Bladder tumor markers beyond cytology: International Consensus Panel on bladder tumor markers

Performance of Urinary Markers in Patients With Suspicious Cystoscopy During Follow-up of Recurrent Non-muscle Invasive Bladder Cancer: BTA Stat, NMP22 BladderChek, UBC Rapid Test, CancerCheck UBC Rapid VISUAL, and Uromonitor in Comparison to Cytology

OBJECTIVE

To compare all available rapid tests on a large cohort of recurrent bladder cancer during follow-up in this multicentre-study is the first study. BTA stat, NMP22 BladderChek, UBC Rapid Test CancerCheck UBC rapid VISUAL, and uromonitor are urinary-based rapid tests for bladder cancer detection.

METHODS

In total, 187 urine samples were analyzed from patients with suspected recurrent non-muscle invasive urothelial bladder cancer on cystoscopy during follow-up in a real-world assessment. All suspicious lesions were resected with 110 samples showing recurrent urothelial cancer. Urine samples were analyzed by the BTA stat, NMP22 BladderChek, UBC Rapid Test, CancerCheck UBC rapid VISUAL, uromonitor, and cytology. Sensitivities and specificities were calculated by contingency analyses.

RESULTS

All investigated urinary markers could detect a higher percentage of pathological results in urine of bladder cancer patients compared to urine of tumor free patients. The calculated diagnostic sensitivities for BTA stat, NMP22 BladderChek, UBC Rapid Test, CancerCheck UBC rapid VISUAL, uromonitor, and cytology were 60.0%, 10.0%, 58.0%, 32.0%, 54.5%, and 41.5% for non-muscle invasive low-grade, and 64.0%, 40.0%, 77.8%, 50.0%, 56.0%, and 65.5% for non-muscle invasive high-grade bladder cancer. The specificity was 51.3%, 94.8%, 66.2%, 89.5%, 94.9%, and 66.2%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

During follow-up sensitivities and specificities of most urinary markers are higher compared to cytology for the detection of recurrent bladder cancer. BTA stat, UBC Rapid Test, and uromonitor appear useful in this setting.

Unleashing the power of urine‑based biomarkers in diagnosis, prognosis and monitoring of bladder cancer (Review)

Bladder cancer (BCa) is a prevalent malignant neoplasm of the urinary tract with high incidence rate, frequent recurrence and rapid disease progression. Conventional approaches for diagnosing, prognosticating and monitoring BCa often rely on invasive procedures such as cystoscopy and tissue biopsy, which are associated with high costs and low patient compliance for follow‑up. Liquid biopsies have advantages, such as being non‑invasive, real‑time, and reproducible, in obtaining diverse biomarkers derived from cellular, molecular, proteomic and genetic signatures in urine or plasma samples. Although plasma‑based biomarkers have been clinically validated, urine provides greater specificity for directly assessing biological materials from urological sources. The present review summarizes advancements and current limitations in urinary protein, genetic and epigenetic biomarkers for disease progression and treatment response of BC, compares performance and application scenarios of urine and blood biomarkers and explores how urinary biomarkers may serve as an alternative or complementary tool to traditional diagnostic methods. The integration of urine‑based or plasma‑based biomarkers into existing diagnostic workflows offers promising avenues for improving accuracy and efficiency of diagnosis in the management of BCa. Notably, the emergence of synthetic biomarkers and urine metabolites, combined with artificial intelligence or bioinformatic technologies, has promise in the screening of potential targets. Continued research and validation efforts are needed to translate these findings into routine clinical practice, ultimately improving patient outcomes and decreasing the burden of BCa.

Cytomorphological characteristics of low-grade papillary urothelial carcinoma in voided urine samples: Distinction from benign and high-grade papillary urothelial carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

Given its frequent recurrence and the potential for high-grade transformation, accurate diagnosis of low-grade papillary urothelial carcinoma (LGPUC) in urine cytology is clinically important. We attempted to identify cytomorphologic features in urine samples, which could be helpful for the identification of LGPUC.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective review of voided urine specimens collected from patients with histopathologic diagnoses of LGPUC. Their cytomorphological features were compared with those from patients with benign conditions and high-grade papillary urothelial carcinoma (HGPUC).

RESULTS

A total of 115 voided urine specimens were evaluated, including 30 benign, 41 LGPUC, and 44 HGPUC cases. In LGPUC, 18 cases (44%) were diagnosed as atypical, a proportion significantly higher than that observed in benign cases (4 cases, 13%), while the remaining 23 cases (56%) were diagnosed as negative. LGPUC urine samples tended to have higher cellularity than benign cases, but the difference was not statistically significant. Three cytological features, namely nuclear enlargement, higher nuclear-to-cytoplasmic (N/C) ratio, and presence of small cell clusters, were statistically more prevalent in LGPUC compared to benign cases, although the changes were relatively subtle. In contrast, cytomorphological distinction between LGPUC and HGPUC was evident, as high cellularity, nuclear enlargement, hyperchromasia, high N/C ratio, irregular nuclear membrane, and apoptosis were significantly more prevalent in HGPUC cases.

CONCLUSIONS

Several cytomorphologic features in voided urine samples were more prevalent in cases with LGPUC, albeit not observed in all instances. Since these alterations were relatively subtle, meticulous attention to these cytomorphologic details is crucial to suggest the possibility of LGPUC.

Clinical Validation of the Proenkephalin (PENK) Methylation Urine Test for Monitoring Recurrence of Non-muscle-invasive Bladder Cancer

Background and objective

To assess the effectiveness of a urine-based proenkephalin (PENK) methylation test using linear target enrichment-quantitative methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction (mePENK test) for detection of non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) recurrence compared to cytology and the NMP22 test.

Methods

We first conducted a retrospective case-control study involving 54 patients with primary BC and 29 healthy individuals. We then prospectively enrolled 186 patients (January to December 2022) undergoing cystoscopy surveillance after transurethral resection of bladder tumor, of whom 59 had recurrent tumors. We analyzed voided urine samples for PENK methylation levels in urinary DNA. Cystoscopy with histology was used as the reference standard for assessing the diagnostic accuracy of the mePENK test in detecting BC recurrence. We calculated the sensitivity and specificity using receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. Survival differences were determined using the Kaplan-Meier method and Cox proportional-hazards model. A p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Key findings and limitations

In the case-control study, the PENK test had sensitivity of 83.3% and specificity of 100%. For NMIBC patients undergoing cystoscopy surveillance, the sensitivity was 76.3% (95% confidence interval [CI] 63.4-86.4%) and the specificity was 85% (95% CI 77.6-90.7%), outperforming cytology (sensitivity: 28.8%, 95% CI 17.8-42.1%; p < 0.001; specificity: 97.6%, 95% CI 93.2-99.5%) and the NMP22 test (sensitivity: 54.2%, 95% CI 40.7-67.2%; p = 0.016; specificity 81.9%, 95% CI 74.1-88.2%). In the high-risk group, the mePENK test had sensitivity of 89.7% (95% CI 75.8-97.1%) and a negative predictive value of 96.9%. For the group with low/intermediate risk, the sensitivity was 41.7%. In the group with negative cystoscopy, recurrence-free survival was shorter for patients with positive than for those with negative mePENK results (245 vs 503 d), with a hazard ratio of 9.4 (p < 0.001). The main study limitation is the small sample size.

Conclusions and clinical implications

The mePENK test showed good performance for detection of NMIBC recurrence and has potential for use for prognosis and prediction.

Patient summary

We found that a test used to analyze urine samples showed good performance in detecting recurrence of NMIBC. This noninvasive mePENK test may help in personalized follow-up care for patients with NMIBC.

Sensitivity of urine cytology in detecting high-grade urothelial carcinoma in patients with neoplastic urinary bladder diverticula: A major cancer center experience

BACKGROUND

Bladder diverticula are herniations of bladder urothelium and mucosa through the muscularis propria. The reported incidence of neoplasia arising in bladder diverticula is widely variable. The authors' objective was to study the characteristics and sensitivity of urine cytology in these patients with emphasis on primary intradiverticular bladder cancer (IDBC).

METHODS

A 17-year, retrospective review of all resected bladder diverticula associated with bladder carcinoma was performed. Cases that had complete diverticular resections and preresection urine samples were included in this study. The cases were divided into either primary IDBC or primary extradiverticular bladder cancer (EDBC). Demographic data and urine cytology characteristics were recorded, and sensitivity was calculated. For IDBC, a comparison between voided and cystoscopic urines was done for cases that had both collection methods performed.

RESULTS

Of 70 patients with IDBC, 47 patients had urine cytology results that were either positive for high grade-urothelial carcinoma (HG-UC) or suspicious for HG-UC. The sensitivity for HG-UC in IDBC samples was 80%, compared with 82% in EDBC samples (p > .05). Also, 28 patients in the IDBC group had both voided and cystoscopic urine samples for comparisons; in seven patients, the voided urine sample yielded a more definitive diagnosis; in 10 patients, the cystoscopic urine sample yielded a more definitive diagnosis; and, in 11 patients, both samples were equally diagnostic (p > .05).

CONCLUSIONS

The characteristics and sensitivity of urine cytology in bladder diverticula were investigated in association with neoplasia, with an emphasis on primary intradiverticular bladder cancer. The results indicated that urine cytology remains a reliable screening and diagnostic test for detecting IDBC, with sensitivity similar to that for detecting EDBC, and no significant difference was noted between voided and cystoscopic samples.

New Perspectives on the Role of Liquid Biopsy in Bladder Cancer: Applicability to Precision Medicine

Bladder cancer (BC) is one of the most common tumors in the world. Cystoscopy and tissue biopsy are the standard methods in screening and early diagnosis of suspicious bladder lesions. However, they are invasive procedures that may cause pain and infectious complications. Considering the limitations of both procedures, and the recurrence and resistance to BC treatment, it is necessary to develop a new non-invasive methodology for early diagnosis and multiple evaluations in patients under follow-up for bladder cancer. In recent years, liquid biopsy has proven to be a very useful diagnostic tool for the detection of tumor biomarkers. This non-invasive technique makes it possible to analyze single tumor components released into the peripheral circulation and to monitor tumor progression. Numerous biomarkers are being studied and interesting clinical applications for these in BC are being presented, with promising results in early diagnosis, detection of microscopic disease, and prediction of recurrence and response to treatment.

Definitions, End Points, and Clinical Trial Designs for Bladder Cancer: Recommendations From the Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer and the International Bladder Cancer Group

PURPOSE

There is a significant unmet need for new and efficacious therapies in urothelial cancer (UC). To provide recommendations on appropriate clinical trial designs across disease settings in UC, the Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer (SITC) and the International Bladder Cancer Group (IBCG) convened a multidisciplinary, international consensus panel.

METHODS

Through open communication and scientific debate in small- and whole-group settings, surveying, and responses to clinical questionnaires, the consensus panel developed recommendations on optimal definitions of the disease state, end points, trial design, evaluations, sample size calculations, and pathology considerations for definitive studies in low- and intermediate-risk nonmuscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC), high-risk NMIBC, muscle-invasive bladder cancer in the neoadjuvant and adjuvant settings, and metastatic UC. The expert panel also solicited input on the recommendations through presentations and public discussion during an open session at the 2021 Bladder Cancer Advocacy Network (BCAN) Think Tank (held virtually).

RESULTS

The consensus panel developed a set of stage-specific bladder cancer clinical trial design recommendations, which are summarized in the table that accompanies this text.

CONCLUSION

These recommendations developed by the SITC-IBCG Bladder Cancer Clinical Trial Design consensus panel will encourage uniformity among studies and facilitate drug development in this disease.

A machine learning model based on MRI for the preoperative prediction of bladder cancer invasion depth

OBJECTIVES

To construct and validate a prediction model based on full-sequence MRI for preoperatively evaluating the invasion depth of bladder cancer.

METHODS

A total of 445 patients with bladder cancer were divided into a seven-to-three training set and test set for each group. The radiomic features of lesions were extracted automatically from the preoperative MRI images. Two feature selection methods were performed and compared, the key of which are the Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) and the Max Relevance Min Redundancy (mRMR). The classifier of the prediction model was selected from six advanced machine-learning techniques. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves and the area under the curve (AUC) were applied to assess the efficiency of the models.

RESULTS

The models with the best performance for pathological invasion prediction and muscular invasion prediction consisted of LASSO as the feature selection method and random forest as the classifier. In the training set, the AUC of the pathological invasion model and muscular invasion model were 0.808 and 0.828. Furthermore, with the mRMR as the feature selection method, the external invasion model based on random forest achieved excellent discrimination (AUC, 0.857).

CONCLUSIONS

The full-sequence models demonstrated excellent accuracy for preoperatively predicting the bladder cancer invasion status.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT

This study introduces a full-sequence MRI model for preoperative prediction of the depth of bladder cancer infiltration, which could help clinicians to recognise pathological features associated with tumour infiltration prior to invasive procedures.

KEY POINTS

• Full-sequence MRI prediction model performed better than Vesicle Imaging-Reporting and Data System (VI-RADS) for preoperatively evaluating the invasion status of bladder cancer. • Machine learning methods can extract information from T1-weighted image (T1WI) sequences and benefit bladder cancer invasion prediction.

BTA stat®, NMP22® BladderChek®, UBC® Rapid Test, and CancerCheck® UBC® rapid VISUAL as urinary marker for bladder cancer: Final results of a German multicenter study

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE

BTA stat®, NMP22® BladderChek®, UBC® Rapid Test, and CancerCheck® UBC® rapid VISUAL are urinary-based rapid tests. This multicenter study is the first study comparing all available rapid tests on a large cohort of bladder cancer patients and healthy controls in one setting.

METHODS

In total 732 urine samples (second morning urine) in a real-world assessment have been analyzed. We evaluated clinical samples from 464 patients with histologically confirmed urothelial tumors of the urinary bladder (17 solitary CIS, 189 low-grade, 187 high-grade nonmuscle invasive, 71 high-grade muscle invasive), 77 patients with No Evidence of Disease (NED), and from 191 healthy controls. Urine samples were analyzed by the BTA stat®, NMP22® BladderChek®, UBC® Rapid Test point-of-care (POC) system using the concile Omega 100 POC reader, and CancerCheck® UBC® rapid VISUAL. Sensitivities and specificities were calculated by contingency analyses.

RESULTS

All investigated urinary markers detected more pathological concentrations in urine of bladder cancer patients compared to tumor-free patients. The calculated diagnostic sensitivities for BTA stat®, NMP22® BladderChek®, UBC® Rapid Test, CancerCheck® UBC® rapid VISUAL, and cytology were 62.4%, 13.4%, 58.2%, 28.6%, 36.2% for low-grade, 83.4%, 49.5%, 84.5%, 63.1%, 71.2% for high-grade nonmuscle invasive, and 95.8%, 35.2%, 76.1%, 50.7%, 67.7% for high-grade muscle-invasive bladder cancer. The specificity was 67.9%, 95.5%, 79.4%, 94.4%, and 83.7%, respectively. The area under the curve (AUC) after receiver operating characteristics (ROC) analysis for high-grade non-muscle-invasive tumors was 0.757, 0.725, 0.819, 0.787, and 0.774, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The analysis of more than 700 urine samples offers an objective view on urine-based rapid diagnostics. Elevated pathological concentrations of markers in urine of bladder cancer patients were detected in all investigated tests. The highest sensitivities for high-grade non-muscle-invasive tumors were calculated for BTA stat® and UBC® Rapid Test, whereas NMP22® BladderChek®, and cytology showed the highest specificities. BTA stat® and UBC® Rapid Test have the potential to be used as a clinical valuable urinary protein biomarker for the detection of high-grade non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer patients and could be included in the management of these tumors.

Urine biomarkers in bladder cancer - current status and future perspectives

Urine markers to detect bladder cancer have been the subject of research for decades. The idea that urine - being in continuous contact with tumour tissue - should provide a vector of tumour information remains an attractive concept. Research on this topic has resulted in a complex landscape of many different urine markers with varying degrees of clinical validation. These markers range from cell-based assays to proteins, transcriptomic markers and genomic signatures, with a clear trend towards multiplex assays. Unfortunately, the number of different urine markers and the efforts in research and development of clinical grade assays are not reflected in the use of these markers in clinical practice, which is currently limited. Numerous prospective trials are in progress with the aim of increasing the quality of evidence about urinary biomarkers in bladder cancer to achieve guideline implementation. The current research landscape suggests a division of testing approaches. Some efforts are directed towards addressing the limitations of current assays to improve the performance of urine markers for a straightforward detection of bladder cancer. Additionally, comprehensive genetic analyses are emerging based on advances in next-generation sequencing and are expected to substantially affect the potential application of urine markers in bladder cancer.

Molecular Markers for Bladder Cancer Screening: An Insight into Bladder Cancer and FDA-Approved Biomarkers

Bladder cancer is one of the most financially burdensome cancers globally, from its diagnostic to its terminal stages. The impact it imposes on patients and the medical community is substantial, exacerbated by the absence of disease-specific characteristics and limited disease-free spans. Frequent recurrences, impacting nearly half of the diagnosed population, require frequent and invasive monitoring. Given the advancing comprehension of its etiology and attributes, bladder cancer is an appealing candidate for screening strategies. Cystoscopy is the current gold standard for bladder cancer detection, but it is invasive and has the potential for undesired complications and elevated costs. Although urine cytology is a supplementary tool in select instances, its efficacy is limited due to its restricted sensitivity, mainly when targeting low-grade tumors. Although most of these assays exhibit higher sensitivity than urine cytology, clinical guidelines do not currently incorporate them. Consequently, it is necessary to explore novel screening assays to identify distinctive alterations exclusive to bladder cancer. Thus, integrating potential molecular assays requires further investigation through more extensive validation studies. Within this article, we offer a comprehensive overview of the critical features of bladder cancer while conducting a thorough analysis of the FDA-approved assays designed to diagnose and monitor its recurrences.

Identification of novel lactate metabolism-related lncRNAs with prognostic value for bladder cancer

Background: Bladder cancer (BCA) has high recurrence and metastasis rates, and current treatment options show limited efficacy and significant adverse effects. It is crucial to find diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets with clinical value. This study aimed to identify lactate metabolism-related lncRNAs (LM_lncRNAs) to establish a model for evaluating bladder cancer prognosis. Method: A risk model consisting of lactate metabolism-related lncRNAs was developed to forecast bladder cancer patient prognosis using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. Kaplan‒Meier survival analysis, receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) analysis and decision curve analysis (DCA) were used to evaluate the reliability of risk grouping for predictive analysis of bladder cancer patients. The results were also validated in the validation set. Chemotherapeutic agents sensitive to lactate metabolism were assessed using the Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer (GDSC) database. Results: As an independent prognostic factor for patients, lactate metabolism-related lncRNAs can be used as a nomogram chart that predicts overall survival time (OS). There were significant differences in survival rates between the high-risk and low-risk groups based on the Kaplan‒Meier survival curve. decision curve analysis and receiver operating characteristic curve analysis confirmed its good predictive capacity. As a result, 22 chemotherapeutic agents were predicted to positively affect the high-risk group. Conclusion: An lactate metabolism-related lncRNA prediction model was proposed to predict the prognosis for patients with bladder cancer and chemotherapeutic drug sensitivity in high-risk groups, which provided a new idea for the prognostic evaluation of the clinical treatment of bladder cancer.

Diagnostic value of the combination of DAPK methylation in urinary sediment and B ultrasound for recurrent urinary bladder cancer

BACKGROUND

Urinary bladder cancer (UBC) is the most common malignancy affecting the urinary system. This study aimed to investigate the diagnostic value of combining DAPK methylation in urinary sediment and B ultrasound in the detection of recurrent UBC.

METHODS

A total of 1021 cases with primary UBC who underwent electrocision of bladder tumor through urethra were included in this study and followed up. Various parameters including B ultrasound, DAPK methylation in urinary sediment, examination of exfoliated cells in the urine, and cystoscopy were performed. The data collected was analyzed using the Kappa test, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was constructed to assess the diagnostic role in recurrent UBC.

RESULTS

Among the 1021 patients, 115 patients experienced recurrence confirmed by cystoscopy and biopsy within two years and were excluded from the study, resulting in an effective sample size of 906 primary UBC cases. The results of cystoscopy showed agreement with B ultrasound (Kappa = 0.785, P < 0.05), as well as with DAPK methylation in urinary sediment, and the combination of B ultrasound and DAPK methylation (Kappa = 0.517, P < 0.05, Kappa = 0.593, P < 0.05). The combination of B ultrasound with DAPK methylation yielded an area under the curve of 0.922, with a sensitivity of 92.86%, specificity of 91.63%, and a negative predictive value of 99.4%, suggesting that a negative result indicates a low risk of recurrence.

CONCLUSION

The combination of DAPK methylation in urinary sediment with B ultrasound demonstrates high diagnostic performance for recurrent UBC.

Off the fog to find the optimal choice: Research advances in biomarkers for early diagnosis and recurrence monitoring of bladder cancer

Bladder cancer (BC) has high morbidity and mortality rates owing to challenges in clinical diagnosis and treatment. Advanced BC is prone to recurrence after surgery, necessitating early diagnosis and recurrence monitoring to improve the prognosis of patients. Traditional detection methods for BC include cystoscopy, cytology, and imaging; however, these methods have drawbacks such as invasiveness, lack of sensitivity, and high costs. Existing reviews on BC focus on treatment and management and lack a comprehensive assessment of biomarkers. Our article reviews various biomarkers for the early diagnosis and recurrence monitoring of BC and outlines the existing challenges associated with their application and possible solutions. Furthermore, this study highlights the potential application of urine biomarkers as a non-invasive, inexpensive adjunctive test for screening high-risk populations or evaluating patients with suspected BC symptoms, thereby alleviating the discomfort and financial burden associated with cystoscopy and improving patient survival.

The Role of Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization in the Surveillance of Non-Muscle Invasive Bladder Cancer: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) has become a popular biomarker for subsequent monitoring the recurrence of non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC), several studies have investigated the ability of FISH to detect recurrence in the surveillance of NMIBC. However, the results were inconsistent. Methods: We conducted a systematic literature search extensively on authenticated databases including PubMed/Medline, Embase, Web of Science, Ovid, and Cochrane Library. Meta-analysis was performed to find out the sensitivity and specificity of FISH in predicting recurrence of NMIBC. Results: 15 studies were ultimately included in this meta-analysis, a total of 2941 FISH evaluations from 2385 NMIBC patients were available. The pooled sensitivity of FISH was 68% (95% CI: 0.58–0.76), and the pooled specificity was 64% (95% CI: 0.53–0.74). Subgroup analyses were performed in 7 studies without Bacillus Calmette–Guerin (BCG) treatment, the pooled sensitivity was 82% (95% CI: 0.68–0.90), and the pooled specificity was 63% (95% CI: 0.37–0.82). And in 9 studies using “UroVysion standard” to define positive FISH results showed a pooled sensitivity of 60% (95% CI: 0.50–0.70) and specificity of 70% (95% CI: 0.61–0.78). Conclusions: The findings of this study indicate that FISH has a satisfactory sensitivity (68%) and specificity (64%) and could be a potential biomarker in the surveillance of NMIBC. Moreover, BCG treatment and different FISH methods may have an impact on the sensitivity and specificity, these factors should be taken into account when making clinical strategy.

A Liquid Biopsy in Bladder Cancer—The Current Landscape in Urinary Biomarkers

The non-muscle invasive bladder cancer tends to recur and progress. Therefore, it requires frequent follow-ups, generating costs and making it one of the most expensive neoplasms. Considering the expensive and invasive character of the current gold-standard diagnostic procedure, white-light cystoscopy, efforts to find an alternative method are ongoing. Although the last decade has seen significant advancements in urinary biomarker tests (UBTs) for bladder cancer, international guidelines have not recommended them. Currently, the paramount urgency is to find and validate the test with the best specificity and sensitivity, which would allow for the optimizing of diagnosis, prognosis, and a treatment plan. This review aims to summarise the up-to-date state of knowledge relating to UBTs and new developments in the detection, prognosis, and surveillance of bladder cancer and their potential applications in clinical practice.

Prediction of the postoperative prognosis in patients with non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer based on preoperative serum surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy

Non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) is a common urinary tumor and has a high recurrence rate due to improper or inadequate conservative treatment. The early and accurate prediction of its recurrence can be helpful to implement timely and rational treatment. In this study, we explored a preoperative serum surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy based prognostic protocol to predict the postoperative prognosis for NMIBC patients at the time even before treatment. The biochemical analysis results suggested that biomolecules related to DNA/RNA, protein substances, trehalose and collagen are expected to be potential prognostic markers, which further compared with several routine clinically used immunohistochemistry expressions with prognostic values. In addition, high prognostic accuracies of 87.01% and 89.47% were achieved by using the proposed prognostic models to predict the future postoperative recurrence and recurrent type, respectively. Therefore, we believe that the proposed method has great potential in the early and accurate prediction of postoperative prognosis in patients with NMIBC, which is with important clinical significance to guide the treatment and further improve the recurrence rate and survival time.

Molecular Oncology of Bladder Cancer from Inception to Modern Perspective

Within the last forty years, seminal contributions have been made in the areas of bladder cancer (BC) biology, driver genes, molecular profiling, biomarkers, and therapeutic targets for improving personalized patient care. This overview includes seminal discoveries and advances in the molecular oncology of BC. Starting with the concept of divergent molecular pathways for the development of low- and high-grade bladder tumors, field cancerization versus clonality of bladder tumors, cancer driver genes/mutations, genetic polymorphisms, and bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) as an early form of immunotherapy are some of the conceptual contributions towards improving patient care. Although beginning with a promise of predicting prognosis and individualizing treatments, "-omic" approaches and molecular subtypes have revealed the importance of BC stem cells, lineage plasticity, and intra-tumor heterogeneity as the next frontiers for realizing individualized patient care. Along with urine as the optimal non-invasive liquid biopsy, BC is at the forefront of the biomarker field. If the goal is to reduce the number of cystoscopies but not to replace them for monitoring recurrence and asymptomatic microscopic hematuria, a BC marker may reach clinical acceptance. As advances in the molecular oncology of BC continue, the next twenty-five years should significantly advance personalized care for BC patients.

Chemical tools to monitor bladder cancer progression

BackgroundBladder cancer (BCa) is the most common cancer of the urinary system. Due to its high incidence and recurrence, as well as limited progress in the effective treatment, BCa is a challenge for today's medicine.Materials and MethodsWe used a set of chromogenic substrates to differentiate between the stages of bladder cancer progression (G1 (n = 10), G2 (n = 10), G3 (n = 10)). The proteolytic activity in individual the urine samples was determined by absorbance measurements. Then inhibitors of particular classes of enzymes were used to determine which enzymes dominate at a given stage of the neoplastic disease.ResultsThe specific activity of enzymes in the urine of patients with confirmed bladder cancer was determined separately for three (G1, G2, G3) stages of the disease development. What is more, no activity was observed in urine of healthy people (n = 10).DiscussionResearch shows that specific enzymes are associated with the development of specific stages of cancer. We suspect that the differences in the proteolytic activity of urine samples are due to the presence of a different set of enzymes, that are directly related to the particular stage of the disease.ConclusionWe obtained three substrates for monitoring individual stages of bladder cancer development.

Diagnostic performance of nuclear matrix protein 22 and urine cytology for bladder cancer: A meta-analysis

PURPOSE

To compare and analyze the diagnostic efficacy of nuclear matrix protein 22 (NMP22) and urine cytology (UC) in the diagnosis of bladder cancer.

METHODS

Search the Chinese and English studies on NMP22 and urinary cytology in the diagnosis of bladder tumors published between 1999 and June, and conduct quality evaluation, data extraction and analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 397 related articles were retrieved, and 12 articles were finally included after screening, including 2456 subjects. The heterogeneity test shows that there is no discernible threshold effect. Perform meta-analysis according to the random effects model. The results showed that the total sensitivity of NMP22 and UC were 0.79 (95% CI [0.73, 0.84]) (CI: Confidence interval), 0.55 (95% CI [0.41, 0.69]), and the total specificity 0.59 (95% CI [0.46], respectively, 0.71), 0.91 (95% CI (0.81, 0.96]), +LR 1.9 (95% CI [1.4, 2.6]) (+LR: positive likelihood ration), 5.9 (95% CI [3.3, 10.6]), -LR 0.35 (-LR: negative likelihood ration), respectively (95% CI [0.27, 0.47]), 0.49 (95% CI [0.38, 0.64]), diagnostic odds ratios 5 (95% CI [3, 9]), 12 (95% CI [7, 21]). The area under the summary receiver operating characteristics curve (AUC) was 0.79 (95% CI [0.75, 0.82]) and 0.81 (95% CI [0.77, 0.84]), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

NMP22 has moderate diagnostic efficiency for bladder cancer. Its sensitivity is greater than UC, but its specificity is significantly lower than that of UC. At present, it cannot replace traditional cystoscopy and UC, but it can be combined to detect bladder tumors. It plays a major role in screening, postoperative monitoring and follow-up.

Improved Non-Invasive Diagnosis of Bladder Cancer with an Electronic Nose: A Large Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

Bladder cancer (BCa) emits specific volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the urine headspace that can be detected by an electronic nose. The diagnostic performance of an electronic nose in detecting BCa was investigated in a pilot study.

METHODS

A prospective, single-center, controlled, non-randomized, phase 2 study was carried out on 198 consecutive subjects (102 with proven BCa, 96 controls). Urine samples were evaluated with an electronic nose provided with 32 volatile gas analyzer sensors. The tests were repeated at least two times per sample. Accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and variability were evaluated using mainly the non-parametric combination method, permutation tests, and discriminant analysis classification.

RESULTS

Statistically significant differences between BCa patients and controls were reported by 28 (87.5%) of the 32 sensors. The overall discriminatory power, sensitivity, and specificity were 78.8%, 74.1%, and 76%, respectively; 13/96 (13.5%) controls and 29/102 (28.4%) BCa patients were misclassified as false positive and false negative, respectively. Where the most efficient sensors were selected, the sensitivity and specificity increased up to 91.1% (72.5-100) and 89.1% (81-95.8), respectively. None of the tumor characteristics represented independent predictors of device responsiveness.

CONCLUSIONS

The electronic nose might represent a potentially reliable, quick, accurate, and cost-effective tool for non-invasive BCa diagnosis.

Biomarkers in Bladder Cancer Surveillance

Aim: This is a narrative review with an aim to summarise and describe urinary biomarkers in the surveillance of non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC). It provides a summary of FDA-approved protein biomarkers along with emerging ones which utilise genetic, epigenetic and exosomal markers. We discuss the current limitations of the available assays. Background: Current guidelines advice a combination of cystoscopy, imaging,and urine cytology in diagnosis and surveillance. Although cytology has a high specificity, it is limited by low sensitivity particularly in low grade tumours. There are six FDA-approved urinary assays for diagnosis and surveillance of bladder cancer. They have shown to improve sensitivity and specificity to be used alongside cytology and cystoscopy but have a lower specificity in comparison to cytology and false positives often occur in benign conditions. Recent developments in laboratory techniques has allowed for use of markers which are RNA-, DNA-based as well as extracellular vesicles in the past decade. Methods: Using the PubMed/Medline search engines as well as Google Scholar, we performed an online search using the terms "bladder cancer," "non-muscle invasive bladder cancer," and "urine biomarkers" with filter for articles in English published up to May 2021. Systematic reviews and original data of clinical trials or observational studies which contributed to the development of the biomarkers were collated. Results: Biomarkers identified were divided into FDA-approved molecular biomarkers, protein biomarkers and gene-related biomarker with a table summarising the findings of each marker with the most relevant studies. The studies conducted were mainly retrospective. Due to the early stages of development, only a few prospective studies have been done for more recently developed biomarkers and limited meta-analyses are available.Therefore a detailed evaluation of these markers are still required to decide on their clinical use. Conclusion: Advancements of analytical methods in BC has driven the research towards non-invasive liquid-based biomarkers in adjunct to urine cytology. Further large prospective studies are required to determine its feasibility in a clinical setting as they are not effective when used in isolation as they have their limitation. With the ongoing pandemic, other than reduction in costs and increased accuracy, the need for biomarkers to cope with delay in cystoscopies in diagnosis and surveillance is crucial. Thus clinical trials with direct comparison is required to improve patient care.

Circulating exosomal miRNAs and cancer early diagnosis

Microribonucleic acids (miRNAs) are small non-coding ribonucleic acids (ncRNAs), which can affect recognition of homologous sequences and interfere with transcription. It plays key roles in the initiation, development, resistance, metastasis or recurrence of cancers. Identifying circulatory indicators will positively improve the prognosis and quality of life of patients with early cancer. Previous studies have shown that miRNA is highly involved in cancer. In addition, miRNA derived from cancers can be encapsulated as exosomes and further extracted into circulatory systems to realize malignant functions. It indicates that circulating exosome-derived miRNAs have the potential to replace conventional biomarkers as cancer derived exosomes carrying miRNAs can be identified by specific markers and might be more stable and accurate for early diagnosis.

Prominence of urinary biomarkers for bladder cancer in the COVID-19 era: From the commercially available to new prospective candidates

Molecular markers detected in urine may improve our understanding of the evolution of bladder cancer (BCa) and its micro- and macroenvironment. Detection of such markers will identify disease earlier, allow stratification of patients according to risk, and improve prognostication and prediction of outcomes, thereby facilitating targeted therapy. However, current guidelines have yet to embrace such markers for routine management of BCa, and most research studies have focused on urine-based tumor markers. In this review, we summarize known urinary biomarkers for BCa and highlight newly identified molecules. We then discuss the challenges that must be overcome to incorporate these markers into clinical care.

A 25-year perspective on evaluation and understanding of biomarkers in urologic cancers

The past 25 years have witnessed an explosion of investigative attempts to identify clinically useful biomarkers which can have meaningful impacts for patients with urologic cancers. However, in spite of the enormous amount of research aiming to identify markers with the hope of impacting patient care, only a handful have proven to have true clinical utility. Improvements in targeted imaging, pan-omics evaluation, and genetic sequencing at the tissue and single-cell levels have yielded many potential targets for continued biomarker investigation. This article, as one in this series for the 25th Anniversary Issue of Urologic Oncology: Seminars and Original Investigations, serves to give a perspective on our progress and failures over the past quarter-century in our highest volume urologic cancers: prostate, bladder, and kidney cancers.

Urinary Exosomal CA9 mRNA as a Novel Liquid Biopsy for Molecular Diagnosis of Bladder Cancer

Objective

The objective of this study was to assess the possibility of using urinary exosomal CA9 mRNA as a novel liquid biopsy for the molecular diagnosis of bladder cancer.

Patients and Methods

A total of 168 bladder cancer patients and 90 control subjects were included in the study. An isolation kit was used to isolate urinary exosomes. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to examine the presence of exosomes. Flow cytometry was used to examine the exosomal marker CD63. The expression level of exosomal CA9 mRNA was detected by RT-qPCR. The diagnostic performance of urinary urinary exosomal CA9 mRNA was evaluated.

Results

TEM confirmed the enriched exosomes from urinary bladder patients. Flow cytometry indicated a strong positive expression of exosome marker CD63. Successful extraction of RNA was performed from exosome samples. The level of urinary exosomal CA9 mRNA was significantly higher in bladder cancer group than in control group (p<0.001). The area under the ROC curve was 0.837 (95% CI: 0.743–0.859) with a sensitivity of 85.18% and a specificity of 83.15% for the diagnosis of bladder cancer.

Conclusion

We found that the urinary exosomes were abundant in the urine of bladder cancer patients. CA9 mRNA could be detectable in urinary exosomes. The urinary exosomal CA9 mRNA may present a new liquid biopsy for the diagnosis of bladder cancer.

Non-Muscular Invasive Bladder Cancer: Re-envisioning Therapeutic Journey from Traditional to Regenerative Interventions

Non-muscular invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) is one of the most common cancer and major cause of economical and health burden in developed countries. Progression of NMIBC has been characterized as low-grade (Ta) and high grade (carcinoma in situ and T1). The current surgical intervention for NMIBC includes transurethral resection of bladder tumor; however, its recurrence still remains a challenge. The BCG-based immunotherapy is much effective against low-grade NMIBC. BCG increases the influx of T cells at bladder cancer site and inhibits proliferation of bladder cancer cells. The chemotherapy is another traditional approach to address NMIBC by supplementing BCG. Notwithstanding, these current therapeutic measures possess limited efficacy in controlling NMIBC, and do not provide comprehensive long-term relief. Hence, biomaterials and scaffolds seem an effective medium to deliver therapeutic agents for restructuring bladder post-treatment. The regenerative therapies such as stem cells and PRP have also been explored for possible solution to NMIBC. Based on above-mentioned approaches, we have comprehensively analyzed therapeutic journey from traditional to regenerative interventions for the treatment of NMIBC.

Copy Number Variations of CEP63, FOSL2 and PAQR6 Serve as Novel Signatures for the Prognosis of Bladder Cancer

Background

Finding effective prognostic signatures is of great urgency due to the high risk of recurrence and progression of bladder cancer (BC). Although a lot of genetic alterations are involved in the carcinogenesis, none of them were referred in the current risk group stratifications. In this study, we aimed to find significant copy number variations (CNVs) to predict prognosis for BC patients.

Methods

CNVs with high aberration frequencies in BC were explored by array-based comparative genomic hybridization in 65 tumor samples. Candidates were validated in independent groups of BC tumor samples (n=219) and urine samples (n=123). 3D digital PCR was applied for detecting accurate gene copy numbers in BC urine. In order to explore the prognostic value of candidate CNVs, all enrolled patients were followed up for the disease-free survival (DFS). Cox proportional hazards regression analysis was performed to find the independent prognostic factors for DFS.

Results

CNVs of CEP63, FOSL2 and PAQR6 with high aberration frequencies (67.7%, 56.9% and 60.0%, respectively) were found in BC tumors. Copy numbers of CEP63, FOSL2 and PAQR6 were gained in 219 tumor samples. CNVs of CEP63 and FOSL2 were correlated with advanced tumor stage and high grade. Retrospective analysis (median follow-up time: 69 months) revealed that CNVs of CEP63 and FOSL2 were independent prognostic factors for DFS of non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) patients, while CNVs of FOSL2 and PAQR6 were independent prognostic factors for DFS of muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) patients. Models for predicting DFS were constructed based on CNVs of three genes. Patients with high prognostic indexes tended to have poor DFS. Prognostic index can also help to identify those with worse outcomes among high risk NMIBC patients. Copy number gains of CEP63 and FOSL2 in urine were found to be significantly correlated with poor DFS of NMIBC patients.

Conclusions

CNVs of CEP63, FOSL2 and PAQR6 were capable of predicting DFS and may serve as promising signatures for prognosis of BC.

Research Progress of Urine Biomarkers in the Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prognosis of Bladder Cancer

Bladder cancer (BC) is one of the most common tumor with high incidence. Relative to other cancers, BC has a high rate of recurrence, which results in increased mortality. As a result, early diagnosis and life-long monitoring are clinically significant for improving the long-term survival rate of BC patients. At present, the main methods of BC detection are cystoscopy and biopsy; however, these procedures can be invasive and expensive. This can lead to patient refusal and reluctance for monitoring. There are several BC biomarkers that have been approved by the FDA, but their sensitivity, specificity, and diagnostic accuracy are not ideal. More research is needed to identify suitable biomarkers that can be used for early detection, evaluation, and observation. There has been heavy research in the proteomics and genomics of BC and many potential biomarkers have been found. Although the advent of metabonomics came late, with the recent development of advanced analytical technology and bioinformatics, metabonomics has become a widely used diagnostic tool in clinical and biomedical research. It should be emphasized that despite progress in new biomarkers for BC diagnosis, there remains challenges and limitations in metabonomics research that affects its translation into clinical practice. In this chapter, the latest literature on BC biomarkers was reviewed.

Urinary Angiogenin as a Marker for Bladder Cancer: A Meta-Analysis

AIMS

Bladder cancer (BCa) is a common cancer in North America and Europe that carries considerable morbidity and mortality. A reliable biomarker for early detection of the bladder is crucial for improving the prognosis of BCA. In this meta-analysis, we examine the diagnostic role of the angiogenin (ANG) protein in patients' urine with bladder neoplasm.

METHODS

We performed a systematic literature search using ScienceDirect, Web of Science, PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Embase, up to 10th October 2020 databases. Meta-Disc V.1.4 and Comprehensive Meta-Analysis V.2.2 software calculated the pooled specificity, sensitivity, area under the curve (AUC), diagnostic odds ratio (DOR), positive likelihood ratio (LR+), negative likelihood ratio (LR-), Q ∗ index, and summary receiver-operating characteristic (SROC) for the role of ANG as a urinary biomarker for BCa patients.

RESULTS

Four case-control studies were included with 656 participants (417 cases and 239 controls) in this meta-analysis. The pooled sensitivity of 0.71 (95% CI: 0.66-0.75), specificity of 0.78 (95% CI: 0.73-0.81), LR+ of 3.34 (95% CI: 2.02-5.53), LR- of 0.37 (95% CI: 0.32-0.44), DOR of 9.99 (95% CI: 4.69-21.28), and AUC of 0.789 and Q ∗ index of 0.726 demonstrate acceptable diagnostic precision of ANG in identifying BCa.

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis showed that ANG could be a fair biomarker for the diagnosis of BCa patients.

Diagnostic performance of Oncuria™, a urinalysis test for bladder cancer

BACKGROUND

Due to insufficient accuracy, urine-based assays currently have a limited role in the management of patients with bladder cancer. The identification of multiplex molecular signatures associated with disease has the potential to address this deficiency and to assist with accurate, non-invasive diagnosis and monitoring.

METHODS

To evaluate the performance of Oncuria™, a multiplex immunoassay for bladder detection in voided urine samples. The test was evaluated in a multi-institutional cohort of 362 prospectively collected subjects presenting for bladder cancer evaluation. The parallel measurement of 10 biomarkers (A1AT, APOE, ANG, CA9, IL8, MMP9, MMP10, PAI1, SDC1 and VEGFA) was performed in an independent clinical laboratory. The ability of the test to identify patients harboring bladder cancer was assessed. Bladder cancer status was confirmed by cystoscopy and tissue biopsy. The association of biomarkers and demographic factors was evaluated using linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and predictive models were derived using supervised learning and cross-validation analyses. Diagnostic performance was assessed using ROC curves.

RESULTS

The combination of the 10 biomarkers provided an AUROC 0.93 [95% CI 0.87-0.98], outperforming any single biomarker. The addition of demographic data (age, sex, and race) into a hybrid signature improved the diagnostic performance AUROC 0.95 [95% CI 0.90-1.00]. The hybrid signature achieved an overall sensitivity of 0.93, specificity of 0.93, PPV of 0.65 and NPV of 0.99 for bladder cancer classification. Sensitivity values of the diagnostic panel for high-grade bladder cancer, low-grade bladder cancer, MIBC and NMIBC were 0.94, 0.89, 0.97 and 0.93, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Urinary levels of a biomarker panel enabled the accurate discrimination of bladder cancer patients and controls. The multiplex Oncuria™ test can achieve the efficient and accurate detection and monitoring of bladder cancer in a non-invasive patient setting.

UroVysion fluorescence in situ hybridization in urothelial carcinoma: a narrative review and future perspectives

The number of patients with urothelial carcinoma (UC) is high, with a corresponding demand for detecting UC easily and non-invasively. Cystoscopy and urine cytology, with widely known diagnostic accuracies, are the gold standards for identifying UC originating from the bladder. However, cystoscopy or other tests, such as ureteroscopy or retrograde pyelography, are uncomfortable for patients. Tests for urinary biomarkers are expected to satisfy the demand for less invasive tests that will benefit patients with anxiety for invasive tests such as cystoscopy or ureteroscopy. Although several urinary biomarkers have been reported to support the diagnosis or follow-up of UC, their use in the clinic is uncommon. The UroVysion test examines urinary biomarkers using a multitarget, multicolor fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) assay. The test uses exfoliated cells found in urine and is a mixture of centromeric fluorescent denatured chromosome enumeration probes for chromosomes 3, 7, and 17 (labelled stratum red, spectrum green and spectrum aqua, respectively), and a locus-specific identifier probe for 9p21 (spectrum gold). It is used for the initial diagnosis of patients with hematuria or the monitoring of patients previously diagnosed with bladder cancer. Almost 20 years have passed since UroVysion was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, and so this is a well-established test. However, room exists for further research, with numerous reports on this test having been recently published. In order to update our knowledge, we herein present a brief overview of UroVysion and its features that follows the latest findings as they relate to UC.

Prognostic factors of non-muscle invasive bladder cancer: a study based on next-generation sequencing

Objective

To investigate the genetic prognostic factors for the recurrence of non-muscle invasive bladder cancer.

Materials and methods

The patients underwent transurethral resection of bladder tumor and received bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) or epirubicin. Next-generation sequencing was performed and alterations of genes, pathways, and tumor mutation burden were recorded. Associations between these clinicopathological and genetic variants were estimated, and prognostic factor identified.

Results

A total of 58 cases were included in our study, and 46 patients underwent treatment with BCG. FGFR3 was the most frequently altered gene (48%), and more commonly detected in intermediate-risk patients. Univariate Cox analysis demonstrated that 10 genes were significantly correlated with BCG failure, while NEB, FGFR1 and SDHC were independent recurrence predictors. Besides, epigenetic-related gene pathway mutations were negatively correlated with recurrence (hazard ratio: 0.198, P = 0.023). DNA damage response and repair gene alterations were positively correlated with tumor burden, while altered TP53 was most frequent among these genes and significant correlated with high tumor burden.

Conclusion

BCG instillation significantly reduced the rate of recurrence compared with epirubicin in this population. Potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets were found with the help of next-generation sequencing; correlations between DDR genes alterations and high tumor mutation burden were also demonstrated.

Review of non-invasive urinary biomarkers in bladder cancer

Bladder cancer (BC) is the sixth-most prevalent cancer. The standard diagnostic tool of BC is cystoscopy, whereas cystoscopy has several disadvantages in terms of symptomatic invasiveness and operator-dependency. The urinary markers are attractive because the testing is non-invasive and cost-efficient, and sample collection is easy. Urinary marker is thereby a good tool to detect exfoliated tumor cell in the urine samples for the diagnosis and therapeutic surveillance of BC to supplement the limitations of the cystoscopy. However, they are not recommended as a population-based screening tool because of the low rate of BC prevalence. Although both cystoscopy and urine cytology improve BC diagnostic power, the field still needs additional non-invasive, cost-effective, and highly sensitive and specific diagnostic tools. Various urinary markers with different mechanisms and different targets have been developed and under investigation in these days. However, the accuracy of the urinary marker including its sensitivity and specificity is the most important factor for the diagnosis and surveillance in cancer that this review deals with multiple FDA-approved and non-FDA approved commercialized urinary markers with their accuracy in different purposes for BC. We then discuss more about the potential candidate targets for the future urinary markers in BC.

Urinary biomarkers in bladder cancer: A review of the current landscape and future directions

AIM

This narrative review aims to describe established and emerging urinary biomarkers in the diagnosis and surveillance of non-muscle invasive bladder cancer. It provides a comprehensive account of classical, FDA-approved protein biomarkers and discusses their limitations. Further, we discuss the role that epigenetic, genetic, and exosomal markers can play to enhance sensitivity and specificity of the available tests.

BACKGROUND

The initial diagnosis and surveillance of bladder cancer involves a combination of cystoscopy, upper urinary tract imaging, and urine cytology. Despite high specificity, cytology is limited by low sensitivity. There are currently 6 urinary assays approved by the FDA to enhance diagnosis and surveillance of bladder cancer. While these have improved diagnosis and surveillance when combined with cytology, these tests are still not sufficiently sensitive and false positives often occur in benign conditions which result in inflammation of the urinary tract. Advancements in laboratory techniques have produced significant advancements in epigenetic and genetic markers, as well as extracellular vesicles, with DNA- and RNA-based markers dominating the research in this area in recent years.

METHODS

We identified relevant published data, using the PubMed/ Medline search engines as well as Google Scholar. We performed an online search using the terms "bladder cancer", "non-muscle invasive bladder cancer" in combination with "urine biomarkers" and limited articles in English published up to February 2020. This review consolidated on all available narrative and systematic reviews published in the 5 years in this field, while also reviewing the original data of each clinical trial or observational study which led to the development of the biomarkers.

CONCLUSION

The development of laboratory techniques and understanding urine-based biomarkers in BC has fuelled the use of noninvasive liquid-based biomarkers to complement urine cytology. Nonetheless, none are sufficiently effective when used in isolation, and cytology remains the gold standard in many practices. Future efforts will be focused on using these markers in combination as a predictive signature, and moving on to validating them for use in everyday clinical practice.

Raman chemometric urinalysis (Rametrix) as a screen for bladder cancer

Bladder cancer (BCA) is relatively common and potentially recurrent/progressive disease. It is also costly to detect, treat, and control. Definitive diagnosis is made by examination of urine sediment, imaging, direct visualization (cystoscopy), and invasive biopsy of suspect bladder lesions. There are currently no widely-used BCA-specific biomarker urine screening tests for early BCA or for following patients during/after therapy. Urine metabolomic screening for biomarkers is costly and generally unavailable for clinical use. In response, we developed Raman spectroscopy-based chemometric urinalysis (Rametrix™) as a direct liquid urine screening method for detecting complex molecular signatures in urine associated with BCA and other genitourinary tract pathologies. In particular, the Rametrix^TM screen used principal components (PCs) of urine Raman spectra to build discriminant analysis models that indicate the presence/absence of disease. The number of PCs included was varied, and all models were cross-validated by leave-one-out analysis. In Study 1 reported here, we tested the Rametrix™ screen using urine specimens from 56 consented patients from a urology clinic. This proof-of-concept study contained 17 urine specimens with active BCA (BCA-positive), 32 urine specimens from patients with other genitourinary tract pathologies, seven specimens from healthy patients, and the urinalysis control Surine^TM. Using a model built with 22 PCs, BCA was detected with 80.4% accuracy, 82.4% sensitivity, 79.5% specificity, 63.6% positive predictive value (PPV), and 91.2% negative predictive value (NPV). Based on the number of PCs included, we found the Rametrix^TM screen could be fine-tuned for either high sensitivity or specificity. In other studies reported here, Rametrix^TM was also able to differentiate between urine specimens from patients with BCA and other genitourinary pathologies and those obtained from patients with end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). While larger studies are needed to improve Rametrix^TM models and demonstrate clinical relevance, this study demonstrates the ability of the Rametrix^TM screen to differentiate urine of BCA-positive patients. Molecular signature variances in the urine metabolome of BCA patients included changes in: phosphatidylinositol, nucleic acids, protein (particularly collagen), aromatic amino acids, and carotenoids.

Comparison of Pteridine Normalization Methods in Urine for Detection of Bladder Cancer

Pterin compounds belong to the group of biomarkers for which an increase in interest has been observed in recent years. Available literature data point to this group of compounds as potential biomarkers for cancer detection, although the biochemical justification for this claim is not yet fully understood. The aim of this study was to evaluate the usefulness of pterin compounds in the diagnosis of bladder cancer, with particular emphasis on the role of creatinine and the specific gravity of urine as factors for normalizing the concentration of pterin compounds in urine. The standardization of the concentration of pterin compounds to urine specific gravity allows the building of better classification models for screening patients with potential cancer of the bladder. Of the compounds that make up the pterin profile, isoxanthopterin appears to be a compound that can potentially be described as a biomarker of bladder cancer.

An ensemble approach of urine sediment image analysis and NMP22 test for detection of bladder cancer cells

Background

Bladder cancer is the eighth most common cancer and the second most common urological cancer in Korean males. Current diagnostic tools for bladder cancer include cystoscopy (an upper tract study), urine cytology, and nuclear matrix protein 22 (NMP22) test. In this study, we evaluated the detection rate of atypical/malignant urothelial cells in urinary sediment images when flagged for positive NMP22 test.

Methods

NMP22 was measured by NMP22 BladderChek Test (Abbott Laboratories) and urine chemical and sediment analysis were performed by fully automated cobas 6500 urine analyzer (Roche Diagnostics). Specimens that met the manual microscopic examination (MME) criteria were then subjected to an on‐screen review of images. We subsequently reviewed sediment images and examined under the microscopy for the flagged cases.

Results

Of the 1217 patients, 345 (28.3%) had positive NMP22 results, whereas 872 (71.7%) had negative results. Out of the positive results, 154 (12.7%) were positive and 191 (15.7%) weakly positive for NMP22. Screened review of flagged specimens (ie, positive NMP22 result) with sediment imaging analysis revealed that suspicious urothelial carcinoma cells were detected in only two cases (0.8%). In the NMP22 negative flagged cases, the suspicious neoplastic cells were not found.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that the NMP22 test should be added to the flagging criteria for MME to improve diagnostic accuracy. The combination of urine sediment imaging analysis and NMP22 test can significantly assist technicians in the review of specimens.

Bladder cancer hunting: A microfluidic paper-based analytical device

Bladder cancer is the fourth most common cancer in men, and it is becoming a prevalent malignancy. Most of the regular clinical examinations are prompt evaluations with cystoscopy, renal function testing, which require high-precision instrument, well-trained operators, and high cost. In this study, a microfluidic paper-based analytical device (μPAD) was fabricated to detect nuclear matrix protein 22 (NMP22) and bladder cancer antigen (BTA) from the urine samples. Urine samples were collected from 11 bladder cancer patients and 10 well-beings as experiment and control groups, respectively, to verify the working efficiency of μPAD. A remarkable checkout efficiency of up to 90.91% was found from the results. Meanwhile, this method is feasible for home-based self-detection from urine samples within 10 min for the total process, which provides a new way for quick, economical, and convenient tumor diagnosis, prognosis evaluation, and drug response.

Urinary Biomarkers in Bladder Cancer: Where Do We Stand and Potential Role of Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small membrane vesicles released by all cells and involved in intercellular communication. Importantly, EVs cargo includes nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins constantly transferred between different cell types, contributing to autocrine and paracrine signaling. In recent years, they have been shown to play vital roles, not only in normal biological functions, but also in pathological conditions, such as cancer. In the multistep process of cancer progression, EVs act at different levels, from stimulation of neoplastic transformation, proliferation, promotion of angiogenesis, migration, invasion, and formation of metastatic niches in distant organs, to immune escape and therapy resistance. Moreover, as products of their parental cells, reflecting their genetic signatures and phenotypes, EVs hold great promise as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. Importantly, their potential to overcome the current limitations or the present diagnostic procedures has created interest in bladder cancer (BCa). Indeed, cystoscopy is an invasive and costly technique, whereas cytology has poor sensitivity for early staged and low-grade disease. Several urine-based biomarkers for BCa were found to overcome these limitations. Here, we review their potential advantages and downfalls. In addition, recent literature on the potential of EVs to improve BCa management was reviewed and discussed.

Clinical Significance of Hotspot Mutation Analysis of Urinary Cell-Free DNA in Urothelial Bladder Cancer

Recent studies showed the clinical utility of next-generation sequencing of urinary cell-free DNA (cfDNA) from patients with urothelial bladder cancer (UBC). In this study, we aimed to develop urinary cfDNA analysis by droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) as a high-throughput and rapid assay for UBC detection and prognosis. We analyzed urinary cfDNA of 202 samples from 2 cohorts. Test cohort was designed for investigating clinical utility of urinary cfDNA, and was composed of 74 samples from patients with UBC, and 52 samples of benign hematuria patients. Validation cohort was designed for validation and assessment of clinical utility comparing urinary cfDNA with UroVysion (Abbott, Illinois, USA), and was composed of 40 samples from patients with UBC, and 36 prospectively collected samples from patients under surveillance after surgery for urothelial carcinoma. We performed ddPCR analysis of hotspot gene mutations (TERT promoter and FGFR3). In the test cohort, the sensitivity of urinary cfDNA diagnosis was 68.9% (51/74) and the specificity was 100% in patients with UBC. The sensitivity increased to 85.9% when used in conjunction with urine cytology. In addition, patients with high TERT C228T allele frequency (≥14%) had significantly worse prognosis in bladder tumor recurrence than patients with low TERT C228T allele frequency or negative TERT C228T (p = 0.0322). In the validation cohort, the sensitivity of urinary cfDNA was 57.5% (23/40) and the specificity was 100% in UBC patients. The sensitivity of the combination of urine cytology with our hotspot analysis (77.5%) was higher than that of urine cytology with UroVysion (68.9%). In the post-surgical surveillance group, patients positive for the TERT C228T mutation had significantly worse prognosis for bladder tumor recurrence than mutation negative patients (p < 0.001). In conclusion, ddPCR analysis of urinary cfDNA is a simple and promising assay for the clinical setting, surpassing UroVysion for detection and prognosis determination in UBC.

Role of serum and urine transforming growth factor beta 1, matrix metallopeptidase 9, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2, and nerve growth factor beta levels and serum neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio in predicting recurrence and progression risks in patients with primary non-muscle invasive bladder cancer

OBJECTIVE

The current study aimed to examine the correlation between serum and urine transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9), tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP-2), and nerve growth factor beta (NGF-β) levels and serum neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) as well as the recurrence and progression risks of non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The current study included 89 individuals: n=47, patients with primary NMIBC (patient group) and n=42, healthy controls (control group). The TGF-β1, MMP-9, TIMP-2, and NGF-β levels in the blood and urine samples were assessed using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Moreover, the serum NLR was evaluated. For the statistical analysis, a generalized linear model was used to compare the groups. In the analysis, gender and use of cigarettes were used as the secondary factors, and age was included as the covariate in the generalized linear model set for the intergroup evaluations. Meanwhile, a logistic regression model was utilized to evaluate the impact of the biomarkers on the risk of recurrence and progression.

RESULTS

The serum NLR was higher in the patient group than in the control group (p=0.033). The patients with disease recurrence had higher body mass index and MMP-9 levels, but the results were not statistically significant. Moreover, the patients with a high NLR had a high risk of disease progression (odds ratio [OR]=13.046, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.057-161.18, p=0.045), whereas the patients with a high serum TGF-β1 level (OR=0.972, 95% CI=0.945-0.999, p=0.047) had a low risk of disease progression.

CONCLUSION

High NLR and low TGF-β1 values were associated with an increased risk of disease progression in patients with NMIBC. However, no relationships were found between TGF-β1, MMP-9, TIMP-2, and NGF-β values and the recurrence of NMIBC.

Identification of a six-lncRNA signature based on a competing endogenous RNA network for predicting the risk of tumour recurrence in bladder cancer patients

Bladder cancer (BC) is the most common malignancy involving the urinary system, and is characterized by a high recurrence rate. It is important to identify potential lncRNA signatures capable of predicting tumour recurrence risk and assessing recurrence prognosis in BC patients. We extracted data from The Cancer Genome Atlas and identified 381 differentially expressed lncRNAs, 855 mRNAs and 70 miRNAs between non-recurrent and recurrent BC tissues. Subsequently, a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network composed of 29 lncRNAs, 13 miRNAs and 4 mRNAs was established. We used univariate and multivariate Cox regression to analyse the relationship between the 29 lncRNAs and recurrence-free survival (RFS) in BC patients. Six lncRNAs had significant prognostic values, and their cumulative risk score indicated that this 6-lncRNA signature independently predicted RFS in BC patients. We applied a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis to assess the efficiency of our prognostic models. High-risk patients exhibited a poorer prognosis than low-risk patients did. Additionally, the 6-lncRNA signature showed a significant correlation with BC clinicopathological characteristics, which indicates that it could be used for effective risk stratification. The current study provides novel insights into the lncRNA-related ceRNA network and this 6-lncRNA signature may be an independent prognostic factor in predicting the recurrence of BC patients.

Diagnostic accuracy of urinary survivin mRNA expression detected by RT-PCR compared with urine cytology in the detection of bladder cancer: A meta-analysis of diagnostic test accuracy in head-to-head studies

Survivin is a promising marker for the diagnosis of bladder cancer. The accuracy and clinical value of urinary survivin mRNA expression were compared with urine cytology, which is the standard diagnostic method for bladder cancer. Scientific databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library and China National Knowledge Infrastructure, were searched in order to find studies that examined urinary survivin mRNA expression and urine cytology in the diagnosis of bladder cancer. Quality assessment was performed using the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies 2 tool in Revman 5.3 and data analysis was conducted using Stata/MP. The I² statistic was used to evaluate heterogeneity and Deeks' funnel plot was generated to assess the possibility of publication bias. A total of 15 studies that evaluated a total of 1,624 patients were included in the present meta-analysis. The pooled sensitivity and specificity values for the detection of urinary survivin mRNA expression in the diagnosis of bladder cancer were 0.86 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.81-0.90] and 0.95 (95% CI, 0.93-0.96), respectively. Regarding urine cytology, the pooled sensitivity and specificity values were 0.42 (95% CI, 0.36-0.48) and 1.00 (95% CI, 0.98-1.00), respectively. Furthermore, the differences in pooled sensitivity were statistically significant in the diagnosis of grade 1 and 2 bladder tumors. Summary receiver operating characteristic curve values for urinary survivin mRNA expression and urine cytology were 0.95 (95% CI, 0.93-0.97) and 0.86 (95% CI, 0.83-0.89), respectively. Urinary survivin mRNA expression was also more accurate compared with other diagnostic indicators, including positive likelihood ratios, negative likelihood ratios, diagnostic odds ratios and Youden's index. Compared with traditional urine cytology, urinary survivin mRNA detection using reverse transcription-PCR was identified to be more effective in the diagnosis of early bladder cancer.

Incidence and distribution of UroSEEK gene panel in a multi-institutional cohort of bladder urothelial carcinoma

Noninvasive approaches for early detection of bladder cancer are actively being investigated. We recently developed a urine- based molecular assay for the detection and surveillance of bladder neoplasms (UroSEEK). UroSEEK is designed to detect alterations in 11 genes that include most common genetic alterations in bladder cancer. In this study, we analyzed 527 cases, including 373 noninvasive and 154 invasive urothelial carcinomas of bladder from transurethral resections or cystectomies performed at four institutions (1991-2016). Two different mutational analysis assays of a representative tumor area were performed: first, a singleplex PCR assay for evaluation of the TERT promoter region (TERTSeqS) and second, a multiplex PCR assay using primers designed to amplify regions of interest of 10 (FGFR3, PIK3CA, TP53, HRAS, KRAS, ERBB2, CDKN2A, MET, MLL, and VHL) genes (UroSeqS). Overall, 92% of all bladder tumors were positive for at least one genetic alteration in the UroSEEK panel. We found TERT promoter mutations in 77% of low-grade noninvasive papillary carcinomas, with a relatively lower incidence of 65% in high-grade noninvasive papillary carcinomas and carcinomas in situ; p = 0.017. Seventy-two percent of pT1 and 63% of muscle-invasive bladder tumors harbored TERT promoter mutations with g.1295228C>T alteration being the most common in all groups. FGFR3 and PIK3CA mutations were more frequent in low-grade noninvasive papillary carcinomas compared with high-grade noninvasive papillary carcinomas and carcinomas in situ (p < 0.0001), while the opposite was true for TP53 (p < 0.0001). Significantly higher rates of TP53 and CDKN2A mutation rates (p = 0.005 and 0.035, respectively) were encountered in muscle-invasive bladder tumors compared with those of pT1 stage. The overwhelming majority of all investigated tumors showed at least one mutation among UroSEEK assay genes, confirming the comprehensive coverage of the panel and supporting its potential utility as a noninvasive urine-based assay.

A Quest for Accuracy: Evaluation of The Paris System in Diagnosis of Urothelial Carcinomas

INTRODUCTION

Urine cytology is an important screening tool of patients for urothelial carcinoma (UC) and follow-up of patients with treated disease. Ease of procurement, cost-effectiveness, and lower turnaround time are the major advantages.

OBJECTIVE

To compare current system of reporting (CSR) at our institute with The Paris System (TPS) and analyze utility of urine cytology based on TPS reporting in correlation with urine culture and histopathology.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

One-year retrospective study of 90 cases was undertaken wherein cases presenting with painless hematuria and clinically suspicious of UC were included. Urine cytology slides were reviewed and reported with TPS guidelines. These findings were correlated with histopathological diagnosis and urine culture as indicated. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS 17 software.

RESULTS

With TPS guidelines, 11.1% and 5.6% cases were reported as high-grade UC (HGUC) and low-grade urothelial neoplasm (LGUN), respectively. Suspicious for HGUC category included 17.8% of cases. The rate of reporting "atypical urothelial cells (AUC)" was significantly lower (11.1%) with TPS on comparison with CSR (16.7%). Histopathological correlation of positive predictive value for HGUC was better (100%) on using TPS when compared with CSR (64.3%). Among 11 cases with microbial growth on urine culture, 9.1% were reported as atypical. Sensitivity and accuracy of TPS in detecting UC were 83.3% and 86.52%, respectively. Both were higher when compared with CSR.

CONCLUSION

In comparison to CSR, criteria of TPS limit the AUC category and enhance the sensitivity and accuracy of detecting HGUC. Adopting TPS for urinary cytology will ensure uniformity and accuracy of HGUC diagnosis.