Analysis of drugs of abuse and their human metabolites in water by LC-MS2: A non-intrusive tool for drug abuse estimation at the community level

Illicit drug use derived from wastewater-based epidemiology in Iran, their removal during wastewater treatment, and occurrence in receiving waters

This study aimed to measure the licit and illicit drug concentrations in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), their removal efficiency, and their consumption rate by wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach. A 2-season monitoring program was undertaken for the first time in Iran. Residues of licit and illicit drugs (amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, methamphetamine, codeine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, heroin, cocaine, and methadone) and major metabolites (benzoylecgonine, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine and 6-monoacetylmorphine) were analyzed by LC-MS/MS in composite sampling after solid phase extraction method. These analytes were also measured in rivers vicinity to selected cities. The detected concentration in raw wastewater was converted into the quantity of illicit drugs per capita using back-calculation. There was no detection of cocaine, its metabolite benzoylecgonine, or 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in any of the samples. Among the analytes measured, morphine and codeine exhibited the most prevalent occurrence and highest concentration levels in all the samples. Heroin was the main illicit drugs used in the studied population with a mean consumption rate of 6108 and 158 mg/day/1000 inh. in cold and warm seasons, respectively. The removal efficiencies of drugs during wastewater treatment ranged from 3.5 % (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine) to >99 % (amphetamine, methamphetamine, and codeine); however, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine demonstrated a negative removal within WWTPs. This study provides crucial insights into the consumption of illicit drugs in Iran, as well as the release of illicit drugs and their metabolites through WWTPs.

Toxicological Assessment of Ketamine in Juvenile Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

This study investigates the toxic effects of ketamine on juvenile zebrafish, driven by increasing concerns over ketamine's prevalence and its potential neurotoxic effects that may disrupt behavior and metabolism. Employing a high-throughput behavior tracking system, the research analyzed the locomotor activity of 6-day post-fertilization (6 dpf) zebrafish exposed to various concentrations of ketamine. The integration of behavioral analysis with metabolic profiling was a notable innovation, as it establishes a comprehensive understanding of ketamine's effects on both acute behavioral inhibition and metabolic responses. The findings reveal that ketamine exposure significantly inhibits locomotor activity in juvenile zebrafish, with these effects becoming more pronounced at higher concentrations. Additionally, the detection of normethketamine, the primary metabolite of ketamine, using UPLC-LTQ/Orbitrap HRMS, confirms the zebrafish's ability to metabolize the drug. This underscores the utility of zebrafish as a model organism for studying the impact of ketamine on behavior and metabolism, providing valuable insights that may extend to other vertebrates.

Unveil the toxicity induced on early life stages of zebrafish (Danio rerio) exposed to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its enantiomers

The increased detection of the recreational drug 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in aquatic ecosystems, has raised concern worldwide about its possible negative impacts on wildlife. MDMA is produced as racemate but its enantioselective effects on non-target organisms are poorly understood. Therefore, this study aimed to provide a comprehensive study of the toxicity of MDMA and its enantiomers in the early life stages of zebrafish (Danio rerio). Zebrafish embryos (≈3 h post fertilization) were exposed to different concentrations (0.02, 0.2, 2, 20, and 200 μg/L) of (R,S)-MDMA and both pure enantiomers. Both enantiomers induced effects on embryonic development, DNA integrity, and behaviour and enantioselective effects were noted. (S)-MDMA exhibits higher toxic effects on embryonic development level with increased mortality and severity of teratogenic effects, and behavioural abnormalities in acoustic startle-habituation response. (R)-MDMA affected general activity and avoidance behaviour, showing greater inhibitory effects on behavioural activity. Additionally, (R,S)-MDMA induced higher genotoxic effects than the two isolated enantiomers. These results are of concern at populational levels since effects on mortality, development, and behaviour were observed even at environmentally relevant concentrations, which can cause a reduction of larval viability and in the number of individuals in each generation, and an increase in the risk of predation of the organisms. Yet, the bioaccumulation studies showed that MDMA is not accumulated in zebrafish. Therefore, this work demonstrated for the first time the occurrence of MDMA enantiotoxicity in the early life stages of zebrafish, which should be considered in further environmental risk assessments involving fish species or other non-target aquatic organisms.

Global occurrence, distribution, and ecological risk assessment of psychopharmaceuticals and illicit drugs in surface water environment: A meta-analysis

Psychopharmaceuticals and illicit drugs (PIDs) in aquatic environments can negatively impact ecosystem and human health. However, data on the sources, distribution, drivers, and risks of PIDs in global surface waters are limited. We compiled a dataset of 331 records spanning 23 PIDs in surface waters and sediments across 100 countries by conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis of 108 studies published between 2005 and 2022. Most PIDs were sewage-derived, as wastewater treatment rarely achieved complete removal. The highest total PID levels were in Ethiopia, Australia, and Armenia, with many highly contaminated samples from low- and middle-income countries with minimal prior monitoring. Socioeconomic factors (population, GDP) and environmental variables (water stress) influenced the distribution of PIDs. 3,4-Methylenedioxy amphetamine hydrochloride (MDA), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and 11- Δ9‑hydroxy-tetrahydrocannabinol (THCOH) posed the greatest ecological risks, especially in Oceania and North America. PIDs in surface waters present risks to aquatic organisms. Our findings elucidate the current status and future directions of PID research in surface waters and provide a scientific foundation for evaluating ecological risks and informing pollution control policies.

Analysis of crude wastewater from two treatment plants in South Wales for 35 new psychoactive substances and cocaine, and cannabis

This study investigates the presence of new psychoactive substances (NPS) and their metabolites in two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) situated in South Wales, UK (WWTP-1 and WWTP-2). Analysis was conducted for 35 NPS and metabolites, along with the inclusion of benzoylecgonine (main cocaine metabolite) and cannabis, the most detected illicit substances. Benzoylecgonine was identified as the predominant substance in both WWTPs. Epidemiological calculations revealed the average population consumption of cocaine to be 3.88 mg/d/1000 inhabitants around WWTP-1 and 1.97 mg/d/1000 inhabitants for WWTP-2. The removal efficiency of benzoylecgonine across both WWTPs was observed at an average of 73%. Subsequent qualitative analyses on randomly selected wastewater samples detected medicinal compounds including buprenorphine, methadone, and codeine in both WWTPs. An additional experiment employing enzymatic hydrolysis revealed the presence of morphine, an increased presence of codeine, and 11-Nor-9-Carboxy-THC (THC-COOH) post-hydrolysis. These findings underscore the significant presence of illicit substances and medicinal compounds in wastewater systems with the absence of NPS within the South Wales area, highlighting the necessity for enhanced monitoring and treatment strategies to address public health and environmental concerns.

Target and Nontarget Screening to Support Capacity Scaling for Substance Use Assessment through a Statewide Wastewater Surveillance Network in New York

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been widely implemented around the world as a complementary tool to conventional surveillance techniques to inform and improve public health responses. Currently, wastewater surveillance programs in the U.S. are evaluating integrated approaches to address public health challenges across multiple domains, including substance abuse. In this work, we demonstrated the potential of online solid-phase extraction coupled with liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry to support targeted quantification and nontargeted analysis of psychoactive and lifestyle substances as a step toward understanding the operational feasibility of a statewide wastewater surveillance program for substance use assessment in New York. Target screening confirmed 39 substances in influent samples collected from 10 wastewater treatment plants with varying sewershed characteristics and is anticipated to meet the throughput demands as the statewide program scales up to full capacity. Nontarget screening prioritized additional compounds for identification at three confidence levels, including psychoactive substances, such as opioid analgesics, phenethylamines, and cathinone derivatives. Consumption rates of 12 target substances detected in over 80% of wastewater samples were similar to those reported by previous U.S.-based WBE studies despite the uncertainty associated with back-calculations. For selected substances, the relative bias in consumption estimates was sensitive to variations in monitoring frequency, and factors beyond human excretion (e.g., as indicated by the parent-to-metabolite ratios) might also contribute to their prevalence at the sewershed scale. Overall, our study marks the initial phase of refining analytical workflows and data interpretation in preparation for the incorporation of substance use assessment into the statewide wastewater surveillance program in New York.

Application of Magnetic Materials Combined with Echo® Mass Spectrometry System in Analysis of Illegal Drugs in Sewage

The aim of this study is to solve the problems of the complicated pretreatment and high analytical cost in the detection technology of trace drugs and their metabolites in municipal wastewater. A high-performance magnetic sorbent was fsynthesized for the enrichment of trace drugs and their metabolites in wastewater to develop a magnetic solid-phase extraction pretreatment combined with the acoustic ejection mass spectrometry (AEMS) analytical method. The magnetic nanospheres were successfully prepared by magnetic nanoparticles modified with divinylbenzene and vinylpyrrolidone. The results showed that the linear dynamic range of 17 drugs was 1-500 ng/mL, the recovery was 44-100%, the matrix effect was more than 51%, the quantification limit was 1-2 ng/mL, and the MS measurement was fast. It can be seen that the developed magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) method is a good solution to the problems of the complicated pretreatment and analytical cost in the analysis of drugs in wastewater. The developed magnetic material and acoustic excitation pretreatment coupled with mass spectrometry analysis method can realize the low-cost, efficient enrichment, and fast analysis of different kinds of drug molecules in urban sewage.

Tracking methamphetamine and amphetamine consumption patterns in South Korea via enantiomeric analysis of wastewater

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has emerged as an effective method for monitoring a community's health status and lifestyle. In recent years, enantiomeric profiling has shown promise as a tool for tracing the sources of abused drugs through WBE. This study investigated amphetamine (AMP) and methamphetamine (METH) consumption in South Korea using enantiomeric analysis of untreated wastewater samples collected from 27 wastewater-treatment plants (WWTPs). Both AMP and METH were detected, with the predominant detection of S-(+)-METH indicating widespread illegal use of METH, which is primarily produced by a clandestine synthesis procedure that involves the reduction of ephedrine/pseudoephedrine. Most AMP/METH ratios in the samples were consistent with the expected METH excretion profile, indicating that the presence of AMP was primarily due to METH metabolism. However, R-(-) AMP was detected in 18.5 % and 25.9 % of wastewater samples in winter and spring, respectively, and the high AMP/METH ratio (>0.27) indicated potential AMP abuse. By differentiating between the sources of AMP and METH in wastewater, enantiomeric analysis could help authorities to target and address specific drug-abuse issues affecting the population more effectively.

Molecularly imprinted polymers for environmental adsorption applications

Molecular imprinting polymers (MIPs) are synthetic materials with pores or cavities to specifically retain a molecule of interest or analyte. Their synthesis consists of the generation of three-dimensional polymers with specific shapes, arrangements, orientations, and bonds to selectively retain a particular molecule called target. After target removal from the binding sites, it leaves empty cavities to be re-occupied by the analyte or a highly related compound. MIPs have been used in areas that require high selectivity (e.g., chromatographic methods, sensors, and contaminant removal). However, the most widely used application is their use as a highly selective extraction material because of its low cost, easy preparation, reversible adsorption and desorption, and thermal, mechanical, and chemical stability. Emerging pollutants are traces of substances recently found in wastewater, river waters, and drinking water samples that represent a special concern for human and ecological health. The low concentration in which these pollutants is found in the environment, and the complexity of their chemical structures makes the current wastewater treatment not efficient for complete degradation. Moreover, these substances are not yet regulated or controlled for their discharge into the environment. According to the literature, MIPs, as a highly selective adsorbent material, are a promising approach for the quantification and monitoring of emerging pollutants in complex matrices. Therefore, the main objective of this work was to give an overview of the actual state-of-art of applications of MIPs in the recovery and concentration of emerging pollutants.

Monitoring and ecological risk of illegal drugs before and after sewage treatment in an area

In this study, the occurrence of illicit drugs and their metabolites in the sewerage systems and in the influent and effluent of wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in Konya, Turkey, was presented. The drug removal efficiencies of the central WWTP were investigated. Potential ecotoxicological risks for algae, fish, and Daphnia magna in the receiving environments were also evaluated. The highest estimated mean illicit drug use was obtained for cannabis (marijuana) at 280 ± 12 mg/day/1000 inhabitants and 430 ± 20 g/day/1000 inhabitants (15-64 years). Amphetamine was found to be the second most consumed drug of abuse. While cannabis and ecstasy consumption values were higher during the weekend, cocaine use dominated on weekdays. The removal efficiencies for THC-COOH and THC-OH were 100% in the WWTP. The average removal of cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA, MDA, and methadone varied between 46 ± 7 and 87 ± 3%. The maximum concentration level of MDMA found can pose some low risk for Daphnia magna. The rest of the compounds detected in effluents did not show any toxic effects on fish, Daphnia magna, or algae. However, when the cumulative estimated risk quotient values were evaluated, there might be a low risk for Daphnia magna and algae in the receiving environment.

Detection of Eight Cannabinoids and One Tracer in Wastewater and River Water by SPE-UPLC–ESI-MS/MS

The consumption of illicit drugs represents a global social and economic problem. Using suitable analytical methods, monitoring, and detection of different illegal drugs residues and their metabolites in wastewater samples can help combat this problem. Our article defines a method to develop, validate, and practically applicate a rapid and robust analytical process for the evaluation of six naturally occurring cannabinoids (CBG, CBD, CBDV, CBN, THC, THCV), two cannabinoids in acidic form (CBDA, THCA-A), and the major cannabis-related human metabolite (THC-COOH). After SPE offline enrichment, we used a UPLC–ESI-MS/MS system, which permitted the determination of several by-products. Studied matrices were samples of different origins: (i) effluent water from a wastewater treatment plant in the Porto urban area; (ii) environmental water from Febros River, the last left-bank tributary of the Douro River. The multi-residue approach was substantiated and successfully employed to analyze the water samples collected in the above locations. The rapid and precise quantification of nine different cannabinoids in different water samples occurred within nine minutes at the ng L−1 level. The appearance of dozens of ng L−1 of some cannabis secondary metabolites, such as CBD, CBDA, CBN, THCA-A, indicates this plant species’ widespread usage among the general population in the considered area.

Investigation of drugs of abuse in educational institutions using wastewater analysis

Wastewater analysis was used to investigate drug prevalence in primary and secondary schools and institutes of higher education located in urban and non-urban areas of six municipalities in Slovenia. Seven-hour composite raw wastewater samples from 44 educational institutions, including 19 primary schools (6-15 yrs.), ten secondary schools (15-19 yrs.), nine higher education institutions (19+ yrs.) and six mixed secondary and higher education institutions (15+ yrs.), were collected at the end of the 2018/2019 academic year. Metabolic residues of licit drugs (nicotine and alcohol), medications of abuse (morphine, codeine and methadone) and illicit drugs (cannabis, cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, ecstasy and heroin) were targeted in the study. The analysis was carried out using solid-phase extraction and direct injection combined ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Biomarkers of nicotine, alcohol and cannabis intake were the most frequently detected, indicating a high prevalence of these drugs. Morphine and codeine were also detected, while among the stimulants, benzoylecgonine had the highest detection frequency. Drug differences were found between different levels of educational institution, geographic location (inter-municipality comparison) and degree of urbanization. However, t-distributed stochastic neighbour embedding (t-SNE) revealed that the level of educational institution was the main factor influencing the differences in drug prevalence. Although a good agreement between data from this study and other studies implementing wastewater analysis was observed, there was a discrepancy with Slovenian epidemiological survey data. Finally, despite certain drawbacks of the method, its application to detect drug residues in educational institutions provides a non-invasive insight into drug use trends.

Estimating drug consumption during a college sporting event from wastewater using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry

Consumption of licit and/or illicit compounds during sporting events has traditionally been monitored using population surveys, medical records, and law enforcement seizure data. This pilot study evaluated the temporal and geospatial patterns in drug consumption during a university football game from wastewater using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Untreated wastewater samples were collected from three locations within or near the same football stadium every 30 min during a university football game. This analysis leveraged two LCMS/ MS instruments (Waters Acquity TQD and a Shimadzu 8040) to analyze samples for 58 licit or illicit compounds and some of their metabolites. Bayesian multilevel models were implemented to estimate mass load and population-level drug consumption, while accounting for multiple instrument runs and concentrations censored at the lower limit of quantitation. Overall, 29 compounds were detected in at least one wastewater sample collected during the game. The 10 most common compounds included opioids, anorectics, stimulants, and decongestants. For compounds detected in more than 50% of samples, temporal trends in median mass load were correlated with the timing of the game; peak loads for cocaine and tramadol occurred during the first quarter of the game and for phentermine during the third quarter. Stadium-wide estimates of the number of doses of drugs consumed were rank ordered as follows: oxycodone (n = 3246) > hydrocodone (n = 2260) > phentermine (n = 513) > cocaine (n = 415) > amphetamine (n = 372) > tramadol (n = 360) > pseudoephedrine (n = 324). This analysis represents the most comprehensive assessment of drug consumption during a university football game and indicates that wastewater-based epidemiology has potential to inform public health interventions focused on reducing recreational drug consumption during large-scale sporting events.

A global systematic review and meta-analysis on illicit drug consumption rate through wastewater-based epidemiology

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is a complementary, well-established comprehensive, cost-effective, and rapid technique for monitoring of illicit drugs used in a general population. This systematic review and meta-analysis is the first to estimate the rank and consumption rate of illicit drugs through WBE studies. In the current study, the related investigations regarding the illicit drug consumption rate based on WBE were searched among the international databases including Scopus, PubMed, Science direct, Google scholar, and local database, Magiran from 2012 up to May 2019. The illicit drug consumption rate with 95% confidence intervals was pooled between studies by using random effect model. The heterogeneity was determined using I2 statistics. Also, subgroup analyses were conducted to examine the possible effects of year and location of studies on observed heterogeneity. Meta-analysis of 37 articles indicates that the overall rank order of illicit drugs according to their pooled consumption rate can be summarized as tetrahydrocannabinol or cannabis (7417.9 mg/day/1000 people) > cocaine (655.7 mg/day/1000 people) > morphine (384.9 mg/day/1000 people) > methamphetamine (296.2 mg/day/1000 people) > codeine (222.7 mg/day/1000 people) > methadone (200.2 mg/day/1000 people) > 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (126.3 mg/day/1000 people) > amphetamine (118.2 mg/day/1000 people) > 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3, 3-diphenylpyrrolidine (33.7 mg/day/1000 people). The pooled level rate was 190.16 mg/day/1000 people for benzoylecgonine (main urinary cocaine metabolite), 137.9 mg/day/1000 people for 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (main metabolite of cannabis), and 33.7 mg/day/1000 people for 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3, 3-diphenylpyrrolidine (main metabolite of methadone). The I2 values for all selected drugs were 100% (P value < 0.001). The results of year subgroup indicated that the changes of heterogeneity for all selected drugs were nearly negligible. The heterogeneity within studies based on continents subgroup just decreased in America for drugs like 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (I2 = 24.4%) and benzoylecgonine (I2 = 94.1%). The outcome of this meta-analysis can be used for finding the illicit drugs with global serious problem in view of consumption rate (i.e., cannabis and cocaine) and helping authorities to combat them.

How microplastics affect chiral illicit drug methamphetamine in aquatic food chain? From green alga (Chlorella pyrenoidosa) to freshwater snail (Cipangopaludian cathayensis)

The biological impacts of microplastics on many organisms have been well documented. However, the combined effects of microplastics and chiral chemicals on the aquatic food chain are less clear. In the present study, the enantioselective environmental behaviors of methamphetamine co-exposed with microplastics through an aquatic food chain (from Chlorella pyrenoidosa to Cipangopaludian cathayensis) have been investigated in a laboratory environment. It was found that the acute toxicity of methamphetamine against these two species was significantly increased in the presence of microplastics: Chlorella pyrenoidosa showed an EC₅₀ shift from 0.77 to 0.32 mg L^-1, while cipangopaludian cathayensis showed an LC₅₀ shift from 4.15 to 1.48 mg L^-1, upon the addition of microplastics as a co-contaminant with methamphetamine. Upon exposure to methamphetamine and microplastics, the oxidative damage of algae (19.9 to 36.8 nmol mgprot^-1), apoptosis (increase about 2.17 times) and filtration rate (41.2 to 65.4 mL h^-1) of snails were observably higher when compared to exposure to methamphetamine alone. After ingestion and accumulation of microplastics, the enantioselectivity, BCFs, BMFs, and distribution of methamphetamine were significantly altered. These results provide evidence that the co-occurrence of microplastics and the chiral drug methamphetamine may increase the burden on aquatic species, with potential further impacts throughout aquatic food chain.

Prevalence of illicit and prescribed neuropsychiatric drugs in three communities in Kentucky using wastewater-based epidemiology and Monte Carlo simulation for the estimation of associated uncertainties

A cost-effective alternative approach capable of determining the prevalence of substance use in communities can complement the existing efforts of combating drug abuse and addiction. In this study, the prevalence of 10 illicit and 19 prescribed psychoactive drugs of potential abuse was determined utilizing wastewater-based epidemiology, and compared in two adjoined urban communities and a rural community. This is the first application of the Monte Carlo simulation method to account multiple uncertainties and propagation of errors associated with the individual parameter of wastewater based epidemiological estimations in the U.S. A significantly higher prevalence of cocaine [3830 (mean difference, MD: 2960) mg/d/1000 people] was found in the central business district while the per-capita consumption rates of amphetamine [738 (MD: 338) mg/d/1000 people] and methamphetamine [1660 (MD: 629) mg/d/1000 people] were higher in a rural community. Among narcotics, the per-capita consumption rate of fentanyl and morphine was significantly higher in urban communities while codeine, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, and buprenorphine were dominant in a rural community. The significantly higher prevalence of buprenorphine (˜20-30 folds), oxycodone (˜2-3 folds), and alprazolam (˜2-3 folds) determined in these communities compared to the conventional estimates based on the electronically reported prescriptions and drug-related inpatient hospitalizations suggest the abuse of these drugs.

New approach for the measurement of long-term alcohol consumption trends: Application of wastewater-based epidemiology in an Australian regional city

BACKGROUND

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) provides complementary information to traditional self-report methods for estimating substance use within a population. WBE was applied to estimate the consumption of alcohol in an Australian rural city (population estimated 100,000) over 6 years.

METHODS

A total of 352 wastewater samples were analysed from a wastewater treatment plant located in South-East Queensland, Australia, from 2012 to 2017. The concentration of an alcohol biomarker, ethyl sulphate, was quantified by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry and used to estimate per-capita consumption. The WBE results were compared with alcohol consumption estimates based on national taxation data and self-reported national survey data in Australia.

RESULTS

Average daily alcohol consumption estimated by WBE was between 19 and 30 mL/person/day for the population aged 15 years and older during the six-year period. Alcohol consumption decreased 4 % per annum on average over the study period. Our data showed higher rates of consumption on weekends and public holidays when compared to consumption between Monday and Thursday. The comparative trend of WBE data was consistent with the national alcohol survey and taxation statistics on alcoholic beverages over the same period.

CONCLUSIONS

A clear decline in alcohol consumption in the catchment was observed during the sampling period, which reflected similar changes in consumption from taxation statistics and self-report survey data. Expected variations in weekly consumption and public holidays were also identified. This study demonstrates the potential of WBE for long-term monitoring of alcohol consumption in evaluating the effectiveness of local and national alcohol policies and prevention programs.

Occurrence, removal and environmental risk of markers of five drugs of abuse in urban wastewater systems in South Australia

The occurrence and fate of five drugs of abuse in raw influent and treated effluent wastewater were investigated over a period of 1 year in the Adelaide region of South Australia. Four wastewater treatment plants were chosen for this study and monitored for five drugs which included cocaine in the form of its metabolite benzoylecgonine (BE), methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and two opioids (codeine and morphine) during the period April 2016 to February 2017. Alongside concentrations in raw sewage, the levels of drugs in the treated effluent were assessed and removal efficiencies were calculated. Drug concentrations were measured by mixed-mode solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography coupled to a quadrupole mass spectrometer. Drug concentrations detected in the raw wastewater ranged from 7 to 6510 ng/L and < LOD to 4264 ng/L in treated effluent samples. Drug removal rates varied seasonally and spatially. The mass loads of drugs discharged into the environment were in descending order: codeine > methamphetamine > morphine > MDMA > BE. Results showed that all the targeted drugs were on average incompletely removed by wastewater treatment, with removal performance highest for morphine (94%) and lowest for MDMA (58%). A screening-level environmental risk assessment was subsequently performed for the drugs based on effluent wastewater concentrations. Based on calculated risk quotients, overall environmental risk for these compounds appears low, with codeine and methamphetamine likely to pose the greatest potential risk to receiving environments. Given the recognised limitations of current ecotoxicological models and risk assessment methods for these and other pharmaceutical drugs, the potential for environmental impacts associated with the continuous discharge of these compounds in wastewater effluents should not be overlooked.

Development and application of the analytical method for illicit drugs and metabolites in fish tissues

In this study, we developed a screening method for highly accurate and sensitive analysis of 12 illicit drugs and metabolites in fish tissues. The approach was based on ultrasonic-assisted extraction and solid phase extraction, followed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis. The homogenized samples were ultrasonic-assisted extracted with 1% acetic acid in methanol followed by SPE cleanup with Oasis MCX cartridge. The method was validated in accordance with the European Medicines Agency guidelines by evaluating the following required parameters: the limits of detection and limits of quantification, linearity, accuracy, repeatability, recovery of extraction, and matrix effect. For the tissues involved in this study, the recoveries ranged from 60% to 127%, and the matrix effect ranged from -19% to 83% with the inter- and intra-day variability below 12%. The method has been successfully applied to wild fish caught from six sampling sites of four urban rivers in Beijing, China. The analysis showed that the target compounds, including amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, codeine and heroin were detected with high detection frequencies. Codeine exhibited the highest bioaccumulation factor (up to 73,986) in the muscle of Crucian carp, while ketamine tended to accumulate in the skin, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine and heroin tended to accumulate in gastrointestinal tract, respectively.

Identification of opioids in surface and wastewaters by LC/QTOF-MS using retrospective data analysis

Opioids, both as prescription drugs and abuse substances, have been a hot topic and a focus of discussion in the media for the last few years. Although the literature published shows the occurrence of opioids and some of their metabolites in the aquatic environment, there are scarce data in the application of high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) for the analysis of these compounds in the environment. The use of HRMS allows increasing the number of opioids that can be studied as well as the detection of unknown opioids, their metabolites and potential transformation products. In this work, a retrospective analysis for the identification of opioids and their metabolites using a curated database was applied to surface water and wastewater samples taken in the state of Minnesota (U.S.) in 2009, which were previously analyzed by liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/TOF-MS) for antidepressants. The database comprised >200 opioids including natural opiates (e.g. morphine and codeine), their semi-synthetic derivatives (e.g. heroin, hydromorphone, hydrocodone, oxycodone, oxymorphone, meperidine and buprenorphine), fully synthetic opioids (e.g. fentanyl, methadone, tramadol, dextromethorphan and propoxyphene), as well as some of their metabolites (e.g. 6-monoacetylcodeine, dextrorphan, EDDP, normorphine and O-desmethyltramadol). Moreover, additional MS-MS experiments were performed to confirm their identification, as well as to recognize fragmentation patterns and diagnostic ions for several opioids. These data provide a better understanding of the historical occurrence of opioids and their metabolites in surface waters impacted by wastewater sources. The concentrations of individual opioids in surface water and wastewater effluent varied from 8.8 (EDDP) to 1640 (tramadol) ngL^-1 and from 12 (dihydrocodeine) to 1288 (tramadol) ngL^-1, respectively. The opioids with higher overall frequency detections were tramadol, dextromethorphan and its metabolite, dextrorphan.

The detection of drugs of abuse and pharmaceuticals in drinking water using solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

Pharmaceuticals and drugs of abuse including novel psychoactive substances (NPS) are emerging as newer contaminants in the aquatic environment. The presence of such pollutants has implications on the environment as well as public health and therefore their identification is important when monitoring water quality. This research presents a new method for the simultaneous detection of 20 drugs of abuse and pharmaceuticals in drinking water, including 15 NPS, three traditional illicit drugs and two antidepressants. The developed method is based on the use of solid-phase extraction (SPE) followed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The SPE recoveries for the majority of target analytes ranged between 62 and 107%. The method detection and quantification limits ranged between 0.01 and 1.09 ng/L and 0.02-3.64 ng/L respectively. Both instrumental and method precisions resulted in relative standard deviations <15.04%, with an accuracy of < ±8.66%. The results show that LC-MS can be an alternative to the more popular technique of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the analysis of drugs of abuse and pharmaceuticals in drinking water. This newly developed simultaneous detection method has been applied to drinking water collected from the East Anglia region of the UK. Citalopram, cocaine, fluoxetine, ketamine, mephedrone, methamphetamine and methylone were detected at the range of 0.14 and 2.81 ng/L. This is the first time that the two NPS mephedrone and methylone, have been detected in UK drinking water.

Non-target strategies by HRMS to evaluate fluidized micro-grain activated carbon as a tertiary treatment of wastewater

Among the release solutions for reducing the discharge of organic and persistent contaminants in the aquatic environment, the use of a tertiary treatment in addition to existing conventional wastewater treatment processes is considered. The use of micro-grain activated carbon in a fluidized bed is a promising technique investigated in this study. The effluents from a large-scale pilot system were analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (QToF). Several strategies were deployed, namely molecular fingerprint comparison, suspected and non-target analyses, identification of refractory compounds to treatment, and finally, quantification of identified compounds. The evaluation of the molecular fingerprints provided evidence of the overall effect of the tertiary treatment on the treated wastewater quality. The suspected approach highlighted the presence of 83 pharmaceuticals and pesticides as well as transformation products in the effluents. The non-target approaches also highlighted compounds refractory to tertiary treatment, such as illicit drugs or some pharmaceuticals. The identification and quantification of identified compounds underscored the suitability of micro-grain activated carbon in eliminating many classes of pharmaceuticals with various physicochemical properties, such as anti-hypertensive, analgesic, anti-viral, antidepressant and even various pesticides.

Estimation of the consumption of illicit drugs during special events in two communities in Western Kentucky, USA using sewage epidemiology

Sewage epidemiology is a cost-effective, comprehensive, and non-invasive technique capable of determining semi-real-time community usage of drugs utilizing the concentration of drug residues in wastewater, wastewater inflow, and the population size served by a wastewater treatment plant. In this study, semi-real-time consumption rates of ten illicit drugs were determined using sewage epidemiology during special events including Independence Day, the 2017 solar eclipse, and the first week of an academic semester in the Midwestern United States. The average per-capita consumption rate of amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine, and THC were significantly different between two similar-sized communities during Independence Day observation week (p<0.046) and a typical week (p<0.001). Compared to a typical day, the consumption rate of amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine, morphine, and methadone was significantly higher on Independence Day (p<0.021) and during solar eclipse observation (p=0.020). The estimated percentage of the population that consumed cocaine in a community is similar to the conventionally estimated consumption of cocaine; however, the combined estimated population that consumed amphetamine and methamphetamine based on sewage epidemiology was ~2 to 4 fold higher than the conventional estimates. This study is the first to compare community use of drugs during special events in the USA using sewage epidemiology.

Contamination profiles, mass loadings, and sewage epidemiology of neuropsychiatric and illicit drugs in wastewater and river waters from a community in the Midwestern United States

In this study, residues of the neuropsychiatric and illicit drugs including stimulants, opioids, hallucinogens, antischizophrenics, sedatives, and antidepressants were determined in influent and effluent samples from a small wastewater treatment plant, a receiving creek, and river waters in the Four Rivers region of the Midwestern United States. Nineteen neuropsychiatric drugs, eight illicit drugs, and three metabolites of illicit drugs were detected and quantitated in the water samples using HPLC-MS/MS. Residual concentrations of the drugs varied from below the detection limit to sub-μg/L levels. The source of residual cocaine and benzoylecgonine in wastewater is primarily from human consumption of cocaine rather than direct disposal. Wastewater based epidemiology is utilized to estimate the community usage of drugs based on the concentration of drug residues in wastewater, wastewater inflow, and the population served by the centralized wastewater treatment plant. The per-capita consumption rate of methamphetamine (1740 mg/d/1000 people) and amphetamine (970 mg/d/1000 people) found in this study were the highest reported per-capita consumption rates in the USA. Antidepressant venlafaxine found to have the highest environmental emission from the WWTP (333 ± 160 mg/d/1000 people) followed by citalopram (132 ± 60.2 mg/d/1000 people), methamphetamine (111 ± 43.6 mg/d/1000 people), and hydrocodone (108 ± 90.1 mg/d/1000 people). Bee Creek, an immediate receiving water body, is found to be a source of several neuropsychiatric and illicit drugs including methamphetamine, methadone, alprazolam, oxazepam, temazepam, carbamazepine, venlafaxine, citalopram, sertraline, oxycodone, and hydrocodone (p < 0.036) in the Clarks River.

Analysis of Illicit Drugs in Wastewater Using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Electrospray Ionization-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS)

Consumption of illicit drugs is considered to be a global socioeconomic burden of adverse ecological and public health. Proper identification and quantification of trace level residues of illicit drugs in wastewater allow for an estimation of drug usage in a community, the amount of drug discharge into the environment, and the overall fate of drugs in the environment. This chapter provides a procedural detail of the determination of select illicit drugs and their metabolites in wastewater, suspended particulate matter, and sewage sludge using high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry.

Estimation of Community Usage of Drugs Utilizing Sewage Epidemiology

Drug abuse is considered to be a national epidemic in many countries including the USA, and is associated with impaired social indicators including economic loss and adverse public health. The conventional methods of estimation of drug usage in communities are based on self-reported surveys, overdose or toxicological reports, drug-related crime statistics, and hospital admissions. Conventional methods suffer from several shortcomings including cost and time intensiveness, nonresponse bias, bias in the selection of sample population, and consumer's unawareness on the actual composition of used drugs. Sewage epidemiology utilizes the mass load of drugs in wastewater influent to estimate the drug usage in a community. Despite several challenges to the determination of the human excretion profile of drugs, the stability of drugs in wastewater, the dynamics of the population, sewage epidemiology provides several opportunities, including a cost-effective, comprehensive, noninvasive, and nearly real-time measure of trends of drug use over time.

Five-year monitoring of 19 illicit and legal substances of abuse at the inlet of a wastewater treatment plant in Barcelona (NE Spain) and estimation of drug consumption patterns and trends

Illicit and legal drugs of abuse, including alcohol, continue to be in the focus of many governmental national and international studies due to the important consequences of their consumption at both individual and social level. Estimation of drug use at the community level from the concentrations of the drugs themselves or their major metabolites measured in wastewater has become an increasingly accepted and extended tool, complementary to the methods traditionally used for this purpose. The present work describes the application of this approach, generally known as wastewater epidemiology, to investigate the latest drug consumption patterns and trends in the European city of Barcelona. To this end, a total of 19 selected drugs of abuse and metabolites were monitored at the inlet of one of the main wastewater treatment plants of Barcelona every day during one week in March between 2011 and 2015. Analysis of the selected drugs and metabolites in the wastewater samples was performed by means of two methodologies based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and the concentrations obtained were translated into consumption data. In agreement with official records, alcohol, followed by cannabis, cocaine, amphetamine-like compounds, and methadone were the most consumed drugs. Alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine consumption were on average 18mL(14g)/day/inhabitant (>15), 38g/day/1000 inhabitants aging 15-64, and 2.4g/day/1000 inhabitants aging 15-64, respectively. As for drug use trends, consumption increased over the 5years monitored for all drugs, but for heroin and diazepam. Weekly profiles characterized by higher consumption over the weekend as compared to weekdays were observed only for alcohol, cocaine, and MDMA. Extrapolation of the data obtained for the area under study to the national Spanish territory yields consumption figures of 142t of illicit drugs per year and >2500 million euro turnover per year in the black market.

The removal of illicit drugs and morphine in two waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) under tropical conditions

The consumption of drugs of abuse has been recently investigated in Martinique using the back-calculation approach, also called the "sewage epidemiology" method. Results demonstrated a very high consumption considering the international data. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are located just behind the Martinique island shoreline, and effluents could impact the vulnerable corals and marine seagrass ecosystem. The present article aims to determine a WWTP's efficiency by comparing the influent and effluent of two WWTPs, with different residence times and biological treatments, located either outdoors or indoors. In parallel, a degradation study is conducted using spiked wastewater exposed to tropical and ambient temperatures. Results demonstrate the consistent efficiency of the two processes, especially for the outdoor WWTP which uses the activated sludge process. The positive effect of the tropical temperature is showed by the increase of cocaine degradation at 31 °C. Thus, low illicit drug residue concentrations in effluent would indicate that wastewater treatment is efficient and even enhanced under tropical context. This fact should be confirmed with others molecules. Furthermore, our results highlight the need for subsequent studies of sludge contamination because of their local recycling as compost.

Occurrence of cocaine and metabolites in hospital effluent - A risk evaluation and development of a HPLC method using DLLME

A fast method for the determination of cocaine and its metabolites in hospital effluent samples was worked out by using liquid chromatography with the aid of fluorescence and diode array detection. Solid phase extraction and dispersive liquid -liquid microextraction were employed during the sample preparation stage. The experiment was conducted by using Chromabond^® C18 ec 6 ml/500 mg cartridges, with recoveries higher than 96.6%, 88.3%, 78.7%, and LOQ_m 0.15; 0.18 and 0.30 μg L^-1 for cocaine, benzoylecgonine and anhydroecgonine respectively. In the case of DLLME, different chemical conditions and solvent combinations were tested to find the best settings for the microextraction: pH 9; addition of 0.3 mol L^-1 NaCl; 150 μL extractor (chloroform) and 350 μL disperser (methanol). The recoveries for cocaine were as high as 98.3% with LOQ_m 0.3 μg L^-1. After validation, these methods were applied to quantification of the analytes. While the concentration of the anhydroecgonine, (the main pyrolytic metabolite of cocaine), remained below the limit of detection, the range of concentrations of cocaine and benzoylecgonine determined were 0.4-4.9 μg L^-1 and 0.9-8.6 μg L^-1, respectively. The occurrence has a relatively median/high environmental impact. These concentration values suggest that a role is played by other sources of cocaine, probably related to transport, or handling and the consumption of the drug. The outcome is that cocaine can be quantified by using DLLME as well as SPE, however, DLLME offered clear benefits like simplicity, affordability, and speed, as well as only requiring a small volume of solvents and samples.

Drugs of abuse and their metabolites in the urban rivers of Beijing, China: Occurrence, distribution, and potential environmental risk

The occurrence and distribution of five drugs of abuse and their metabolites, namely, methamphetamine (METH), amphetamine (AMP), ketamine (KET), ephedrine (EPH), and hydroxylimine (HY), were investigated in the surface water in urban rivers in Beijing, China. A total of 117 surface water samples were collected from the seven rivers in the Beijing urban areas during four different seasons. Laboratory analyses revealed that EPH and METH were the most predominant drugs, with detection frequency ranging from 94% to 100% and from 65% to 100%, respectively. High levels of METH and KET were observed in the center part of the urban areas, which was likely associated with the drug abuse and the entertainment activities. Seasonal variation of the drug occurrence showed that the highest concentration of drugs of abuse was found during winter, which was likely due to the high consumption, low temperature, and low water flows during the cold weather. By contrast, the concentration and detection frequency of AMP and HY were relatively low. Risk assessment by the risk quotient method indicated that the five drugs of abuse and their metabolites were not likely to exert biological effects on the aquatic ecosystems at current levels in the surface water. However, the potential adverse effect of drugs of abuse and their metabolites on ecosystem functioning and human health should not be neglected.

Cyto- and genotoxic profile of groundwater used as drinking water supply before and after disinfection

The assessment of the toxicological properties of raw groundwater may be useful to predict the type and quality of tap water. Contaminants in groundwater are known to be able to affect the disinfection process, resulting in the formation of substances that are cytotoxic and/or genotoxic. Though the European directive (98/83/EC, which establishes maximum levels for contaminants in raw water (RW)) provides threshold levels for acute exposure to toxic compounds, the law does not take into account chronic exposure at low doses of pollutants present in complex mixture. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the cyto- and genotoxic load in the groundwater of two water treatment plants in Northern Italy. Water samples induced cytotoxic effects, mainly observed when human cells were treated with RW. Moreover, results indicated that the disinfection process reduced cell toxicity, independent of the biocidal used. The induction of genotoxic effects was found, in particular, when the micronucleus assay was carried out on raw groundwater. These results suggest that it is important to include bio-toxicological assays as additional parameters in water quality monitoring programs, as their use would allow the evaluation of the potential risk of groundwater for humans.

Reflection of Socioeconomic Changes in Wastewater: Licit and Illicit Drug Use Patterns

The economic crisis plaguing Greece was expected to impact consumption of pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs - a priori to an unknown extent. We quantified the change of use for various classes of licit and illicit drugs by monitoring Athens' wastewater from 2010 to 2014. A high increase in the use of psychoactive drugs was detected between 2010 and 2014, especially for antipsychotics (35-fold), benzodiazepines (19-fold), and antidepressants (11-fold). This directly reflects the perceived increase of incidences associated with mental illnesses in the population, as a consequence of severe socioeconomic changes. Other therapeutic classes, like antiepileptics, hypertensives, and gastric and ulcer drugs also showed an increase in use (from 2-fold increase for antiepileptics to 13-fold for hypertensives). In contrast, the overall use of antibiotics and NSAIDs decreased. For mefenamic acid, an almost 28-fold decrease was observed. This finding is likely related to the reduction in drug expenditure applied in public health. A 2-fold increase of methamphetamine use was detected, associated with a cheap street drug called ″sisa″ (related to marginal conducts), which is a health concern. MDMA (5-fold) and methadone (7-fold) use showed also an increase, while cocaine and cannabis estimates did not show a clear trend.

Illicit drugs and their metabolites in 36 rivers that drain into the Bohai Sea and north Yellow Sea, north China

Illicit drugs and their metabolites have recently been recognized as an emerging group of contaminants due to their potential ecotoxicological impact in aquatic ecosystems. To date, information on the occurrence of these compounds in the aquatic environment of China remains limited. In this study, we collected surface water samples from 36 rivers in north China that discharge into the Bohai Sea and north Yellow Sea and measured the concentrations of amphetamine-like compounds, ketamines, cocainics, and opioids. The occurrence and spatial patterns of these substances show significant differences between the rivers and regions. Two designer drugs, methamphetamine (METH) and ketamine (KET), were the most abundant compounds detected in the entire set of samples (detection frequency of 92 and 69 %). The concentrations of METH and KET ranged from <0.1 to 42.0 ng L(-1) (mean = 4.53 ng L(-1)) and <0.05 to 4.50 ng L(-1) (mean = 0.49 ng L(-1)), respectively. The high detection frequencies of METH and KET are consistent with the fact that they are the main illicit drugs consumed in China. The high concentrations of these illicit drugs and their metabolites were found in areas that have a high population density. The riverine input of total illicit drugs into the Bohai Sea and north Yellow Sea was estimated to be in the range of 684 to 1160 kg per year.

Occurrence of illicit drugs in surface waters in China

Illicit drugs have been recognized as a group of emerging contaminants. In this work, occurrence of common illicit drugs and their metabolites in Chinese surface waters was examined by collecting samples from 49 lakes and 4 major rivers across the country. Among the drugs examined, methamphetamine and ketamine were detected with highest frequencies and concentration levels, consistent with the fact that these are primary drugs of abuse in China. Detection frequencies and concentrations of other drugs were much lower than in European lakes and rivers reported in the literature. In most Chinese surface waters methamphetamine and ketamine were detected at concentrations of several ng L(-1) or less, but in some southern lakes and rivers, these two drugs were detected at much higher concentrations (up to several tens ng L(-1)). Greater occurrence of methamphetamine and ketamine in southern surface waters was attributed to greater abuse and more clandestine production of the two drugs in southern China.

Dynamics of active pharmaceutical ingredients loads in a Swiss university hospital wastewaters and prediction of the related environmental risk for the aquatic ecosystems

The wastewater contamination of a Swiss university hospital by active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) residues was evaluated with a three months monitoring campaign at the outlet of the main building. Flow-proportional samples were collected with an automatic refrigerated sampler and analyzed for 15 API, including antibiotics, analgesics, antiepileptic and anti-inflammatory drugs, by using a validated LC-MS/MS method. The metals Gd and Pt were also analyzed using ICP-MS. Measured concentrations were compared to the predicted ones calculated after the drug average consumption data obtained from the hospital pharmacy. The hospital contribution to the total urban load was calculated according to the consumption data obtained from city pharmacies. Lastly, the environmental hazard and risk quotients (RQ) related to the hospital fraction and the total urban consumption were calculated. Median concentrations of the 15 selected compounds were ranging from 0.04 to 675 μg/L, with a mean detection frequency of 84%. The ratio between predicted and measured environmental concentrations (PEC/MEC) has shown a good accuracy for 5 out of 15 compounds, revealing over- and under-estimations of the PEC model. Mean daily loads were ranging between 0.01 and 14.2g/d, with the exception of paracetamol (109.7 g/d). The hospital contribution to the total urban loads varied from 2.1 to 100% according to the compound. While taking into account dilution and removal efficiencies in wastewater treatment plant, only the hospital fraction of the antibiotics ciprofloxacin and sulfamethoxazole showed, respectively, a high (RQ>1) and moderate (RQ>0.1) risk for the aquatic ecosystems. Nevertheless, when considering the total urban consumption, 7 compounds showed potential deleterious effects on aquatic organisms (RQ>1): gabapentin, sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin, piperacillin, ibuprofen, diclofenac and mefenamic acid. In order to reduce inputs of API residues originating from hospitals various solutions can be envisioned. With results of the present study, hospital managers can start handling this important issue.

Using Monte Carlo simulation to assess variability and uncertainty of tobacco consumption in a city by sewage epidemiology

OBJECTIVE

To use Monte Carlo simulation to assess the uncertainty and variability of tobacco consumption through wastewater analysis in a city.

METHODS

A total of 11 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (serving 2.2 million people; approximately 83% of urban population in Dalian) were selected and sampled. By detection and quantification of principal metabolites of nicotine, cotinine (COT) and trans-3'-hydroxycotinine (OH-COT), in raw wastewater, back calculation of tobacco use in the population of WWTPs can be realised.

RESULTS

COT and OH-COT were detected in the entire set of samples with an average concentration of 2.33 ± 0.30 and 2.76 ± 0.91 µg/L, respectively. The mass load of absorbed NIC during the sampling period ranged from 0.25 to 4.22 mg/day/capita with an average of 1.92 mg/day/capita. Using these data, we estimated that smokers in the sampling area consumed an average of 14.6 cigarettes per day for active smoker. Uncertainty and variability analysis by Monte Carlo simulation were used to refine this estimate: the procedure concluded that smokers in Dalian smoked between 10 and 27 cigarettes per day. This estimate showed good agreement with estimates from epidemiological research.

CONCLUSIONS

Sewage-based epidemiology may be a useful additional tool for the large-scale monitoring of patterns of tobacco use. Probabilistic methods can be used to strengthen the reliability of estimated use generated from wastewater analysis.

Pharmaceuticals and other anthropogenic tracers in surface water: a randomized survey of 50 Minnesota lakes

Water from 50 randomly selected lakes across Minnesota, USA, was analyzed for pharmaceuticals, personal care products, hormones, and other commercial or industrial chemicals in conjunction with the US Environmental Protection Agency's 2012 National Lakes Assessment. Thirty-eight of the 125 chemicals analyzed were detected at least once, all at parts per trillion concentrations. The most widely detected was N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide, present in 48% of the lakes sampled. Amitriptyline, a widely used antidepressant, was found in 28% of the lakes. The endocrine active chemicals bisphenol A, androstenedione, and nonylphenol were found in 42%, 30%, and 10% of the lakes, respectively. Cocaine was found in 32% of the lakes, and its degradation product, benzoylecgonine, was detected at 28% of the locations. Carbadox, an antibiotic used solely in the production of swine, was also present in 28% of the lakes sampled. The means by which these and other chemicals were transported to several of the remote lakes is unclear but may involve atmospheric transport.

The first application of wastewater-based drug epidemiology in five South Korean cities

Illicit drug consumption in five cities in South Korea was estimated by analyzing 17 drug residues in untreated wastewater samples collected during the Christmas and New Year period of 2012-13. Only methamphetamine, amphetamine, and codeine were detected at concentrations of tens of nanograms per liter or even lower concentrations in more than 90% of the samples. Other illicit drug residues (including cocaine, methadone, and benzoylecgonine) that have been detected frequently in wastewater from other countries were not found in this study. Methamphetamine was found to be the most widely used illicit drug in South Korea, and the estimated average consumption rate was 22 mg d(-1) (1000 people)(-1). This rate is, for example, 2-5 times lower than the estimated average consumption rates in Hong Kong and other parts of China and 4-80 times lower than the estimated average consumption rates in cities in Western countries. It should be noted that the wastewater samples analyzed in this study were collected during a holiday season, when daily consumption of illicit drugs is often higher than on an average day. The methamphetamine usage rates were calculated for different cities in South Korea, and the usage rates in smaller cities was higher (2-4 times) than the average.

Occurrence and removal of transformation products of PPCPs and illicit drugs in wastewaters: a review

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) along with illicit drugs (IDs) are newly recognized classes of environmental pollutants and are receiving considerable attention because of their environmental impacts: frequent occurrence, persistence and risk to aquatic life and humans. However, relatively little information is often available with regard to their possible biotic and abiotic transformation products (TPs). This lack of knowledge has resulted in a substantial amount of ongoing effort to develop methods and approaches that would assess their occurrence, degradability potential elimination mechanisms and efficiencies in sewage treatment plants as well as environmental and human health risks. In this article, an extensive literature survey was performed in order to present the current stage of knowledge and progress made in the occurrence of TPs of PPCPs and IDs in raw and treated wastewaters. Apart from the TPs resulting from structural transformations of the parent compound in the aquatic environment or in technological treatment facilities (e.g. sewage and drinking water treatment plants), free metabolites and drug conjugates formed during human metabolism have also been included in this review as they are also released into the aquatic environment through wastewaters. Their concentration levels were reported in influents and effluents of WWTPs, hospital effluents and their removals in the treatment plants were discussed. Finally, information on the toxicity of TPs has been compiled when available.

Understanding the magnitude of emergent contaminant releases through target screening and metabolite identification using high resolution mass spectrometry: Illicit drugs in raw sewage influents

A QExactive Orbitrap was used for the identification of phase I and II transformation products (TPs) of illicit drugs in raw sewage influents. Two operating modes (targeted MS(2) and Data-dependent screening) were used for data acquisition. Even though, data-dependent scan is a faster route towards the potential identification of metabolites, it suffered from its limitation to provide enough data points across the chromatographic peak during the MS(2) cycle in contrast to targeted MS(2). Therefore, the later technique was implemented as the method of choice in this study for the positive confirmation and quantitation of TPs (n=54). The vast majority of the identified TPs were products of phase I transformation reactions, with the latter being more prevalent in the nature. Estimated mole fractions showed that for a large number of the analytes, TPs must also be monitored in order to fully understand their environmental fate and calculate potential consumption.

Drugs of abuse and benzodiazepines in the Madrid Region (Central Spain): seasonal variation in river waters, occurrence in tap water and potential environmental and human risk

This work analyzes the seasonal variation (winter and summer) of ten drugs of abuse, six metabolites and three benzodiazepines in surface waters from the Jarama and Manzanares Rivers in the Madrid Region, the most densely populated area in Spain. The occurrence of these compounds in tap water in this region is also investigated and a preliminary human health risk characterization performed for those substances found in tap water. Finally, a screening level risk assessment that combines the measured environmental concentrations (MECs) with dose-response data to estimate Hazard Quotients (HQs) for the compounds studied is also presented. The results of this study show the presence of fourteen out of the nineteen compounds analyzed in winter and twelve of them in summer. The most ubiquitous compounds, with a frequency of detection of 100% in both seasons, were the cocaine metabolite benzoylecgonine (BE), the amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) ephedrine (EPH), the opioid methadone (METH), the METH metabolite 2-ethylene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP), and the three benzodiazepines investigated, namely alprazolam (ALP), diazepam (DIA) and lorazepam (LOR). The highest concentrations observed corresponded to EPH (1020ngL(-1) in winter and 250ngL(-1) in summer). The only compounds not detected in both seasons were heroin (HER) and its metabolite 6-acetylmorphine (6ACM), lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and its metabolite 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD (O-H-LSD), and Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). In terms of overall concentration, all sampling points presented higher concentrations in winter than in summer. Statistical analyses performed to gather evidence concerning occasional seasonal differences in the concentrations of individual substances between summer and winter showed statistically significantly higher concentrations (p<0.05) of BE, EPH and the opioid morphine (MOR) in winter than in summer. Two out of the nineteen compounds studied, namely cocaine (CO) and EPH, were detected in tap water from one sampling point at concentrations of 1.61 and 0.29ngL(-1), respectively. The preliminary human health risk characterization showed that no toxic effects could be expected at the detected concentration level in tap water. The screening level risk assessment showed that MOR, EDDP and the THC metabolite 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) were present in at least one of the sampling sites in a concentration leading to a Hazard Quotient (HQ) value between 1.0 and 10.0, thus indicating some possible adverse effects. The cumulative HQ or Toxic units (TUs) calculated for each of the groups studied showed that opioids and cannabinoids were present at concentrations high enough to potentially generate some adverse effects on at least one sampling point.

First evaluation of illicit and licit drug consumption based on wastewater analysis in Fort de France urban area (Martinique, Caribbean), a transit area for drug smuggling

Drugs of abuse are increasingly consumed worldwide. Such consumption could be back-calculated based on wastewater content. The West Indies, with its coca production and its thriving illicit drug market, is both a hub of world cocaine trafficking and a place where its consumption is prevalent particularly in the form of crack. The present study will firstly investigate Caribbean consumption by a daily 5 to 7 day sampling campaign of composite wastewater samples from the four wastewater treatment plants of the Martinique capital, including working and non-working periods. The local consumption of cocaine is ten to thirty times higher than OECD standards because of the prevalence of crack. The excretion coefficient for crack consumption and the impact of temperature on drug stability need further investigation. However, the low diversity of illicit drugs consumed and the crack prevalence suggest practices driven by the transiting of drugs for international trafficking.

Estimation of amphetamine and methamphetamine uses in Beijing through sewage-based analysis

Sewage epidemiology has been proven as an effective approach to estimate the use of illicit drugs by a population. In this study, sewage analysis was applied to examine the patterns of amphetamine (AMP) and methamphetamine (METH) uses in the urban area of Beijing. Influent and effluent samples were collected from all the thirteen sewage treatment plants (STPs) in the urban area during two sampling campaigns. METH concentrations in influents were found to range from several tens to several hundred ng·L(-1), whereas AMP concentrations ranged from several to several tens ng·L(-1). The concentration ratios between AMP and METH in influents at most STPs were close to the rate of AMP excretion following METH ingestion, indicating that AMP in sewage in Beijing was predominately from the metabolism of METH. Much higher METH loads were observed in the center part of the urban area in Beijing, indicating a strong correlation between METH use and economic level and entertainment activities. Seasonal variation in METH loads was significant, with greater use in summer than in winter. Significant difference in METH loads between weekdays and weekend days were observed in winter but not in summer. No clear trend in diurnal variation of METH use was observed. Nearly complete removal of METH occurred at the STPS in Beijing. Apparent removal rates of AMP were lower than those of METH, likely due to degradation of METH into AMP during the wastewater treatment processes. In summary, this study represents the first application of sewage epidemiology to the entire urban population of a metropolitan in mainland China and provided an overview of METH and AMP uses in the city.