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Herron ICT, Laws TR, Nelson M. Marmosets as models of infectious diseases. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1340017. [PMID: 38465237 PMCID: PMC10921895 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1340017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Animal models of infectious disease often serve a crucial purpose in obtaining licensure of therapeutics and medical countermeasures, particularly in situations where human trials are not feasible, i.e., for those diseases that occur infrequently in the human population. The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), a Neotropical new-world (platyrrhines) non-human primate, has gained increasing attention as an animal model for a number of diseases given its small size, availability and evolutionary proximity to humans. This review aims to (i) discuss the pros and cons of the common marmoset as an animal model by providing a brief snapshot of how marmosets are currently utilized in biomedical research, (ii) summarize and evaluate relevant aspects of the marmoset immune system to the study of infectious diseases, (iii) provide a historical backdrop, outlining the significance of infectious diseases and the importance of developing reliable animal models to test novel therapeutics, and (iv) provide a summary of infectious diseases for which a marmoset model exists, followed by an in-depth discussion of the marmoset models of two studied bacterial infectious diseases (tularemia and melioidosis) and one viral infectious disease (viral hepatitis C).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian C. T. Herron
- CBR Division, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (Dstl), Salisbury, United Kingdom
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Gurung S, Reuter D, Norris A, Dubois M, Maxted M, Singleton K, Castillo-Castrejon M, Papin JF, Myers DA. Early and mid-gestation Zika virus (ZIKV) infection in the olive baboon (Papio anubis) leads to fetal CNS pathology by term gestation. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010386. [PMID: 35969617 PMCID: PMC9410558 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection in pregnancy can produce catastrophic teratogenic damage to the developing fetus including microcephaly and congenital Zika syndrome (CZS). We previously described fetal CNS pathology occurring by three weeks post-ZIKV inoculation in Olive baboons at mid-gestation, including neuroinflammation, loss of radial glia (RG), RG fibers, neuroprogenitor cells (NPCs) resulting in disrupted NPC migration. In the present study, we explored fetal brain pathologies at term gestation resulting from ZIKV exposure during either first or second trimester in the Olive baboon. In all dams, vRNA in whole blood resolved after 7 days post inoculation (dpi). One first trimester infected dam aborted at 5 dpi. All dams developed IgM and IgG response to ZIKV with ZIKV IgG detected in fetal serum. Placental pathology and inflammation were observed including disruption of syncytiotrophoblast layers, delayed villous maturation, partially or fully thrombosed vessels, calcium mineralization and fibrin deposits. In the uterus, ZIKV was detected in ¾ first trimester but not in second trimester infected dams. While ZIKV was not detected in any fetal tissue at term, all fetuses exhibited varying degrees of neuropathology. Fetal brains from ZIKV inoculated dams exhibited a range of gross brain pathologies including irregularities of the major gyri and sulci of the cerebral cortex and cerebellar pathology. Frontal cortices of ZIKV fetuses showed a general disorganization of the six-layered cortex with degree of disorganization varying among the fetuses from the two groups. Frontal cortices from ZIKV inoculation in the first but not second trimester exhibited increased microglia, and in both trimester ZIKV inoculation, increased astrocyte numbers (white matter). In the cerebellum, increased microglia were observed in fetuses from both first and second trimester inoculation. In first trimester ZIKV inoculation, decreased oligodendrocyte precursor cell populations were observed in fetal cerebellar white matter. In general, our observations are in accordance with those described in human ZIKV infected fetuses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunam Gurung
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, United States of America
| | - Darlene Reuter
- Division of Comparative Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, United States of America
| | - Abby Norris
- Division of Comparative Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, United States of America
| | - Molly Dubois
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, United States of America
| | - Marta Maxted
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, United States of America
| | - Krista Singleton
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, United States of America
| | - Marisol Castillo-Castrejon
- Department of Pathology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, United States of America
| | - James F. Papin
- Division of Comparative Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, United States of America
| | - Dean A. Myers
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Li M, Brokaw A, Furuta AM, Coler B, Obregon-Perko V, Chahroudi A, Wang HY, Permar SR, Hotchkiss CE, Golos TG, Rajagopal L, Adams Waldorf KM. Non-human Primate Models to Investigate Mechanisms of Infection-Associated Fetal and Pediatric Injury, Teratogenesis and Stillbirth. Front Genet 2021; 12:680342. [PMID: 34290739 PMCID: PMC8287178 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.680342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
A wide array of pathogens has the potential to injure the fetus and induce teratogenesis, the process by which mutations in fetal somatic cells lead to congenital malformations. Rubella virus was the first infectious disease to be linked to congenital malformations due to an infection in pregnancy, which can include congenital cataracts, microcephaly, hearing impairment and congenital heart disease. Currently, human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is the leading infectious cause of congenital malformations globally, affecting 1 in every 200 infants. However, our knowledge of teratogenic viruses and pathogens is far from complete. New emerging infectious diseases may induce teratogenesis, similar to Zika virus (ZIKV) that caused a global pandemic in 2016-2017; thousands of neonates were born with congenital microcephaly due to ZIKV exposure in utero, which also included a spectrum of injuries to the brain, eyes and spinal cord. In addition to congenital anomalies, permanent injury to fetal and neonatal organs, preterm birth, stillbirth and spontaneous abortion are known consequences of a broader group of infectious diseases including group B streptococcus (GBS), Listeria monocytogenes, Influenza A virus (IAV), and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Animal models are crucial for determining the mechanism of how these various infectious diseases induce teratogenesis or organ injury, as well as testing novel therapeutics for fetal or neonatal protection. Other mammalian models differ in many respects from human pregnancy including placentation, labor physiology, reproductive tract anatomy, timeline of fetal development and reproductive toxicology. In contrast, non-human primates (NHP) most closely resemble human pregnancy and exhibit key similarities that make them ideal for research to discover the mechanisms of injury and for testing vaccines and therapeutics to prevent teratogenesis, fetal and neonatal injury and adverse pregnancy outcomes (e.g., stillbirth or spontaneous abortion). In this review, we emphasize key contributions of the NHP model pre-clinical research for ZIKV, HCMV, HIV, IAV, L. monocytogenes, Ureaplasma species, and GBS. This work represents the foundation for development and testing of preventative and therapeutic strategies to inhibit infectious injury of human fetuses and neonates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda Li
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Alyssa Brokaw
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Anna M. Furuta
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Brahm Coler
- Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Washington State University, Spokane, WA, United States
| | - Veronica Obregon-Perko
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Ann Chahroudi
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Center for Childhood Infections and Vaccines of Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Hsuan-Yuan Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - Sallie R. Permar
- Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - Charlotte E. Hotchkiss
- Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Thaddeus G. Golos
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Lakshmi Rajagopal
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Kristina M. Adams Waldorf
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Zika Virus Infection, Reproductive Organ Targeting, and Semen Transmission in the Male Olive Baboon. J Virol 2019; 94:JVI.01434-19. [PMID: 31597777 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01434-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection in pregnant women is a serious threat to the development and viability of the fetus. The primary mode of ZIKV transmission to humans is through mosquito bites, but sexual transmission has also been well documented in humans. However, little is known of the short- and long-term effects of ZIKV infection on the human male reproductive system. This study examines the effects of ZIKV infection on the male reproductive organs and semen and the immune response of the olive baboon (Papio anubis). Nine mature male baboons were infected with ZIKV (French Polynesian strain) subcutaneously. Six animals were euthanized at 41 days, while three animals were euthanized at 10 or 11 days postinfection (dpi). Viremia and clinical evidence of infection were present in all nine baboons. ZIKV RNA was present in the semen of five of nine baboons. ZIKV was present in the testes of two of three males euthanized at 10 or 11 dpi, but in none of six males at 41 dpi. Immunofluorescence of testes suggested the presence of ZIKV in sperm progenitor cells, macrophage penetration of seminiferous tubules, and increased tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), particularly in vascular walls. These data demonstrate that male olive baboons approximate the male human ZIKV response, including viremia, the adaptive immune response, and persistent ZIKV in semen. Although gross testicular pathology was not seen, the demonstrated breach of the testes-blood barrier and targeting of spermatogenic precursors suggest possible long-term implications in ZIKV-infected primates.IMPORTANCE Zika virus (ZIKV) is an emerging flavivirus spread through mosquitoes and sexual contact. ZIKV infection during pregnancy can lead to severe fetal outcomes, including miscarriage, fetal death, preterm birth, intrauterine growth restriction, and fetal microcephaly, collectively known as congenital Zika syndrome. Therefore, it is important to understand how this virus spreads, as well as the resulting pathogenesis in translational animal models that faithfully mimic ZIKV infection in humans. Such models will contribute to the future development of efficient therapeutics and prevention mechanisms. Through our previous work in olive baboons, we developed a nonhuman primate model that is permissive to ZIKV infection and transfers the virus vertically from mother to fetus, modeling human observations. The present study contributes to understanding of ZIKV infection in male baboon reproductive tissues and begins to elucidate how this may affect fertility, reproductive capacity, and sexual transmission of the virus.
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Gurung S, Reuter N, Preno A, Dubaut J, Nadeau H, Hyatt K, Singleton K, Martin A, Parks WT, Papin JF, Myers DA. Zika virus infection at mid-gestation results in fetal cerebral cortical injury and fetal death in the olive baboon. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007507. [PMID: 30657788 PMCID: PMC6355048 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Revised: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection during pregnancy in humans is associated with an increased incidence of congenital anomalies including microcephaly as well as fetal death and miscarriage and collectively has been referred to as Congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS). Animal models for ZIKV infection in pregnancy have been developed including mice and non-human primates (NHPs). In macaques, fetal CZS outcomes from maternal ZIKV infection range from none to significant. In the present study we develop the olive baboon (Papio anubis), as a model for vertical transfer of ZIKV during pregnancy. Four mid-gestation, timed-pregnant baboons were inoculated with the French Polynesian ZIKV isolate (104 ffu). This study specifically focused on the acute phase of vertical transfer. Dams were terminated at 7 days post infection (dpi; n = 1), 14 dpi (n = 2) and 21 dpi (n = 1). All dams exhibited mild to moderate rash and conjunctivitis. Viremia peaked at 5–7 dpi with only one of three dams remaining mildly viremic at 14 dpi. An anti-ZIKV IgM response was observed by 14 dpi in all three dams studied to this stage, and two dams developed a neutralizing IgG response by either 14 dpi or 21 dpi, the latter included transfer of the IgG to the fetus (cord blood). A systemic inflammatory response (increased IL2, IL6, IL7, IL15, IL16) was observed in three of four dams. Vertical transfer of ZIKV to the placenta was observed in three pregnancies (n = 2 at 14 dpi and n = 1 at 21 dpi) and ZIKV was detected in fetal tissues in two pregnancies: one associated with fetal death at ~14 dpi, and the other in a viable fetus at 21 dpi. ZIKV RNA was detected in the fetal cerebral cortex and other tissues of both of these fetuses. In the fetus studied at 21 dpi with vertical transfer of virus to the CNS, the frontal cerebral cortex exhibited notable defects in radial glia, radial glial fibers, disorganized migration of immature neurons to the cortical layers, and signs of pathology in immature oligodendrocytes. In addition, indices of pronounced neuroinflammation were observed including astrogliosis, increased microglia and IL6 expression. Of interest, in one fetus examined at 14 dpi without detection of ZIKV RNA in brain and other fetal tissues, increased neuroinflammation (IL6 and microglia) was observed in the cortex. Although the placenta of the 14 dpi dam with fetal death showed considerable pathology, only minor pathology was noted in the other three placentas. ZIKV was detected immunohistochemically in two placentas (14 dpi) and one placenta at 21 dpi but not at 7 dpi. This is the first study to examine the early events of vertical transfer of ZIKV in a NHP infected at mid-gestation. The baboon thus represents an additional NHP as a model for ZIKV induced brain pathologies to contrast and compare to humans as well as other NHPs. Zika virus is endemic in the Americas, primarily spread through mosquitos and sexual contact. Zika virus infection during pregnancy in women is associated with a variety of fetal pathologies now referred to as Congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS), with the most severe pathology being fetal microcephaly. Developing model organisms that faithfully recreate Zika infection in humans is critical for future development of treatments and preventions. In our present study, we infected Olive baboons at mid-gestation with Zika virus and studied the acute period of viremia and transfer of Zika virus to the fetus during the first three weeks after infection to better understand the timing and mechanisms of transfer of ZIKV across the placenta, leading to CZS. We observed Zika virus transfer to fetuses resulting in fetal death in one pregnancy and in a second pregnancy, significant damage to the frontal cortex of the fetal brain at a critical period of neurodevelopment in primates. Thus, the baboon provides a promising new non-human primate model to further compare and contrast the consequences of Zika virus infection in pregnancy to humans and other non-human primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunam Gurung
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States of America
| | - Nicole Reuter
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Department of Pathology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Alisha Preno
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Department of Pathology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Jamie Dubaut
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States of America
| | - Hugh Nadeau
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States of America
| | - Kimberly Hyatt
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States of America
| | - Krista Singleton
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States of America
| | - Ashley Martin
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States of America
- Department of Physiology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - W. Tony Parks
- Department of Pathology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - James F. Papin
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Department of Pathology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Dean A. Myers
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Gurung S, Preno AN, Dubaut JP, Nadeau H, Hyatt K, Reuter N, Nehete B, Wolf RF, Nehete P, Dittmer DP, Myers DA, Papin JF. Translational Model of Zika Virus Disease in Baboons. J Virol 2018; 92:e00186-18. [PMID: 29875247 PMCID: PMC6069201 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00186-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) is an emerging mosquito-borne flavivirus with devastating outcomes seen recently in the Americas due to the association of maternal ZIKV infection with fetal microcephaly and other fetal malformations not previously associated with flavivirus infections. Here, we have developed the olive baboon (Papio anubis) as a nonhuman primate (NHP) translational model for the study of ZIKV pathogenesis and associated disease outcomes to contrast and compare with humans and other major NHPs, such as macaques. Following subcutaneous inoculation of adult male and nonpregnant female baboons, viremia was detected at 3 and 4 days postinfection (dpi) with the concordant presentation of a visible rash and conjunctivitis, similar to human ZIKV infection. Furthermore, virus was detected in the mucosa and cerebrospinal fluid. A robust ZIKV-specific IgM and IgG antibody response was also observed in all the animals. These data show striking similarity between humans and the olive baboon following infection with ZIKV, suggesting our model is a suitable translational NHP model to study ZIKV pathogenesis and potential therapeutics.IMPORTANCE ZIKV was first identified in 1947 in a sentinel rhesus monkey in Uganda and subsequently spread to Southeast Asia. Until 2007, only a small number of cases were reported, and ZIKV infection was relatively minor until the South Pacific and Brazilian outbreaks, where more severe outcomes were reported. Here, we present the baboon as a nonhuman primate model for contrast and comparison with other published animal models of ZIKV, such as the mouse and macaque species. Baboons breed year round and are not currently a primary nonhuman primate species used in biomedical research, making them more readily available for studies other than human immunodeficiency virus studies, which many macaque species are designated for. This, taken together with the similarities baboons have with humans, such as immunology, reproduction, genetics, and size, makes the baboon an attractive NHP model for ZIKV studies in comparison to other nonhuman primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunam Gurung
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Alisha N Preno
- Division of Comparative Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Jamie P Dubaut
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Hugh Nadeau
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Kimberly Hyatt
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Nicole Reuter
- Division of Comparative Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Bharti Nehete
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, Texas USA
| | - Roman F Wolf
- Division of Comparative Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Pramod Nehete
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, Texas USA
| | - Dirk P Dittmer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Dean A Myers
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| | - James F Papin
- Division of Comparative Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
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Ivanov VA, Wolf RF, Papin JF, Anderson MP, Hill CL, Welliver RC. Apnea induction for invasive lung function testing in infant olive baboons: Comparison of intravenous propofol versus hyperventilation. J Med Primatol 2017; 47:46-50. [PMID: 29023804 DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In various types of pulmonary research, pulmonary function testing (PFT) is performed to quantify the severity of lung disease. Induction of apnea and positive pressure ventilation are required for accurate PFT measurements in non-cooperative subjects. We compared two methods of apnea induction in infant olive baboons (Papio anubis). METHODS Pulmonary function testing results were compared during apnea induced by hyperventilation (CO2 washout) vs. intravenous propofol (1 dose 10 mg/kg). PFT was evaluated using a hot-wire pneumotachometer incorporated within an Avea ventilator in nine 1-month-old baboons. RESULTS Propofol induced apnea faster and more reliably. In both groups, PFT values passed the statistical equivalence test and were not significantly different (Student's t-test). There was a trend toward less data variability after propofol administration. CONCLUSIONS Intravenous propofol was non-inferior to CO2 washout for apnea induction in infant olive baboons. Propofol induced apnea faster and more reliably and yielded less variable PFT results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vadim A Ivanov
- Oklahoma University Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Roman F Wolf
- Oklahoma City VA Health Care System, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - James F Papin
- Oklahoma Baboon Research Reserve, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
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Grow DA, McCarrey JR, Navara CS. Advantages of nonhuman primates as preclinical models for evaluating stem cell-based therapies for Parkinson's disease. Stem Cell Res 2016; 17:352-366. [PMID: 27622596 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2016.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Revised: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The derivation of dopaminergic neurons from induced pluripotent stem cells brings new hope for a patient-specific, stem cell-based replacement therapy to treat Parkinson's disease (PD) and related neurodegenerative diseases; and this novel cell-based approach has already proven effective in animal models. However, there are several aspects of this procedure that have yet to be optimized to the extent required for translation to an optimal cell-based transplantation protocol in humans. These challenges include pinpointing the optimal graft location, appropriately scaling up the graft volume, and minimizing the risk of chronic immune rejection, among others. To advance this procedure to the clinic, it is imperative that a model that accurately and fully recapitulates characteristics most pertinent to a cell-based transplantation to the human brain is used to optimize key technical aspects of the procedure. Nonhuman primates mimic humans in multiple ways including similarities in genomics, neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, immunogenetics, and age-related changes in immune function. These characteristics are critical to the establishment of a relevant model in which to conduct preclinical studies to optimize the efficacy and safety of cell-based therapeutic approaches to the treatment of PD. Here we review previous studies in rodent models, and emphasize additional advantages afforded by nonhuman primate models in general, and the baboon model in particular, for preclinical optimization of cell-based therapeutic approaches to the treatment of PD and other neurodegenerative diseases. We outline current unresolved challenges to the successful application of stem cell therapies in humans and propose that the baboon model in particular affords a number of traits that render it most useful for preclinical studies designed to overcome these challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas A Grow
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio Cellular Therapeutics Institute, PriStem, United States
| | - John R McCarrey
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio Cellular Therapeutics Institute, PriStem, United States
| | - Christopher S Navara
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio Cellular Therapeutics Institute, PriStem, United States.
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Contrasted patterns of variation and evolutionary convergence at the antiviral OAS1 gene in old world primates. Immunogenetics 2015; 67:487-99. [PMID: 26156123 PMCID: PMC4809017 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-015-0855-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Accepted: 06/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The oligoadenylate synthetase 1 (OAS1) enzyme acts as an innate sensor of viral infection and plays a major role in the defense against a wide diversity of viruses. Polymorphisms at OAS1 have been shown to correlate with differential susceptibility to several infections of great public health significance, including hepatitis C virus, SARS coronavirus, and West Nile virus. Population genetics analyses in hominoids have revealed interesting evolutionary patterns. In Central African chimpanzee, OAS1 has evolved under long-term balancing selection, resulting in the persistence of polymorphisms since the origin of hominoids, whereas human populations have acquired and retained OAS1 alleles from Neanderthal and Denisovan origin. We decided to further investigate the evolution of OAS1 in primates by characterizing intra-specific variation in four species commonly used as models in infectious disease research: the rhesus macaque, the cynomolgus macaque, the olive baboon, and the Guinea baboon. In baboons, OAS1 harbors a very low level of variation. In contrast, OAS1 in macaques exhibits a level of polymorphism far greater than the genomic average, which is consistent with the action of balancing selection. The region of the enzyme that directly interacts with viral RNA, the RNA-binding domain, contains a number of polymorphisms likely to affect the RNA-binding affinity of OAS1. This strongly suggests that pathogen-driven balancing selection acting on the RNA-binding domain of OAS1 is maintaining variation at this locus. Interestingly, we found that a number of polymorphisms involved in RNA-binding were shared between macaques and chimpanzees. This represents an unusual case of convergent polymorphism.
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Chen Q. Plant-made vaccines against West Nile virus are potent, safe, and economically feasible. Biotechnol J 2015; 10:671-80. [PMID: 25676782 PMCID: PMC4424112 DOI: 10.1002/biot.201400428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2014] [Revised: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 01/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The threat of West Nile virus (WNV) epidemics with increasingly severe neuroinvasive infections demands the development and licensing of effective vaccines. To date, vaccine candidates based on inactivated, live-attenuated, or chimeric virus, and viral DNA and WNV protein subunits have been developed. Some have been approved for veterinary use or are under clinical investigation, yet no vaccine has been licensed for human use. Reaching the milestone of a commercialized human vaccine, however, may largely depend on the economics of vaccine production. Analysis suggests that currently only novel low-cost production technologies would allow vaccination to outcompete the cost of surveillance and clinical treatment. Here, we review progress using plants to address the economic challenges of WNV vaccine production. The advantages of plants as hosts for vaccine production in cost, speed and scalability, especially those of viral vector-based transient expression systems, are discussed. The progress in developing WNV subunit vaccines in plants is reviewed within the context of their expression, characterization, downstream processing, and immunogenicity in animal models. The development of vaccines based on enveloped and non-enveloped virus-like particles is also discussed. These advancements suggest that plants may provide a production platform that offers potent, safe and affordable human vaccines against WNV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Chen
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccinology, The Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA; School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA.
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11
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Warfel JM, Merkel TJ. The baboon model of pertussis: effective use and lessons for pertussis vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 2014; 13:1241-52. [DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2014.946016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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12
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Chugh PE, Damania BA, Dittmer DP. Toll-like receptor-3 is dispensable for the innate microRNA response to West Nile virus (WNV). PLoS One 2014; 9:e104770. [PMID: 25127040 PMCID: PMC4134228 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0104770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The innate immune response to West Nile virus (WNV) infection involves recognition through toll-like receptors (TLRs) and RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs), leading to establishment of an antiviral state. MiRNAs (miRNAs) have been shown to be reliable biomarkers of TLR activation. Here, we sought to evaluate the contribution of TLR3 and miRNAs to the host response to WNV infection. We first analyzed HEK293-NULL and HEK293-TLR3 cells for changes in the innate immune response to infection. The presence of TLR3 did not seem to affect WNV load, infectivity or phosphorylation of IRF3. Analysis of experimentally validated NFκB-responsive genes revealed a WNV-induced signature largely independent of TLR3. Since miRNAs are involved in viral pathogenesis and the innate response to infection, we sought to identify changes in miRNA expression upon infection in the presence or absence of TLR3. MiRNA profiling revealed 70 miRNAs induced following WNV infection in a TLR3-independent manner. Further analysis of predicted gene targets of WNV signature miRNAs revealed genes highly associated with pathways regulating cell death, viral pathogenesis and immune cell trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline E. Chugh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Blossom A. Damania
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Dirk P. Dittmer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
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13
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Antiviral Treatment of Flaviviruses. Antiviral Res 2014. [DOI: 10.1128/9781555815493.ch13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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14
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Verstrepen BE, Fagrouch Z, van Heteren M, Buitendijk H, Haaksma T, Beenhakker N, Palù G, Richner JM, Diamond MS, Bogers WM, Barzon L, Chabierski S, Ulbert S, Kondova I, Verschoor EJ. Experimental infection of rhesus macaques and common marmosets with a European strain of West Nile virus. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2797. [PMID: 24743302 PMCID: PMC3990483 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2013] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that infects humans and other mammals. In some cases WNV causes severe neurological disease. During recent years, outbreaks of WNV are increasing in worldwide distribution and novel genetic variants of the virus have been detected. Although a substantial amount of data exists on WNV infections in rodent models, little is known about early events during WNV infection in primates, including humans. To gain a deeper understanding of this process, we performed experimental infections of rhesus macaques and common marmosets with a virulent European WNV strain (WNV-Ita09) and monitored virological, hematological, and biochemical parameters. WNV-Ita09 productively infected both monkey species, with higher replication and wider tissue distribution in common marmosets compared to rhesus macaques. The animals in this study however, did not develop clinical signs of WNV disease, nor showed substantial deviations in clinical laboratory parameters. In both species, the virus induced a rapid CD56dimCD16bright natural killer response, followed by IgM and IgG antibody responses. The results of this study show that healthy rhesus macaques and common marmosets are promising animal models to study WNV-Ita09 infection. Both models may be particularly of use to evaluate potential vaccine candidates or to investigate WNV pathogenesis. West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne virus that can infect mammals, including humans. Most infected humans do not develop disease, but in about 20% of cases humans develop WNV-related disease symptoms, varying in severity from fever to a sometimes life-threatening neuro-invasive disease. The number of WNV infections in Europe has increased in recent years and is caused by viruses that are genetically different from the viruses that caused the WNV epidemic in North America. In this study, we have experimentally infected two different monkey species, rhesus macaques and common marmosets, with the European WNV isolate Ita09 to evaluate the early events after infection and the onset of the disease. Both species were equally susceptible to infection with WNV-Ita09, but differences between species were observed. Compared to rhesus macaques, common marmosets had higher virus loads in blood, and presented a wider distribution of the virus in various organs. Based on the analysis of virological, immunological, biochemical and hematological parameters, we conclude that rhesus macaques as well as common marmosets are potentially useful animal models to evaluate vaccine candidates or to investigate WNV pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babs E. Verstrepen
- Department of Virology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Zahra Fagrouch
- Department of Virology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Melanie van Heteren
- Department of Virology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Hester Buitendijk
- Department of Virology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Tom Haaksma
- Animal Science Department, Division of Pathology and Microbiology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Niels Beenhakker
- Department of Virology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Giorgio Palù
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Justin M. Richner
- Departments of Medicine, Molecular Microbiology, Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Michael S. Diamond
- Departments of Medicine, Molecular Microbiology, Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Willy M. Bogers
- Department of Virology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Luisa Barzon
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Stefan Chabierski
- Department of Immunology, Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sebastian Ulbert
- Department of Immunology, Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ivanela Kondova
- Animal Science Department, Division of Pathology and Microbiology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Ernst J. Verschoor
- Department of Virology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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15
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Maximova OA, Speicher JM, Skinner JR, Murphy BR, St Claire MC, Ragland DR, Herbert RL, Pare DR, Moore RM, Pletnev AG. Assurance of neuroattenuation of a live vaccine against West Nile virus: a comprehensive study of neuropathogenesis after infection with chimeric WN/DEN4Δ30 vaccine in comparison to two parental viruses and a surrogate flavivirus reference vaccine. Vaccine 2014; 32:3187-97. [PMID: 24736001 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2014] [Revised: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The upsurge of West Nile virus (WNV) human infections in 2012 suggests that the US can expect periodic WNV outbreaks in the future. Availability of safe and effective vaccines against WNV in endemic areas, particularly for aging populations that are at high risk of West Nile neuroinvasive disease (WNND), could be beneficial. WN/DEN4Δ30 is a live, attenuated chimeric vaccine against WNV produced by replacement of the genes encoding the pre-membrane and envelope protein genes of the vaccine virus against dengue virus type 4 (DEN4Δ30) with corresponding sequences derived from a wild type WNV. Following intrathalamic inoculation of nonhuman primates (NHPs), a comprehensive neuropathogenesis study was performed and neurovirulence of WN/DEN4Δ30 vaccine candidate was compared to that of two parental viruses (i.e., WNV and DEN4Δ30), as well as to that of an attenuated flavivirus surrogate reference (i.e., yellow fever YF 17D). Clinical and virological data, as well as results of a semi-quantitative histopathological analysis, demonstrated that WN/DEN4Δ30 vaccine is highly attenuated for the central nervous system (CNS) of NHPs in comparison to a wild type WNV. Importantly, based on the virus replicative ability in the CNS of NHPs and the degree of induced histopathological changes, the level of neuroattenuation of WN/DEN4Δ30 vaccine was similar to that of YF 17D, and therefore within an acceptable range. In addition, we show that the DEN4Δ30 vaccine tested in this study also has a low neurovirulence profile. In summary, our results demonstrate a high level of neuroattenuation of two vaccine candidates, WN/DEN4Δ30 and DEN4Δ30. We also show here a remarkable sensitivity of our WNV-NY99 NHP model, as well as striking resemblance of the observed neuropathology to that seen in human WNND. These results support the use of this NHP model for translational studies of WNV neuropathogenesis and/or testing the effectiveness of vaccines and therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga A Maximova
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States.
| | - James M Speicher
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States
| | - Jeff R Skinner
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biosciences Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States
| | - Brian R Murphy
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States
| | - Marisa C St Claire
- Office of the Chief Scientist, Integrated Research Facility, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Danny R Ragland
- Office of the Chief Scientist, Integrated Research Facility, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, United States
| | - Richard L Herbert
- Comparative Medicine Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States
| | - Dan R Pare
- Comparative Medicine Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States
| | - Rashida M Moore
- Comparative Medicine Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States
| | - Alexander G Pletnev
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States.
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Willis EL, Wolf RF, White GL, McFarlane D. Age- and gender-associated changes in the concentrations of serum TGF-1β, DHEA-S and IGF-1 in healthy captive baboons (Papio hamadryas anubis). Gen Comp Endocrinol 2014; 195:21-7. [PMID: 24161750 PMCID: PMC3888644 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2013.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2013] [Revised: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 10/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Age-related changes in the concentration of factors like TGF-1β, DHEA-S and IGF-1 may increase the risk of disease and illnesses in advanced life. A better understanding of these changes would aid in the development of more appropriate treatments and/or preventative care for many conditions associated with age. Due to their similar immune system and vulnerability to pathogens, baboons are an ideal model for humans. However, little research has been done examining the general effects of age in baboons. Therefore, we wanted to further examine the effects of aging in baboons by determining the age-dependent changes in serum TGF-1β, DHEA-S and IGF-1 concentrations. Blood samples were collected during routine health checks in 113-118 captive baboons. In addition, longitudinal samples from 23 to 27 adult individuals were collected an average of 10.7years apart. Both age and gender influenced the concentrations of serum TGF-1β and IGF-1. When both genders were analyzed together, TGF-1β increased 16.1% as adults, compared to younger and older animals, but male and female baboons showed a slightly different temporal pattern of change. IGF-1 decreased with increasing age and males had a 30% greater concentration of IGF-1 than did females. While there was no effect of gender among our population, serum DHEA-S was negatively correlated with age, decreasing by 51.6% in the oldest animals. There were no effects of age or gender on serum IGFBP-3. In longitudinal samples collected from the same individuals, the concentrations of TGF-1β, DHEA-S and IGF-1 were reduced with age. The results presented herein provide additional knowledge of the aging process in baboons and further validate the use of this species as an appropriate model for aging in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- E L Willis
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Center of Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA.
| | - R F Wolf
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
| | - G L White
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
| | - D McFarlane
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Center of Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA.
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17
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Brandler S, Tangy F. Vaccines in development against West Nile virus. Viruses 2013; 5:2384-409. [PMID: 24084235 PMCID: PMC3814594 DOI: 10.3390/v5102384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2013] [Revised: 09/21/2013] [Accepted: 09/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile encephalitis emerged in 1999 in the United States, then rapidly spread through the North American continent causing severe disease in human and horses. Since then, outbreaks appeared in Europe, and in 2012, the United States experienced a new severe outbreak reporting a total of 5,387 cases of West Nile virus (WNV) disease in humans, including 243 deaths. So far, no human vaccine is available to control new WNV outbreaks and to avoid worldwide spreading. In this review, we discuss the state-of-the-art of West Nile vaccine development and the potential of a novel safe and effective approach based on recombinant live attenuated measles virus (MV) vaccine. MV vaccine is a live attenuated negative-stranded RNA virus proven as one of the safest, most stable and effective human vaccines. We previously described a vector derived from the Schwarz MV vaccine strain that stably expresses antigens from emerging arboviruses, such as dengue, West Nile or chikungunya viruses, and is strongly immunogenic in animal models, even in the presence of MV pre-existing immunity. A single administration of a recombinant MV vaccine expressing the secreted form of WNV envelope glycoprotein elicited protective immunity in mice and non-human primates as early as two weeks after immunization, indicating its potential as a human vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Brandler
- Unité de Génomique Virale et Vaccination, INSTITUT PASTEUR, 28 rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75015, France.
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18
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Valdés I, Gil L, Castro J, Odoyo D, Hitler R, Munene E, Romero Y, Ochola L, Cosme K, Kariuki T, Guillén G, Hermida L. Olive baboons: a non-human primate model for testing dengue virus type 2 replication. Int J Infect Dis 2013; 17:e1176-81. [PMID: 24139794 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2013.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2013] [Revised: 07/23/2013] [Accepted: 08/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study evaluated the use of a non-human primate, the olive baboon (Papio anubis), as a model of dengue infection. Olive baboons closely resemble humans genetically and physiologically and have been used extensively for assessing novel vaccine formulations. METHODS Two doses of dengue virus type 2 (DENV-2) were tested in baboons: 10(3) and 10(4) pfu. Similarly, African green monkeys received the same quantity of virus and acted as positive controls. RESULTS Following exposure, high levels of viremia were detected in both animal species. There was a trend to detect more days of viremia and more homogeneous viral titers in animals receiving the low viral dose. In addition, baboons infected with the virus generally exhibited positive virus isolation 1 day later than African green monkeys. Humoral responses consisting of antiviral and neutralizing antibodies were detected in all animals after infection. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that baboons provide an alternative non-human primate species for experimental DENV-2 infection and we recommend their use for further tests of vaccines, administering the lowest dose assayed: 10(3) pfu.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Valdés
- Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (CIGB), Avenue 31, PO Box 6162, Havana 6, 10 600, Cuba
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A review of vaccine approaches for West Nile virus. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2013; 10:4200-23. [PMID: 24025396 PMCID: PMC3799512 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph10094200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Revised: 09/02/2013] [Accepted: 09/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The West Nile virus (WNC) first appeared in North America in 1999. The North American lineages of WNV were characterized by the presence of neuroinvasive and neurovirulent strains causing disease and death in humans, birds and horses. The 2012 WNV season in the United States saw a massive spike in the number of neuroinvasive cases and deaths similar to what was seen in the 2002–2003 season, according to the West Nile virus disease cases and deaths reported to the CDC by year and clinical presentation, 1999–2012, by ArboNET (Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). In addition, the establishment and recent spread of lineage II WNV virus strains into Western Europe and the presence of neurovirulent and neuroinvasive strains among them is a cause of major concern. This review discusses the advances in the development of vaccines and biologicals to combat human and veterinary West Nile disease.
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20
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Spradling KD, Glenn JP, Garcia R, Shade RE, Cox LA. The baboon kidney transcriptome: analysis of transcript sequence, splice variants, and abundance. PLoS One 2013; 8:e57563. [PMID: 23637735 PMCID: PMC3634053 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0057563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2012] [Accepted: 01/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The baboon is an invaluable model for the study of human health and disease, including many complex diseases of the kidney. Although scientists have made great progress in developing this animal as a model for numerous areas of biomedical research, genomic resources for the baboon, such as a quality annotated genome, are still lacking. To this end, we characterized the baboon kidney transcriptome using high-throughput cDNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) to identify genes, gene variants, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), insertion-deletion polymorphisms (InDels), cellular functions, and key pathways in the baboon kidney to provide a genomic resource for the baboon. Analysis of our sequencing data revealed 45,499 high-confidence SNPs and 29,813 InDels comparing baboon cDNA sequences with the human hg18 reference assembly and identified 35,900 cDNAs in the baboon kidney, including 35,150 transcripts representing 15,369 genic genes that are novel for the baboon. Gene ontology analysis of our sequencing dataset also identified numerous biological functions and canonical pathways that were significant in the baboon kidney, including a large number of metabolic pathways that support known functions of the kidney. The results presented in this study catalogues the transcribed mRNAs, noncoding RNAs, and hypothetical proteins in the baboon kidney and establishes a genomic resource for scientists using the baboon as an experimental model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly D Spradling
- Department of Genetics, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America.
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21
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Jeffrey Root J. West Nile virus associations in wild mammals: a synthesis. Arch Virol 2012; 158:735-52. [DOI: 10.1007/s00705-012-1516-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2012] [Accepted: 09/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Perry DL, Bollinger L, L.White G. The Baboon (Papio spp.) as a model of human Ebola virus infection. Viruses 2012; 4:2400-16. [PMID: 23202470 PMCID: PMC3497058 DOI: 10.3390/v4102400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2012] [Revised: 10/17/2012] [Accepted: 10/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Baboons are susceptible to natural Ebola virus (EBOV) infection and share 96% genetic homology with humans. Despite these characteristics, baboons have rarely been utilized as experimental models of human EBOV infection to evaluate the efficacy of prophylactics and therapeutics in the United States. This review will summarize what is known about the pathogenesis of EBOV infection in baboons compared to EBOV infection in humans and other Old World nonhuman primates. In addition, we will discuss how closely the baboon model recapitulates human EBOV infection. We will also review some of the housing requirements and behavioral attributes of baboons compared to other Old World nonhuman primates. Due to the lack of data available on the pathogenesis of Marburg virus (MARV) infection in baboons, discussion of the pathogenesis of MARV infection in baboons will be limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donna L. Perry
- Integrated Research Facility, Division of Clinical Research, NIAID, NIH, Frederick, MD, USA;
| | - Laura Bollinger
- Integrated Research Facility, Division of Clinical Research, NIAID, NIH, Frederick, MD, USA;
| | - Gary L.White
- Department of Pathology, University of Oklahoma Baboon Research Resource, University of Oklahoma, Ft. Reno Science Park, OK, USA;
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McFarlane D, Wolf RF, McDaniel KA, White GL. The effect of season on inflammatory response in captive baboons. J Med Primatol 2012; 41:341-8. [PMID: 22905903 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0684.2012.00560.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Highly seasonal animals demonstrate predictable changes in immune function that coincide with changes in photoperiod. Little is known about the effect of season on immune response in baboons. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of season on inflammatory response in baboons. MATERIALS AND METHODS Peripheral blood mononuclear cell cytokine response following immune stimulation and serum markers of inflammation were assessed during each season in two groups of young male baboons: one housed under natural light and one in a controlled environment of 12 hours light:12 hours dark. RESULTS A seasonal immune rhythm was evident in both groups, with a greater TNF-α and IL-6 response to stimulation and serum CRP concentration in June and September compared with December. CONCLUSIONS Season is an important experimental confounder, and therefore, time of year should be controlled when designing studies and analyzing data from immune studies in baboons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dianne McFarlane
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Center of Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA.
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24
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Brandler S, Marianneau P, Loth P, Lacôte S, Combredet C, Frenkiel MP, Desprès P, Contamin H, Tangy F. Measles vaccine expressing the secreted form of West Nile virus envelope glycoprotein induces protective immunity in squirrel monkeys, a new model of West Nile virus infection. J Infect Dis 2012; 206:212-9. [PMID: 22551814 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jis328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that emerged in North America and caused numerous cases of human encephalitis, thus urging the development of a vaccine. We previously demonstrated the efficacy of a recombinant measles vaccine (MV) expressing the secreted form of the envelope glycoprotein from WNV to prevent WNV encephalitis in mice. In the present study, we investigated the capacity of this vaccine candidate to control WNV infection in a primate model. We first established experimental WNV infection of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). A high titer of virus was detected in plasma on day 2 after infection, and viremia persisted for 5 days. A single immunization of recombinant MV-WNV vaccine elicited anti-WNV neutralizing antibodies that strongly reduced WNV viremia at challenge. This study demonstrates for the first time the capacity of a recombinant live attenuated measles vector to protect nonhuman primates from a heterologous infectious challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Brandler
- Viral Genomics and Vaccination Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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McFarlane D, Wolf RF, McDaniel KA, White GL. Age-associated alteration in innate immune response in captive baboons. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2011; 66:1309-17. [PMID: 21860017 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/glr146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Baboons are an ideal model for studies of human inflammatory response due to their physiological and immunological similarities to people; however; little is known about how age affects immune function in the baboon. We sought to determine if baboons show age-related innate immune changes similar to that described in people. Age was correlated with increased serum C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 or, however, no change in interleukin-10 concentration was observed (n = 120 baboons). Cytokine release from unstimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells as well as following immune (lipopolysaccharide) stimulation increased with age. When whole blood was assayed, both lipopolysaccharide stimulated and unstimulated samples showed an age-related increase in interleukin-6 response, although the unstimulated cytokine response was reduced compared with that observed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Tumor necrosis factor-α response was not related to age. Cytokine response in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated whole blood was negatively correlated with serum DHEA-S concentration and positively correlated with TGF-β concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dianne McFarlane
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Center of Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA.
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Immune response to the West Nile virus in aged non-human primates. PLoS One 2010; 5:e15514. [PMID: 21151986 PMCID: PMC2996299 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2010] [Accepted: 10/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Risk of encephalitis from West Nile virus (WNV) infection increases dramatically with age. Understanding the basis of this susceptibility requires development of suitable animal models. Here, we investigated the immune response to WNV in old non-human primates. Methodology/Principal Findings We investigated clinical, immunological and virological correlates of WNV infection in aging non-human primates. Aged (17–30yrs) and adult (6–9yrs) Rhesus macaques (RM) were challenged with WNV in the presence or the absence of the mosquito salivary gland extract (SGE) to approximate natural infection. None of the 26 animals exhibited clinical signs of the disease. Quantitative PCR suggested discrete and short-lived viremia, but infectious virus was never isolated. There was markedly increased, age-independent, proliferation of CD3− non-B cells, followed by B-cell proliferation, which correlated to the loss of detectable WNV genomes. Moreover, animals primed with mosquito salivary gland extract exhibited reduced circulating WNV RNA. While we found the expected age-associated reduction in T cell proliferation, adaptive immunity did not correlate with infection outcome. That was further confirmed in a cohort of thymectomized and/or CD8 T-cell depleted Cynomolgus macaques (CM; N = 15), who also failed to develop WNV disease. Conclusions/significance Results are consistent with strong and age-independent innate resistance of macaques against WNV challenge. This animal model is therefore not suitable for vaccine and therapeutic testing against WNV. However, understanding the basis of their innate resistance against WNV in macaques could provide helpful clues to improve anti-WNV protection of older adults.
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Papin JF, Vahrson W, Larson L, Dittmer DP. Genome-wide real-time PCR for West Nile virus reduces the false-negative rate and facilitates new strain discovery. J Virol Methods 2010; 169:103-11. [PMID: 20637239 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2010.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2010] [Revised: 07/02/2010] [Accepted: 07/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) causes significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Transplant and transfusion recipients as well as the elderly are particularly at risk. WNV shows strain variation from season to season and from locale to locale. This poses a significant problem for diagnosis. Most assays use a single primer pair to detect WNV by QPCR, and can fail to detect novel stains. To overcome this limitation, a genome-wide, multiple primer-based real-time QPCR assay was developed for WNV. The same assay can be used for quantitation, viral variant discovery as well as for amplification of the entire viral genome using a single annealing temperature. It improves upon routine diagnosis as well as facilitates laboratory investigations of the pathology of WNV.
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Affiliation(s)
- James F Papin
- Department of Pathology, U. Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 1100 N. Lindsay, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, United States
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Stacy S, Pasquali A, Sexton VL, Cantwell AM, Kraig E, Dube PH. An age-old paradigm challenged: old baboons generate vigorous humoral immune responses to LcrV, a plague antigen. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2008; 181:109-15. [PMID: 18566375 PMCID: PMC3663140 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.181.1.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Immune senescence in the elderly results in decreased immunity with a concomitant increase in susceptibility to infection and diminished efficacy of vaccination. Nonhuman primate models have proven critical for testing of vaccines and therapeutics in the general population, but a model using old animals has not been established. Toward that end, immunity to LcrV, a protective Ag from Yersinia pestis, was tested in young and old baboons. Surprisingly, there was no age-associated loss in immune competence; LcrV elicited high-titer, protective Ab responses in the older individuals. The primary responses in the younger baboons were lower, but they did show boosting upon secondary immunization to the levels achieved in the old animals. The LcrV Ag was also tested in mice and, as expected, age-associated loss of immunity was seen; older animals responded with lower-titer Abs and, as a result, were more susceptible to Yersinia challenge. Thus, although age-related loss in immune function has been observed in humans, rodents, and some nonhuman primates, baboons appear to be unusual; they age without losing immune competence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sue Stacy
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas USA 78229-3900
- Barshop Center for Longevity Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas USA 78229-3900
| | - Amanda Pasquali
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas USA 78229-3900
| | - Valerie L. Sexton
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas USA 78229-3900
| | - Angelene M. Cantwell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas USA 78229-3900
| | - Ellen Kraig
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas USA 78229-3900
- Barshop Center for Longevity Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas USA 78229-3900
| | - Peter H. Dube
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas USA 78229-3900
- Barshop Center for Longevity Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas USA 78229-3900
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Shrestha B, Ng T, Chu HJ, Noll M, Diamond MS. The relative contribution of antibody and CD8+ T cells to vaccine immunity against West Nile encephalitis virus. Vaccine 2008; 26:2020-33. [PMID: 18339459 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2007] [Revised: 01/23/2008] [Accepted: 02/04/2008] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito borne, neurotropic flavivirus that causes a severe central nervous system (CNS) infection in humans and animals. Although commercial vaccines are available for horses, none is currently approved for human use. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy and mechanism of immune protection of two candidate WNV vaccines in mice. A formalin-inactivated WNV vaccine induced higher levels of specific and neutralizing antibodies compared to a DNA plasmid vaccine that produces virus-like particles. Accordingly, partial and almost complete protection against a highly stringent lethal intracranial WNV challenge were observed in mice 60 days after single dose immunization with the DNA plasmid and inactivated virus vaccines, respectively. In mice immunized with a single dose of DNA plasmid or inactivated vaccine, antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells were induced and contributed to protective immunity as acquired or genetic deficiencies of CD8(+) T cells lowered the survival rates. In contrast, in boosted animals, WNV-specific antibody titers were higher, survival rates after challenge were greater, and an absence of CD8(+) T cells did not appreciably affect mortality. Overall, our experiments suggest that in mice, both inactivated WNV and DNA plasmid vaccines are protective after two doses, and the specific contribution of antibody and CD8(+) T cells to vaccine immunity against WNV is modulated by the prime-boost strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bimmi Shrestha
- Department of Medicine, 660 S. Euclid Avenue, Box 8051, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, United States
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Siddiqui AA, Ahmad G, Damian RT, Kennedy RC. Experimental vaccines in animal models for schistosomiasis. Parasitol Res 2008; 102:825-33. [PMID: 18259777 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-008-0887-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2007] [Accepted: 01/13/2008] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Considerable morbidity and mortality results from the affliction of an estimated 200 million people worldwide by several species of schistosomes; 779 million are exposed to the disease in 74 different countries. Even though anti-parasitic drugs and other control measures, including public hygiene and snail control are available, the advent of an effective vaccine still remains the most potentially powerful means for the control of this disease. The putative vaccine could be administered to small children prior to the time when their contact with infected water is maximal, so as to prevent severe infection in the subsequent years. This review attempts to summarize the status of schistosome vaccine development with special emphasis on functionally important vaccine candidates. The importance of utilizing both murine and nonhuman primate models as a prerequisite for clinical trials is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afzal A Siddiqui
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, 3601 4th Street, Stop 6591, Lubbock, TX 79430-6591, USA.
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Holbrook MR, Gowen BB. Animal models of highly pathogenic RNA viral infections: encephalitis viruses. Antiviral Res 2007; 78:69-78. [PMID: 18031836 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2007.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2007] [Revised: 10/09/2007] [Accepted: 10/11/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The highly pathogenic RNA viruses that cause encephalitis include a significant number of emerging or re-emerging viruses that are also considered potential bioweapons. Many of these viruses, including members of the family Flaviviridae, the genus Alphavirus in the family Togaviridae, and the genus Henipavirus in the family Paramyxoviridae, circulate widely in their endemic areas, where they are transmitted by mosquitoes or ticks. They use a variety of vertebrate hosts, ranging from birds to bats, in their natural life cycle. As was discovered in the United States, the introduction of a mosquito-borne encephalitis virus such as West Nile virus can cause significant health and societal concerns. There are no effective therapeutics for treating diseases caused by any of these viruses and there is limited, if any, vaccine availability for most. In this review we provide a brief summary of the current status of animal models used to study highly pathogenic encephalitic RNA viruses for the development of antiviral therapeutics and vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Holbrook
- Department of Pathology, 301 University Boulevard, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, United States.
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Oliphant T, Nybakken GE, Austin SK, Xu Q, Bramson J, Loeb M, Throsby M, Fremont DH, Pierson TC, Diamond MS. Induction of epitope-specific neutralizing antibodies against West Nile virus. J Virol 2007; 81:11828-39. [PMID: 17715236 PMCID: PMC2168772 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00643-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have established that an epitope on the lateral ridge of domain III (DIII-lr) of West Nile virus (WNV) envelope (E) protein is recognized by strongly neutralizing type-specific antibodies. In contrast, an epitope against the fusion loop in domain II (DII-fl) is recognized by flavivirus cross-reactive antibodies with less neutralizing potential. Using gain- and loss-of-function E proteins and wild-type and variant WNV reporter virus particles, we evaluated the expression pattern and activity of antibodies against the DIII-lr and DII-fl epitopes in mouse and human serum after WNV infection. In mice, immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies to the DIII-lr epitope were detected at low levels at day 6 after infection. However, compared to IgG responses against other epitopes in DI and DII, which were readily detected at day 8, the development of IgG against DIII-lr epitope was delayed and did not appear consistently until day 15. This late time point is notable since almost all death after WNV infection in mice occurs by day 12. Nonetheless, at later time points, DIII-lr antibodies accumulated and comprised a significant fraction of the DIII-specific IgG response. In sera from infected humans, DIII-lr antibodies were detected at low levels and did not correlate with clinical outcome. In contrast, antibodies to the DII-fl were detected in all human serum samples and encompassed a significant percentage of the anti-E protein response. Our experiments suggest that the highly neutralizing DIII-lr IgG antibodies have little significant role in primary infection and that the antibody response of humans may be skewed toward the induction of cross-reactive, less-neutralizing antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodore Oliphant
- Departments of Medicine, Molecular Microbiology, and Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW West Nile virus emerged recently in North America as a serious human and animal pathogen. This review summarizes the use of experimental infections with West Nile virus in diverse vertebrate species that have been used to answer fundamental questions about the host response, pathogenesis of West Nile virus infection and virus evolution. RECENT FINDINGS West Nile virus has an extremely broad vertebrate host range. Infection of common species of birds has defined those with high vs. low potential to serve as amplifying hosts for the virus. In general, mammals (primates, horses, companion animals) are dead-end hosts for West Nile virus, although some circumstances (i.e. immunosuppression) may allow individuals to become capable of transmitting the virus to mosquitoes. Some mammals (rodents, rabbits, squirrels) and reptiles (alligators) have been found to develop a viremia of sufficient magnitude to predict at least low competence for infecting feeding mosquitoes. Finally, experimental infection of rodents, horses and primates with West Nile virus has been integral to developing and evaluating the efficacy of West Nile virus vaccines. SUMMARY Experimental infection with West Nile virus has assisted in delineating those hosts important and not important to the transmission cycle, in understanding how the virus induces disease in susceptible hosts, and in validating the efficacy of vaccines used for control of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Bowen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA.
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