Prevalence of zoonotic important parasites in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Great Britain

Influence of environmental factors on the occurrence of gastrointestinal and cardiopulmonary nematodes in the red fox in the semi-arid Mediterranean areas of the Iberian Peninsula

Human-induced ecosystem fragmentation is one of the drivers causing wildlife migration from their natural habitats to urban areas, among other reasons. The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the most abundant wild canid in the semi-arid Mediterranean areas of the Iberian Peninsula. Water scarcity may result in areas shared by synanthropic fox populations and domestic animals becoming hotspots for parasite transmission. This study describes the gastrointestinal and cardiopulmonary nematode species affecting fox populations in these semi-arid areas and the influence of environmental variables on parasite abundance. A total of 167 foxes collected from 2015 to 2021 in the Region of Murcia (SE Spain) were analysed. Parasite abundance and spatial distribution were evaluated using environmental variables and host characteristics with a Generalised Linear Model and the Moran index. Eleven species (seven from the gastrointestinal tract and four from the cardiopulmonary tract) were described. The influence of biotic and abiotic variables was studied for Angiostrongylus vasorum, Crenosoma vulpis, Uncinaria stenocephala, Toxocara canis and Toxascaris leonina. Temperature, humidity and areas of forest or agricultural land influenced the abundance of these parasites, providing optimal conditions for free-living stages of the direct life cycle nematodes and intermediate hosts. Absolute abundance distribution maps showed defined locations for C. vulpis, T. canis and T. leonina. The results for U. stenocephala, T. canis and T. leonina were particularly important as their higher abundance levels were found close to anthropized areas, which need to be carefully evaluated to prevent transmission of these nematodes between domestic and wild canids and human health.

Survey of Common Infectious Diseases in Urban Foxes (Vulpes spp.) in Southeastern Iran

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is one of the most common species of wild Canidae and is relatively abundant in Iran. Foxes (Vulpes spp.) transmit many zoonotic diseases, the most important of which are visceral leishmaniasis, rabies, hydatidosis, toxocariasis, and trichinellosis. In this study, visceral leishmaniasis, rabies, ectoparasites, canine gastrointestinal helminths, dermatophytosis, distemper, parvovirus infection, and heartworm infections were evaluated among live-trapped and rescued foxes injured by traffic road accidents referred to the teaching hospital of Kerman, Iran, veterinary faculty. Skin scraping and direct microscopic examination were used to detect ectoparasites and dermatophytosis. Immunochromatography rapid kits were used to detect dirofilariasis, parvovirus infection, and distemper. Necropsy was used to check for gastrointestinal parasites. Rabies and visceral leishmaniosis were screened for with direct fluorescent antibody test and ELISA methods, respectively. Gastrointestinal helminth infections, including Toxocara canis, Taenia taeniaeformis, Dipylidium caninum, Joyeuxiella echinorhyncoids, Toxascaris leonina, Taenia hydatigena, Echinococcus granulosus, Rictolaria spp., Oxynema spp., Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus, and Physaloptera spp., were detected. Skin scrapings showed dermatophytosis and various ectoparasites, including Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Ctenocephalides canis and Ctenocephalides felis, and Sarcoptes scabiei, in foxes with dermal lesions. Distemper and parvovirus infection (26.66%) were the common viral diseases, and rabies infection rate was quite high (16.66%). Dirofilariasis and leishmaniasis were detected in 10% of the population. This study showed that urban foxes which often cohabit with humans and domestic animals are carriers of many different pathogens. This interaction may facilitate indirect cross-species transmission of zoonotic disease. Periodic health monitoring and multidisciplinary cooperation for the diagnosis, control, and prevention of these zoonoses is highly recommended.

A walk on the wild side: A review of the epidemiology of Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati in wild hosts

Toxocara species are cosmopolitan nematode parasites of companion, domestic and wild hosts. Of the 26 known species of Toxocara, only Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati are definitively zoonotic. The significance of wild carnivores as definitive hosts of T. canis and T. cati respectively, has received far less attention compared to domestic dogs and cats. Complex environmental changes have promoted increasing contact between wildlife, domestic animals and humans that can enhance the risk of pathogen spillover. This review lists a total of 19 species of wild canid host that have been shown to act as definitive hosts for T. canis and a total of 21 species of wild felid host. In general, the number of publications focusing on felid host species is fewer in number, reflecting the general paucity of data on T. cati. The wild canids that have received the most attention in the published literature include the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), the wolf (Canis lupus), and the golden jackal (Canis aureus). The wild felid species that has received the most attention in the published literature is the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx). Some non-canid and non-felid hosts also act as definitive hosts of Toxocara species. Certainly, red foxes would appear to be the most significant wild species in terms of their potential to transmit Toxocara to domestic dogs and humans via environmental contamination. This can be explained by their increasing population densities, encroachment into urban areas and their dietary preferences for a wide range of potential paratenic hosts. However, a major challenge remains to assess the relative importance of wild hosts as contributors to environmental contamination with Toxocara ova. Furthermore, one major constraint to our understanding of the significance of wildlife parasitism is a lack of access to samples, particularly from rare host species.

A coprological survey on helminths of Jackal Canis aureus Linnaeus 1758 in Kashmir Himalaya

A coprological examination was carried out between February 2017 and January 2019 to determine the prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths in jackals of Kashmir Himalaya, India. Fecal floatation and sedimentation technique revealed helminths in 215 scats out of 879 examined scats, with overall helminth prevalence of 24.45%. In the study, five different species of helminths were detected in scats of jackal: Toxocara canis (22.86%), Ancylostoma caninum (20.47%), Dipylidium caninum (17.17%), Trichuris vulpis (19.34%), and taeniid eggs (13.65%). One helminth species was found in (0.11%) of the jackal scats, two were in (1.25%), three were in (4.77%), four were in (16.38%), and five were in (1.92%). Toxocara canis, a nematode with great zoonotic significance, was most common helminth found in scats of jackal during the study. We observed significant seasonal fluctuation (p < 0.05) in the prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths, with summer having high frequency followed by autumn, spring, and winter having lowest prevalence. The study area's jackal population's preponderance of zoonotic helminth species suggests a high risk of zoonotic infection by canine intestinal helminths. This study will aid veterinarians in better plan preventative strategies with regard to wild animal intestinal parasites.

Socio-ecological drivers of multiple zoonotic hazards in highly urbanized cities

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic is a stark reminder of the devastating consequences of pathogen spillover from wildlife to human hosts, particularly in densely populated urban centers. Prevention of future zoonotic disease is contingent on informed surveillance for known and novel threats across diverse human-wildlife interfaces. Cities are a key venue for potential spillover events because of the presence of zoonotic pathogens transmitted by hosts and vectors living in close proximity to dense human settlements. Effectively identifying and managing zoonotic hazards requires understanding the socio-ecological processes driving hazard distribution and pathogen prevalence in dynamic and heterogeneous urban landscapes. Despite increasing awareness of the human health impacts of zoonotic hazards, the integration of an eco-epidemiological perspective into public health management plans remains limited. Here we discuss how landscape patterns, abiotic conditions, and biotic interactions influence zoonotic hazards across highly urbanized cities (HUCs) in temperate climates to promote their efficient and effective management by a multi-sectoral coalition of public health stakeholders. We describe how to interpret both direct and indirect ecological processes, incorporate spatial scale, and evaluate networks of connectivity specific to different zoonotic hazards to promote biologically-informed and targeted decision-making. Using New York City, USA as a case study, we identify major zoonotic threats, apply knowledge of relevant ecological factors, and highlight opportunities and challenges for research and intervention. We aim to broaden the toolbox of urban public health stakeholders by providing ecologically-informed, practical guidance for the evaluation and management of zoonotic hazards.

Secrets of the Astute Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes, Linnaeus, 1758): An Inside-Ecosystem Secret Agent Serving One Health

An ecosystem’s health is based on a delicate balance between human, nonhuman animal, and environmental health. Any factor that leads to an imbalance in one of the components results in disease. There are several bioindicators that allow us to evaluate the status of ecosystems. The red fox (Vulpes vulpes, Linnaeus, 1758) has the widest world distribution among mammals. It is highly adaptable, lives in rural and urban areas, and has a greatly diverse diet. Being susceptible to environmental pollution and zoonotic agents, red foxes may act as sentinels to detect environmental contaminants, climatic changes and to prevent and control outbreaks of emerging or re-emerging zoonosis. This paper aims to compile the latest information that is related to the red fox as a sentinel of human, animal, and environmental health.

Alaria alata in Terms of Risks to Consumers' Health

Alaria alata flukes are cosmopolitan parasites. In Europe, the definitive hosts are red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), wolves (Canis lupus), and raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides), as well as animals that belong to the Felidae family. Intermediate hosts, such as snails and frogs, are the sources of infection for definitive hosts. The developmental stages of A. alata mesocercariae may occur in paratenic hosts, including many species of mammals, birds, and reptiles, as well as in wild boars (Sus scrofa), which are important from the zoonotic point of view. Because there are no regulations concerning the detection of A. alata in meat, this fluke is usually detected during official obligatory Trichinella spp. inspections. However, a method dedicated to A. alata detection was developed. The growing popularity of game and organic meat has led to an increased risk of food-associated parasitic infections, including alariosis, which is caused by the mesocercarial stage of A. alata. The aim of this article is to highlight the problem of A. alata as an emerging parasite, especially in the terms of the increasing market for game and organic meats that have been processed with traditional methods, often without proper heat treatment.

Predators in northern Germany are reservoirs for parasites of One Health concern

Urbanisation and invasion of wildlife into urban areas as well as human leisure activities create diverse wildlife-domestic animal-human interfaces, increasing the risk of (zoonotic) parasite spillover from sylvatic to domestic and synanthropic cycles. This study investigated the endo- and ectoparasite fauna, emphasising on parasites of One Health Concern, of the most common predators in northern Germany between November 2013 and January 2016. Eighty red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 18 stone martens (Martes foina) and nine raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) were available for the study. Overall, 79 (73.8%) of the examined predators (n=107) harboured at least one endoparasite. The most frequently detected endoparasites in red foxes were Toxocara canis (43.8% positive individuals), Capillaria spp. (36.3%), Alaria alata (25.0%), Echinococcus multilocularis (26.3%) and Uncinaria stenocephala (25.0%). Furthermore, Toxascaris leonina, Trichuris vulpis, Taenia ssp., Mesocestoides spp. and coccidian oocysts were observed. The endoparasite species richness in raccoon dogs was comparable to red foxes, while in stone martens, only Capillaria spp. were found. Muscle digestion for detection of Trichinella spp. and antigen testing for Giardia spp. did not show positive results. Ectoparasite analyses revealed infestations with ticks species of the genus Ixodes as well as Dermacentor reticulatus. Scabies mites were not present in digested skin samples, while Demodex spp. mites were observed by faecal flotation in one red fox. Furthermore, fleas (Archaeopsylla erinacei and Chaetopsylla globiceps) were observed in the fur of red foxes, while lice were not present in any predator species. However, infestation frequency with ectoparasites was with 19.2% generally low in available predator skins (n=99). Overall, the present study showed that predators in northern Germany serve as reservoirs for parasites of One Health concern, with four of the five most frequent endoparasites being zoonotic, highlighting the need of parasite surveillance in wildlife predators in order to implement measures avoiding spillovers to domestic animals and humans.

Molecular characterization of ascaridoid parasites from captive wild carnivores in China using ribosomal and mitochondrial sequences

BACKGROUND

Despite the public health importance of toxocariasis/toxascariasis, only a few species of these ascaridoid parasites from wild canine and feline carnivores have been studied at the molecular level so far. Poor understanding of diversity, host distribution and the potential (zoonotic) transmission of the ascaridoid species among wild animals negatively affects their surveillance and control in natural settings. In this study, we updated previous knowledge by profiling the genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships of ascaridoid species among eleven wild canine and feline animals on the basis of a combined analysis of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) gene and the partial mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 2 (cox2) and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 (nad1) genes.

RESULTS

In total, three genetically distinct ascaridoid lineages were determined to be present among these wild carnivores sampled, including Toxocara canis in Alopex lagopus and Vulpes vulpes, Toxocara cati in Felis chaus, Prionailurus bengalensis and Catopuma temmincki and Toxascaris leonina in Canis lupus, Panthera tigris altaica, Panthera tigris amoyensis, Panthera tigris tigris, Panthera leo and Lynx lynx. Furthermore, it was evident that T. leonina lineage split into three well-supported subclades depending on their host species, i.e. wild felids, dogs and wolves and foxes, based on integrated genetic and phylogenetic evidence, supporting that a complex of T. leonina other than one species infecting these hosts.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide new molecular insights into classification, phylogenetic relationships and epidemiological importance of ascaridoids from wild canids and felids and also highlight the complex of the taxonomy and genetics of Toxascaris in their wild and domestic carnivorous hosts.

Characterization of exosome-like vesicles derived from Taenia pisiformis cysticercus and their immunoregulatory role on macrophages

Background

Taenia pisiformis is one of the most common intestinal parasites in canines, and leads to serious economic losses in the rabbit breeding industry. Exosome-like vesicles from parasites play crucial roles in host-parasite interactions by transferring cargo from parasites to host cells and by modulating host immunological response through inducing production of host-derived cytokines. Nevertheless, the mechanism by which exosome-like vesicles from T. pisiformis cysticercus regulate the macrophage immune response remains unknown.

Methods

Using ultracentrifugation, we isolated exosome-like vesicles from excretory/secretory products (ESP) of T. pisiformis cysticercus. The morphology and size of purified vesicles were confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA). The components of proteins and miRNAs within these vesicles were identified by proteomic analysis and high-throughput small RNA sequencing. The biological function of targets of exosomal miRNAs was predicted by Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis. Moreover, the expression of Th1- and Th2-type immune response associated cytokines in RAW264.7 macrophages were evaluated by qPCR and ELISA. We found that exosome-like vesicles were typical cup-shaped vesicles with diameters from 30 to 150 nm. A total of 87 proteins were identified by proteomic analysis, including proteins prominently associated with exosome-like vesicles biogenesis and vesicle trafficking. 41 known miRNAs and 18 novel miRNAs were identified in the exosome-like vesicles. Eleven selected miRNAs, including 7 known miRNAs (miR-71-5p, miR-10a-5p, miR-let-7-5p, miR-745-3p, miR-219-5p, miR-124-3p and miR-4989-3p) and 4 novel miRNAs (novel-mir-3, novel-mir-7, novel-mir-8 and novel-mir-11) were validated to exist in metacestiodes and exosome-like vesicles of T. pisiformis cysticercus by qPCR. The functions of most targets of exosomal miRNAs were mainly associated with signal transduction and the immune system. Additionally, T. pisiformis cysticercus-derived vesicles induced the production of IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-13 and Arg-1, but downregulated the expression of IL-12, IFN-γ and iNOS in RAW264.7 macrophages.

Conclusions

We demonstrated that proteins and miRNAs enclosed within exosome-like vesicles from T. pisiformis cysticercus have immunomodulatory functions. Furthermore, exosome-like vesicles were shown to induce the macrophage Th2-type immune response in vitro. Our study suggests that exosome-like vesicles play an important role in the interaction between cysticerci and their hosts.

Distribution of Parasitic Helminths in the Small Intestine of the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes)

The aim of the study was to analyze the distribution of the main groups of parasitic helminths within the small intestine of the red fox on the example of animals coming from eastern Poland. Two hundred and sixteen red foxes shot in eastern Poland were used in the investigation. Before examination, each small intestine was divided into three equal parts: anterior (A), middle (M), and posterior (P). Each part was examined separately with the sedimentation and counting technique. Six different types of intestinal parasites were detected: Alaria alata (78.7%), Mesocestoides spp. (78.2%), hookworms (72.7%), Taenia spp. (53.2%), Toxocara/Toxascaris (43.1%), and Echinococcus multilocularis (18.5%). Alaria alata was most often found in A and in the only-A variant. Taenia spp. and Toxocara/Toxascaris occurred often in A and were the second (after A. alata) parasites in terms of frequency occurring in the only-A variant. Mesocestoides spp. was most commonly located in M. Parasites with predilection sites located mainly in M and P were E. multilocularis and hookworms. In all parasite species, the variant covering the entire intestine (A + M + P) was found in samples with a higher intensity compared to variants limited to one or two fragments. Our investigation, as one of the few of its type, conducted a comprehensive analysis of the distribution of intestinal helminths in the small intestine of the red fox. It showed significant differences in the distribution of parasitic helminths in the small intestine of the red fox. Determining typical predilection sites for parasites in the intestine can be helpful in creating effective diagnostic methods.

The typical cestodes of the red fox in eastern areas of the Iberian Peninsula have a grouped distribution

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the most abundant wild canid in the Iberian Peninsula, and can act as a carrier of a wide range of parasite species shared with dogs and cats and which are sometimes zoonoses. Despite this, few studies are available describing the distribution and epidemiology of the cestode community of this opportunistic carnivore in areas of Mediterranean climate. In this study, prevalence, intensity, abundance and aggregation coefficient of cestodes found in 286 red foxes of the Valencian Community (East Spain) were calculated. For the most prevalent species, presence data were combined with environmental variables in order to build spatial models and predict the limiting factors associated with the decrease of suitable habitat for these parasites. The overall prevalence of cestodes was 83.22 % (238/286). Specifically, foxes harboured Mesocestoides spp. (75.87 %), Joyeuxiella echinorhynchoides (27.62 %), Taenia pisiformis (13.29 %), Dypilidium caninum (3.15 %), Taenia polyacantha (1.05 %), Taenia hydatigena (0.70 %), Taenia crassiceps (0.70 %) and Taenia spp. (0.35 %). Tetrathyridia larvae were found both in thoracic and abdominal cavity of three foxes (1.05 %), being the first time that this metacestode stage is described in the thoracic cavity of the red fox. Models on Mesocestoides spp. (Area Under the Curve, AUC = 0.80) and J. echinorhynchoides (AUC = 0.83) indicate that anthropogenic, climatic and environmental factors efficiently describe the habitat shape of parasites. This study emphasizes that foxes in Mediterranean areas are hosts of cestodes of veterinary and public health concern. Furthermore, our results demonstrate the usefulness of Ecological Niche Modeling applications for mapping the distribution of fox parasites and identifying areas of higher epidemiological risk for this wild canid, as well as for dogs and cats and, in the case of Mesocestoides spp., for humans.

Spatial distribution of sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabiei) in urban foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Great Britain as determined by citizen science

Urban areas may support high densities of wild carnivores, and pathogens can strongly influence carnivore populations. Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are hosts of sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabiei), which infects numerous species, and transmission can be density dependent. In Great Britain, urban red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) have recently increased in population density and undergone range expansions. Here we investigate corresponding changes in urban fox mange prevalence. We predicted a higher prevalence closer to historic epi/enzootics and lower prevalence where urban features reduce fox density and movements, i.e. large areas of public green space, and fragmented habitat, as measured by road length and urban perimeter shape complexity. We visually assessed mange symptoms from georeferenced images of urban foxes submitted online by the public, thus surveying private land on a national scale. We measured the proportion of foxes apparently showing mange and used SATSCAN to identify spatial clusters of high infection risk. Landscape features were extracted from urban layers in GIS to determine associations. Although mange was widespread, we identified a single cluster of high prevalence (37.1%) in Northwest and Central England, which exceeded double mean prevalence overall (15.1%) and mirrors the northward expansion of urban fox distribution. Prevalence was positively correlated with perimeter shape complexity and negatively correlated with distance to the nearest city with mange, although the latter association was weak. Our findings show that citizen science can effectively monitor diseases with highly visible symptoms and suggest that fox movements are influential in explaining spatial patterns of prevalence.

Rodent population cycle as a determinant of gastrointestinal nematode abundance in a low-arctic population of the red fox

We analyzed an 11-year time series (2005-2015) of parasite abundance for three intestinal nematode species in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) as a function of the multi-annual rodent population cycle in low-arctic Norway, while correcting for other potential covariates that could influence prevalence and abundance. Rodents are paratenic and facultative intermediate hosts for the two Ascarididae species Toxascaris leonina and Toxocara canis, respectively and key prey for the red fox. Still the relative importance of indirect transmission through rodents and direct transmission through free-living stages is unclear. Abundance of these Ascarididae species in individual red foxes (N = 612) exhibited strongly cyclic dynamics that closely mirrored the 4-year rodent cycle. Negative binomial models provided evidence for a direct proportional increase in Ascarididae abundance with rodent density suggesting that predator functional response to rodent prey is the key transmission mechanism. In contrast, no cycles and constantly very low abundance were apparent for Uncinaria stenocephala - a third nematode species recorded without paratenic or intermediate stages.

Prevalence of intestinal helminths of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in central Europe (Poland): a significant zoonotic threat

BACKGROUND

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is widely distributed in the world; in central Europe, it is the most numerous wild species of the family Canidae. It can play the role of a definitive host for many intestinal parasites, including zoonotic helminths. Poland, with its geographical location (central Europe), is an interesting area for parasitological investigations of this species. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the prevalence of intestinal helminths in red foxes in different regions of Poland.

METHODS

Intestines of 473 red foxes from four different regions were examined using the sedimentation and counting technique (SCT). In addition, 344 samples of faeces were examined using flotation.

RESULTS

Overall, intestinal helminths were found in 98.9% of red foxes. The average prevalence of detected parasites was as follows: Mesocestoides spp. (84.1%); hookworms (67.9%); Alaria alata (61.5%); Toxocara/Toxascaris (49.5%); Taenia spp. (42.5%); Echinococcus multilocularis (25.6%); and Trichuris vulpis (2.3%). The prevalence of the majority of parasite species was similar in each region. Significant differences between regions were observed in the case of E. multilocularis: a low prevalence in the south-western and northern regions (0% and 0.9%, respectively) and a high prevalence in the south-east and northeast (39.3% and 42.7%, respectively). In the case of A. alata, important differences were found between northern (96.5% and 93.7% in northern and northeast regions, respectively) and southern regions (15.2% and 24.7% for south-western and south-east regions, respectively). The percentage of positive samples obtained with coproscopic examination (except for Trichuris) was significantly lower than that obtained with SCT. Analysis of the prevalence estimated in individual regions with the use of both methods (flotation and SCT) showed a high correlation for all parasite species (except for Mesocestoides spp.). The flotation method also allowed us to detect the eggs of the lung nematode Eucoleus aerophilus (syn. Capillaria aerophila) (76.2% of positive foxes).

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed a very high percentage of red foxes infected with intestinal helminths in different parts of Poland. Depending on the location, some differences were observed regarding the prevalence of dangerous zoonotic parasites, which should be considered in the assessment of infection risk for humans.

The geographical distribution and prevalence of Echinococcus multilocularis in animals in the European Union and adjacent countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to provide a systematic review on the geographical distribution of Echinococcus multilocularis in definitive and intermediate hosts in the European Union (EU) and adjacent countries (AC). The relative importance of the different host species in the life-cycle of this parasite was highlighted and gaps in our knowledge regarding these hosts were identified.

METHODS

Six databases were searched for primary research studies published from 1900 to 2015. From a total of 2,805 identified scientific papers, 244 publications were used for meta-analyses.

RESULTS

Studies in 21 countries reported the presence of E. multilocularis in red foxes, with the following pooled prevalence (PP): low (≤ 1 %; Denmark, Slovenia and Sweden); medium (> 1 % to < 10 %; Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Romania and the Ukraine); and high (> 10 %; Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Liechtenstein and Switzerland). Studies from Finland, Ireland, the United Kingdom and Norway reported the absence of E. multilocularis in red foxes. However, E. multilocularis was detected in Arctic foxes from the Arctic Archipelago of Svalbard in Norway.

CONCLUSIONS

Raccoon dogs (PP 2.2 %), golden jackals (PP 4.7 %) and wolves (PP 1.4 %) showed a higher E. multilocularis PP than dogs (PP 0.3 %) and cats (PP 0.5 %). High E. multilocularis PP in raccoon dogs and golden jackals correlated with high PP in foxes. For intermediate hosts (IHs), muskrats (PP 4.2 %) and arvicolids (PP 6.0 %) showed similar E. multilocularis PP as sylvatic definitive hosts (DHs), excluding foxes. Nutrias (PP 1.0 %) and murids (PP 1.1 %) could play a role in the life-cycle of E. multilocularis in areas with medium to high PP in red foxes. In areas with low PP in foxes, no other DH was found infected with E. multilocularis. When fox E. multilocularis PP was >3 %, raccoon dogs and golden jackals could play a similar role as foxes. In areas with high E. multilocularis fox PP, the wolf emerged as a potentially important DH. Dogs and cats could be irrelevant in the life-cycle of the parasite in Europe, although dogs could be important for parasite introduction into non-endemic areas. Muskrats and arvicolids are important IHs. Swine, insectivores, murids and nutrias seem to play a minor or no role in the life-cycle of the parasite within the EU and ACs.

Echinococcus multilocularisand other zoonotic parasites in red foxes in Estonia

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the most widely distributed canid in the world and an important source of multiple zoonotic pathogens capable of causing life-threatening diseases, such as rabies and alveolar echinococcosis. Informing general public of potential risks related to foxes is becoming more important since the fox densities have increased in many countries and the species is colonizing urban areas in Europe and around the world with increasing pace, bringing zoonotic pathogens to the immediate neighbourhood of humans and their companion animals. The aim of this study was to examine the parasite fauna of red foxes in Estonia. We found in Estonian foxes a total of 17 endoparasite taxa, including ten zoonotic species. All the analysed individuals were infected and the average parasite species richness was 6·37. However, the infection rates varied to a very large extent for different parasite species, ranging from 0·9 to 91·5%. Of zoonotic species, the highest infection rate was observed forAlaria alata(90·7%),Eucoleus aerophilus(87·6%) andUncinaria stenocephala(84·3%). The prevalence of tapewormEchinococcus multilocularis, a causative agent for alveolar echinococcosis, was also relatively high (31·5%), presenting a potential risk to human health.

Endoparasitic fauna of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and golden jackals (Canis aureus) in Serbia

Wild canides have a high epizootiological - epidemiological significance, considering that they are hosts for some parasites which spread vector born diseases. Increased frequency of certain interactions between domestic and wild canides increases the risk of occurrence, spreading and maintaining the infection of parasitic etiology in domestic canides. The research was conducted in 232 wild canides (172 red foxes and 60 golden jackals). The examined material was sampled from foxes and jackals, which were hunted down between 2010 and 2014, from 8 epizootiological areas of Serbia (North-Bačka, West-Bačka, Southern-Banat, Moravički, Zlatiborski, Raški, Rasinski and Zaječarski district). On completing the parasitological dissection and the coprological diagnostics, in wild canides protozoa from the genus Isospora were identified, 3 species of trematoda (Alaria alata, Pseudamphistomum truncatum and Metagonimus yokogawai), cestods from the genus Taenia and 5 species of nematodes (Toxocara canis, Ancylostomatidae, Trichuris vulpis and Capillaria aerophila). The finding of M. yokogawai in golden jackals were, to the best of our knowledge, one of the first diagnosed cases of metagonimosis in golden jackals in Serbia. The continued monitoring of the parasitic fauna of wild canides is needed to establish the widespread of the zoonoses in different regions of Serbia, because they present the reservoirs and/or sources of these infections.

Fatal echinococcosis in three lemurs in the United Kingdom--A case series

Tapeworms of the genus Echinococcus reside in the small intestine of a number of carnivorous species, predominantly canids. In enzootic areas, hydatidosis caused by taeniid metacestodes can present a significant problem in accidental intermediate hosts, including humans. Whereas the United Kingdom is currently considered free of Echinococcus multilocularis, Echinococcus granulosus sensu stricto (s.s.) and Echinococcus equinus are endemic in the UK and have been reported in a variety of captive mammals. The presentation of echinoccocosis in non-human primates widely parallels disease in humans, and public health concerns are related to the four genera, E. granulosus, E. multilocularis, Echinococcus vogeli and Echinococcus oligarthrus. In contrast, sporadic outbreaks and individual hydatid disease cases in non-human primates have been associated with several Echinococcus and Taenia species. Here we describe three fatal cases of cystic echinococcosis in two captive ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) and one captive red-ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata rubra) and provide molecular tapeworm characterisation. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this includes the first report of Echinococcus ortleppi in a UK born ring-tailed lemur and provides the first in depth case reports of echinococcosis due to E. equinus in UK born ring-tailed and red ruffed lemurs with detailed clinical and pathological findings. The cestode life cycle and implications for zoo collections are discussed.

Hookworm-related cutaneous larva migrans acquired in the UK

Hookworm-related cutaneous larva migrans (HrCLM) is a skin disease caused by infection with the larvae of animal hookworms. With conditions for infection more favourable in tropical climates, HrCLM in the UK is classically diagnosed in the returning traveller. We present two cases of clinically diagnosed UK-acquired HrCLM from a district general hospital in the south of England. A 68-year-old woman presented with a pruritic serpiginous tract on the right hand. She was a keen gardener and had been handling compost. A 50-year-old man, a long distance runner, presented with a similar lesion on the dorsum of his foot. Both patients were treated with a single dose of albendazole. These cases may represent an emerging infection in the UK. In the absence of a suggestive travel history, early recognition followed by efficient access to therapy is vital for treating HrCLM transmitted in the UK.

Crenosoma vulpis in wild and domestic carnivores from Italy: a morphological and molecular study

Crenosoma vulpis is a metastrongyloid nematode primarily associated with respiratory tract infections of red foxes in North America and Europe. Sporadic cases have also been reported in domestic dogs. The present study aimed to provide morphological, molecular, and epidemiological data on the geographical distribution of this nematode throughout Italy. From 2012 to 2014, 12 of the 138 foxes examined, three dogs and one badger scored positive for C. vulpis. Forty adults were isolated from foxes and the badger, whereas first-stage larvae were detected in the three dogs. All specimens were morphologically identified as C. vulpis, and 28 nematodes were also molecularly characterized by sequencing mitochondrial (12S ribosomal DNA (rDNA)) and nuclear (18S rDNA) ribosomal genes. Four haplotypes were identified based on the 12S rDNA target gene, with the most representative (78.5%) designated as haplotype I. No genetic variability was detected for the 18S rDNA gene. The molecular identification was consistent with the distinct separation of species-specific clades inferred by the phylogenetic analyses of both mitochondrial and ribosomal genes. Data herein reported indicates that C. vulpis has a wide distribution in foxes from southern Italy, and it also occurs in dogs from southern and northern regions of the country. Practitioners should consider the occurrence of this nematode in the differential diagnosis of canine respiratory disease, particularly in dogs living close to rural areas where foxes are present.

Isolation and identification of Salmonella spp. from red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and badgers (Meles meles) in northern Italy

Background

Salmonella spp. have been isolated from a wide range of wild animals. Opportunistic wild carnivores such as red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and badgers (Meles meles) may act as environmental indicators or as potential sources of salmonellosis in humans. The present study characterizes Salmonella spp. isolated from the intestinal contents of hunted or dead red foxes (n = 509) and badgers (n = 17) in northern Italy.

Findings

Thirty-one strains of Salmonella belonging to 3 Salmonella enterica subspecies were isolated. Fourteen different serovars of S. enterica subsp. enterica were identified, among which were serovars often associated with human illness.

Conclusions

Wild opportunistic predators can influence the probability of infection of both domestic animals and humans through active shedding of the pathogen to the environment. The epidemiological role of wild carnivores in the spread of salmonellosis needs to be further studied.

Changes in the distribution of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in urban areas in Great Britain: findings and limitations of a media-driven nationwide survey

Urbanization is one of the major forms of habitat alteration occurring at the present time. Although this is typically deleterious to biodiversity, some species flourish within these human-modified landscapes, potentially leading to negative and/or positive interactions between people and wildlife. Hence, up-to-date assessment of urban wildlife populations is important for developing appropriate management strategies. Surveying urban wildlife is limited by land partition and private ownership, rendering many common survey techniques difficult. Garnering public involvement is one solution, but this method is constrained by the inherent biases of non-standardised survey effort associated with voluntary participation. We used a television-led media approach to solicit national participation in an online sightings survey to investigate changes in the distribution of urban foxes in Great Britain and to explore relationships between urban features and fox occurrence and sightings density. Our results show that media-based approaches can generate a large national database on the current distribution of a recognisable species. Fox distribution in England and Wales has changed markedly within the last 25 years, with sightings submitted from 91% of urban areas previously predicted to support few or no foxes. Data were highly skewed with 90% of urban areas having <30 fox sightings per 1000 people km(-2). The extent of total urban area was the only variable with a significant impact on both fox occurrence and sightings density in urban areas; longitude and percentage of public green urban space were respectively, significantly positively and negatively associated with sightings density only. Latitude, and distance to nearest neighbouring conurbation had no impact on either occurrence or sightings density. Given the limitations associated with this method, further investigations are needed to determine the association between sightings density and actual fox density, and variability of fox density within and between urban areas in Britain.

Intestinal parasites of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Slovenia

In the present study, 428 foxes were collected and examined for intestinal helminths using the washing-out method. Parasites were found in 93.2% of the examined animals. The most frequently identified nematodes were Uncinaria stenocephala (58.9%), Toxocara canis (38.3%) and Molineus patens (30.6%). Other nematodes found were Pterygodermatites affinis (4.2%), Capillaria sp. (2.8%), Crenosoma vulpis (2.8%), Toxascaris leonina (2.5%), Trichuris vulpis (0.7%) and Physaloptera sp. (0.2%). Mesocestoides sp. (27.6%) and Taenia crassiceps (22.2%) were the most prevalent cestodes, followed by T. polyacantha (6.5%), Hymenolepis nana (2.1%), T. pisiformis (2.1%) and Dipylidium caninum (1.4%). The study also revealed four trematode species: Rossicotrema donicum (1.6%), Heterophyes heterophyes (1.1%), Metagonimus yokogawai (1.1%), Prohemistomum appendiculatum (0.4%) and two protozoan species: oocysts of Sarcocystis (2.8%) and Isospora (0.4%). This is the first extensive study on the intestinal parasites of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Slovenia. The 2.6% prevalence of Echinococcus multilocularis in the same sample population as investigated herein has been reported previously (Vergles Rataj et al., 2010).

A coprological survey of parasites of wild carnivores in Ireland

The increasing movement of people to wilderness areas, shrinking of wildlife habitats and the resulting urbanisation of wildlife has led to growing concerns about the transfer of parasitic diseases, particularly from contaminated faeces. Faecal samples from wild carnivores in Ireland were examined for the presence of protozoan and nematode parasites. Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) samples (n = 91) were positive for Uncinaria stenocephala (38%), Eucoleus aerophilus (26%), Toxocara canis (20%), Trichuris vulpis (4%) and Isospora-like oocysts (9%). Badger (Meles meles) samples (n = 50) were positive for Uncinaria criniformis (40%), E. aerophilus (6%) and Isospora-like oocysts (16%). No parasites were observed in pine marten (n = 48; Martes martes) faeces. Approximately 5% of American mink (Mustela vison) samples were positive for Cryptosporidium by polymerase chain reaction (identified as Cryptosporidium andersoni (n = 3) and 'mink' genotype (n = 1)). The results suggest that wild carnivores in Ireland have a range of parasites, although it is unclear from the present study to what extent these infections are associated with morbidity. While it can be expected that, via their faeces, wild carnivores contribute to the spread of these parasites, they are unlikely the primary source of environmental contamination. Therefore, they should not always be the principal target of control measures.

Molecular cloning and expression of the cDNA sequence encoding a novel aspartic protease from Uncinaria stenocephala

Uncinaria stenocephala belongs to Ancylostomatidae family. Members of this family - hookworms - infect millions of people and animals worldwide. U. stenocephala is most pathogenic in dogs and other Canidae, which are the main hosts, and infection causes anemia or even death. So far no effective hookworm vaccine has been developed that is economically viable. Attempts to identify vaccine antigens have led to a group of aspartic proteases, which play a key role in parasite feeding, migration through host tissues and immune evasion. The cDNA of an aspartic protease from U. stenocephala was cloned using the RACE-PCR method. Computational analysis showed that the cDNA encodes a 447 amino acid protein with a molecular mass of 52kDa that shows high homology to aspartic proteases from related hookworms. Analysis identified 1 potential N-glycosylation site, 3 potential disulfide bonds and no O-glycosylation sites. The recombinant protein was expressed in Escherichia coli followed by purification and mouse immunization. Using raised anti-Us-APR-1(2) (Uncinaria stenocephala Aspartic protease-1) serum the presence of Us-APR-1 in the adult stage of U. stenocephala and the expression of homologous protease in L3 and adult stages of A. ceylanicum was confirmed. This analysis is the first phase of work exploring the biological role of Us-APR-1 in parasite-host interactions and raises hope for successful vaccine development against Uncinaria sp. and possibly Ancylostoma sp.

Investigating the role of wild carnivores in the epidemiology of bovine neosporosis

Neospora caninum is a protozoan parasite, primarily associated with bovine abortion. The only definitive hosts discovered to date are carnivores. This study aimed to identify the role of mammalian carnivores in the epidemiology of bovine neosporosis. A sample bank of serum, fecal and brain samples was established: American mink (Mustela vison), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), pine martens (Martes martes), badgers (Meles meles), stoats (Mustela erminea), otters (Lutra lutra) and feral ferrets (Mustela putorius). Approximately 1% of mink and 1% of fox samples were positive by IFAT. According to PCR analysis of DNA extracted from brain tissue, 3% of the mink, 4% of the otters and 6% of the foxes examined were infected with N. caninum. All fecal samples tested negative for N. caninum DNA (n = 311), suggesting that the species that tested positive were intermediate not definitive hosts. This is the first time that tissues from mustelids have tested positive for N. caninum. The need to test 2 relatively large (~200 mg) targeted parts of the brain to avoid false negatives was also identified. The relatively low prevalence of N. caninum in Irish carnivores suggests that the local ecology of a species has an important influence on its epidemiological role.

A diagnostic study of Echinococcus multilocularis in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Great Britain

Alveolar echinococcosis is caused by a parasitic tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis and is a serious disease with high fatality in humans. The definitive primary host is the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) but domestic animals (dogs and to a lesser extent cats) as well as several genera of rodents can also be infected with the parasite. There is, to date, no evidence of indigenous cases of E. multilocularis in Great Britain (GB) but in most of continental Europe the parasite is considered to be endemic and/or slowly spreading. All pet dogs entering the United Kingdom (UK) under the pet travel scheme (PETS) are therefore currently treated with an anthelmintic effective against Echinococcus spp. Surveillance of red foxes is required to demonstrate disease freedom and maintain this regulation to prevent further geographical spread of the parasite to free areas within the EU. A study of 588 wild red foxes collected from across Great Britain (GB) between October 1999 and November 2000 found no Echinococcus spp. This report describes a further study of GB foxes collected predominately during 2005 and 2006. Fox faecal samples (n=384) were examined for both E. multilocularis and Echinococcus granulosus using an egg isolation procedure followed by PCR method, based on published primer sets. A non-specific primer set that amplifies Taenia spp. as well as Mesocestoides, Dipylidium and Diphyllobothrium was also included in the assay to validate the test procedure as these parasites are expected to be more common in wild fox populations. All faecal samples tested negative for both E. multilocularis and E. granulosus but results for approximately 35% of the samples indicated the presence of Taenia spp. or other closely related cestodes. This data contributes to the evidence that suggests that E. multilocularis is not present in mainland Britain and justifies the requirement for ongoing surveillance to demonstrate disease freedom.

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in Myocastor coypus in a protected Italian wetland

Background

Toxoplasma gondii is the causative agent for a major zoonosis with cosmopolitan distribution. Water has been implicated in outbreaks of toxoplasmosis in recent years. Coypus (Myocastor coypus), commonly nutria, are large semi-aquatic invasive rodents, naturalized throughout European countries, including most wetlands of Central Italy. The habitat of these animals is both terrestrial and aquatic, making them a species highly exposed to the parasite.

Findings

The occurrence of the infection was evaluated using a modified agglutination test (MAT) in 74 adult coypus from a naturalized population living in a wetland of Central Italy. Nested PCR (n-PCR) assay was carried out on some of them. Positive T. gondii MAT results were found in 44 animals (59·4%), 30 males (68·2%) and 14 females (31·8%). Antibody titers were ranging from 20 to 40960, while 12 out of 23 (52·2%), examined animals, 8 males (66·7%) and 4 females (33·3%), resulted positive to n-PCR. All n-PCR positive animals were seropositive, showing antibody titers ranging from 640 to 40960.

Conclusions

Our results indicate that examined animals are heavily parasitized with Toxoplasma. This suggests that coypus could be a reservoir of this parasite, because they can be eaten both by scavenger animals and by humans, and that these animals would play a role in maintaining the cycle of T. gondii.

Frequency distribution of Echinococcus multilocularis and other helminths of foxes in Kyrgyzstan

Echinococcosis is a major emerging zoonosis in central Asia. A study of the helminth fauna of foxes from Naryn Oblast in central Kyrgyzstan was undertaken to investigate the abundance of Echinococcus multilocularis in a district where a high prevalence of this parasite had previously been detected in dogs. A total of 151 foxes (Vulpes vulpes) were investigated in a necropsy study. Of these 96 (64%) were infected with E. multilocularis with a mean abundance of 8669 parasites per fox. This indicates that red foxes are a major definitive host of E. multilocularis in this country. This also demonstrates that the abundance and prevalence of E. multilocularis in the natural definitive host are likely to be high in geographical regions where there is a concomitant high prevalence in alternative definitive hosts such as dogs. In addition Mesocestoides spp., Dipylidium caninum, Taenia spp., Toxocara canis, Toxascaris leonina, Capillaria and Acanthocephala spp. were found in 99 (66%), 50 (33%), 48 (32%), 46 (30%), 9 (6%), 34 (23%) and 2 (1%) of foxes, respectively. The prevalence but not the abundance of E. multilocularis decreased with age. The abundance of D. caninum also decreased with age. The frequency distribution of E. multilocularis and Mesocestoides spp. followed a zero-inflated negative binomial distribution, whilst all other helminths had a negative binomial distribution. This demonstrates that the frequency distribution of positive counts and not just the frequency of zeros in the data set can determine if a zero-inflated or non-zero-inflated model is more appropriate. This is because the prevalences of E. multolocularis and Mesocestoides spp. were the highest (and hence had fewest zero counts) yet the parasite distribution nevertheless gave a better fit to the zero-inflated models.

Ecological approaches to informing public health policy and risk assessments on emerging vector-borne zoonoses

Pathogens associated with vector-borne zoonoses occur in enzootic cycles within nature. They are driven by a combination of vertebrate host and invertebrate vector population dynamics, which in turn respond to changes in environmental stimuli. Human involvement in these cycles, and hence the occurrence of human disease, is often to act as incidental host. From a public health perspective our ability to better predict human outbreaks of these diseases and prepare intervention and mitigation strategies relies on understanding the natural cycle of pathogen transmission. This requires consideration of, for example, invertebrate and vertebrate ecology and biology, climatology, land use and habitat change. Collectively, these can be referred to as medical entomology and medical ecology. This article reviews the importance for inclusion of such disciplines when assessing the public health risk from vector-borne zoonoses and summarizes the possible future challenges and driving forces for changes in vector status and vector-borne zoonoses emergence, with a particular focus on a UK and European context.

Natural infection of the ground squirrel (Spermophilus spp.) with Echinococcus granulosus in China

Background

Echinococcus granulosus is usually transmitted between canid definitive hosts and ungulate intermediate hosts.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Lesions found in the livers of ground squirrels, Spermophilus dauricus/alashanicus, trapped in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, an area in China co-endemic for both E. granulosus and E. multilocularis, were subjected to molecular genotyping for Echinococcus spp. DNA. One of the lesions was shown to be caused by E. granulosus and subsequently by histology to contain viable protoscoleces.

Conclusions/Significance

This is the first report of a natural infection of the ground squirrel with E. granulosus. This does not provide definitive proof of a cycle involving ground squirrels and dogs or foxes, but it is clear that there is active E. granulosus transmission occurring in this area, despite a recent past decline in the dog population in southern Ningxia.

Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis are important zoonotic pathogens that cause serious disease in humans. E. granulosus can be transmitted through sylvatic cycles, involving wild carnivores and ungulates; or via domestic cycles, usually involving dogs and farm livestock. E. multilocularis is primarily maintained in a sylvatic life-cycle between foxes and rodents. As part of extensive investigations that we undertook to update available epidemiological data and to monitor the transmission patterns of both E. granulosus and E. mulilocularis in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (NHAR) in northwest China, we captured small mammals on the southern slopes of Yueliang Mountain, Xiji, an area co-endemic for human alveolar echinococcosis and cystic echinococcosis. Of 500 trapped small mammals (mainly ground squirrels; Spermophilus dauricus/alashanicus), macroscopic cyst-like lesions (size range 1–10 mm) were found on the liver surface of approximately 10% animals. One of the lesions was shown by DNA analysis to be caused by E. granulosus and by histology to contain viable protoscoleces. This is the first report of a natural infection of the ground squirrel with E. granulosus. We have no definitive proof of a cycle involving ground squirrels and dogs/foxes but it is evident that there is active E. granulosus transmission occurring in this area.