scavenging activities, caspase 3 activity and hemoglobin (Hb) functionality were not modified within the CBZ treated red blood cell (RBC), band 3 protein (B3) may well be a specific membrane target for CBZ and responsible for CBZ-induced toxic effects in erythrocytes. However some beneficial effects of this drug have been evidenced; among them an increased release of ATP and nitric oxide (NO) derived metabolites from erythrocytes to lumen, leading to an increased NO pool in the vasculature. In conclusion, these results indicate that CBZ, though considered responsible for toxic effects on erythrocytes, can also exhibit effects that at least in some conditions may be seen as beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvana Ficarra
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Ferdinando Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy.
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16
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Ciccoli L, De Felice C, Paccagnini E, Leoncini S, Pecorelli A, Signorini C, Belmonte G, Valacchi G, Rossi M, Hayek J. Morphological changes and oxidative damage in Rett Syndrome erythrocytes. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2012; 1820:511-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2011.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2011] [Revised: 11/29/2011] [Accepted: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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17
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Siebel AM, Rico EP, Capiotti KM, Piato AL, Cusinato CT, Franco TMA, Bogo MR, Bonan CD. In vitro effects of antiepileptic drugs on acetylcholinesterase and ectonucleotidase activities in zebrafish (Danio rerio) brain. Toxicol In Vitro 2010; 24:1279-84. [PMID: 20362660 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2010.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2010] [Revised: 03/23/2010] [Accepted: 03/28/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Carbamazepine (CBZ), phenytoin (PHT), and gabapentine (GBP) are classical antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) that act through a variety of mechanisms. We have tested the in vitro effects of CBZ, PHT, and GBP at different concentrations on ectonucleotidase and acetylcholinesterase activities in zebrafish brain. CBZ inhibited ATP hydrolysis at 1000 microM (32%) whereas acetylcholine hydrolysis decreased at 500 microM (25.2%) and 1000 microM (38.7%). PHT increased AMP hydrolysis both at 500 microM (65%) and 1000 microM (64.8%). GBP did not promote any significant changes on ectonucleotidase and acetylcholinesterase activities. These results have shown that CBZ can reduce NTPDase (nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase) and PHT enhance ecto 5'-nucleotidase activities. Therefore, it is possible to suggest that the AEDs induced-effects on ectonucleotidases are related to enzyme anchorage form. Our findings have also shown that high CBZ concentrations inhibit acetylcholinesterase activity, which can induce an increase of acetylcholine levels. Taken together, these results showed a complex interaction among AEDs, purinergic, and cholinergic systems, providing a better understanding of the AEDs pharmacodynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Siebel
- Laboratório de Neuroquímica e Psicofarmacologia, Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Faculdade de Biociências, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul. Avenida Ipiranga, 6681, 90619-900 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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18
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Sepulveda JL, Tanhehco YC, Frey M, Guo L, Cropcho LJ, Gibson KM, Blair HC. Variation in human erythrocyte membrane unsaturated Fatty acids: correlation with cardiovascular disease. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2010; 134:73-80. [PMID: 20073608 DOI: 10.5858/2008-0795-oar1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Whether cell membrane fatty acid (FA) composition is a useful indicator of vascular disease is unclear. OBJECTIVE To study variation of erythrocyte (RBC) membrane FA in samples from healthy volunteers, hospitalized patients, and cardiac troponin I-elevated patients with myocardial damage without a priori assumptions as to FA composition. DESIGN We separated FAs extracted from RBCs by gas chromatography and identified them by mass spectrometry. Fatty acids with abundance greater than 1% of total were quantified and compared: hexadecanoic (C16:0), octadecadienoic (C18:2), cis- and trans-octadecenoic (C18:1), and eicosatetraenoic (C20:4) acids. Deuterated standards established proportionality of FA recovery. The cis- and trans-C18:1 identification was verified by comparison with standards. RESULTS In troponin-positive samples, C18:2 to C18:1 ratios were increased 30% compared with healthy controls or with random patient samples. Erythrocyte trans-C18:1 had a wide variation, approximately 10-fold, in all groups but without differences between groups. Replicates showed that the wide range of RBC trans-FA load is not due to analytic variation. In healthy subjects, the RBC content of lower- molecular weight FAs (C16-C18) correlated with serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, but despite the established relationship between dietary trans-FA and increased low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, lipid profiles had no correlation with RBC trans-FA content. CONCLUSIONS Erythrocyte accumulation of unsaturated FA may be a useful indicator of vascular disease, whereas the wide range in trans-FAs suggests that both diet and genetic variation affect RBC trans-FA accumulation. Unsaturated FAs increase membrane fluidity and may reflect a natural response to subclinical vascular changes, which may in turn reflect increased risk of clinical disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge L Sepulveda
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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19
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Balaz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58105, USA.
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20
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Suwalsky M, Manrique M, Villena F, Sotomayor CP. Structural effects in vitro of the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac on human erythrocytes and molecular models of cell membranes. Biophys Chem 2009; 141:34-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2008.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2008] [Revised: 12/18/2008] [Accepted: 12/19/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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21
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Suwalsky M, Villena F, Sotomayor CP, Bolognin S, Zatta P. Human cells and cell membrane molecular models are affected in vitro by chlorpromazine. Biophys Chem 2008; 135:7-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2008.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2008] [Revised: 02/28/2008] [Accepted: 02/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Pérez Martín JM, Fernández Freire P, Labrador V, Hazen MJ. Carbamazepine induces mitotic arrest in mammalian Vero cells. Mutat Res 2008; 637:124-33. [PMID: 17875314 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2007.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2007] [Revised: 07/24/2007] [Accepted: 07/26/2007] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
We reported recently that the anticonvulsant drug carbamazepine, at supratherapeutic concentrations, exerts antiproliferative effects in mammalian Vero cells, but the underlying mechanism has not been elucidated. This motivates us to examine rigorously whether growth arrest was associated with structural changes in cellular organization during mitosis. In the present work, we found that exposure of the cells to carbamazepine led to an increase in mitotic index, mainly due to the sustained block at the metaphase/anaphase boundary, with the consequent inhibition of cell proliferation. Indirect immunofluorescence, using antibodies directed against spindle apparatus proteins, revealed that mitotic arrest was associated with formation of monopolar spindles, caused by impairment of centrosome separation. The final consequence of the spindle defects induced by carbamazepine, depended on the duration of cell cycle arrest. Following the time course of accumulation of metaphase and apoptotic cells during carbamazepine treatments, we observed a causative relationship between mitotic arrest and induction of cell death. Conversely, cells released from the block of metaphase by removal of the drug, continued to progress through mitosis and resume normal proliferation. Our results show that carbamazepine shares a common antiproliferative mechanism with spindle-targeted drugs and contribute to a better understanding of the cytostatic activity previously described in Vero cells. Additional studies are in progress to extend these initial findings that define a novel mode of action of carbamazepine in cultured mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Pérez Martín
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
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