Apamin inhibits PDGF-BB-induced vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration through suppressions of activated Akt and Erk signaling pathway

The Role of Luteolin in Inhibiting Prostaglandin-Endoperoxide Synthase 2 to Relieve Neointimal Hyperplasia in Arteriovenous Fistula

This study aims to investigate the role and mechanism of luteolin in inflammation and phenotypic switch of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in an arteriovenous fistula (AVF) model, for providing a potential agent for the prevention and therapy of AVF neointimal hyperplasia. In vivo, an AVF model is created in Sprague Dawley rats. In vitro, rat VSMCs are treated with platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) to induce the phenotypic switch of VSMCs. Histological AVF changes are analyzed using hematoxylin-eosin. Western blot and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) are utilized to detect prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2) expression. In vivo, luteolin inhibits neointima formation and reduces vimentin, α-SMA, MCP-1, MMP-9, TNF-α, and IL-6 levels. In vitro, under PDGF-BB treatment, luteolin inhibits proliferation and migration and reduces TNF-α, vimentin, α-SMA, MCP-1, MMP-9, and IL-6 levels in VSMCs. In rat AVF tissues, PTGS2 expression is increased. Luteolin inhibits PTGS2 expression in vivo and in vitro. PTGS2 overexpression reverses the role of luteolin in extracellular matrix protein expression, proliferation, inflammation, and migration in VSMCs treated with PDGF-BB. Altogether, in the AVF, luteolin inhibits proliferation, migration, the phenotypic switch of VSMCs, neointima formation, and the inflammatory response through inhibiting PTGS2 expression.

The role of lipase maturation factor 1 in hypertriglyceridaemia and atherosclerosis: An update

Lipase maturation factor 1 is an endoplasmic reticulum-resident transmembrane protein, which acts as a critical chaperone necessary for the folding, dimerisation, and secretion of lipases. In this review, we summarise data about the recently revealed role of lipase maturation factor 1 in endoplasmic reticulum redox homeostasis, its novel interaction partners among oxidoreductases and lectin chaperones, and the identification of fibronectin and the low-density lipoprotein receptor as novel non-lipase client proteins of lipase maturation factor 1. Additionally, the role of lipase maturation factor 1-derived circular RNA in atherosclerosis progression via the miR-125a-3p/vascular endothelial growth factor A\Fibroblast Growth Factor 1 axis is discussed. Finally, we focus on the causative role of lipase maturation factor 1 variants in the development of hypertriglyceridaemia - a type of dyslipidaemia that significantly contributes to the development of atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases via different mechanisms.

Harnessing the power of bee venom for therapeutic and regenerative medical applications: an updated review

Honeybees have been helpful insects since ancient centuries, and this benefit is not limited to being a honey producer only. After the bee stings a person, pain, and swelling occur in this place, due to the effects of bee venom (BV). This is not a poison in the total sense of the word because it has many benefits, and this is due to its composition being rich in proteins, peptides, enzymes, and other types of molecules in low concentrations that show promise in the treatment of numerous diseases and conditions. BV has also demonstrated positive effects against various cancers, antimicrobial activity, and wound healing versus the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Even though topical BV therapy is used to varying degrees among countries, localized swelling or itching are common side effects that may occur in some patients. This review provides an in-depth analysis of the complex chemical composition of BV, highlighting the diverse range of bioactive compounds and their therapeutic applications, which extend beyond the well-known anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving effects, showcasing the versatility of BV in modern medicine. A specific search strategy was followed across various databases; Web of sciences, Scopus, Medline, and Google Scholar including in vitro and in vivo clinical studies.to outline an overview of BV composition, methods to use, preparation requirements, and Individual consumption contraindications. Furthermore, this review addresses safety concerns and emerging approaches, such as the use of nanoparticles, to mitigate adverse effects, demonstrating a balanced and holistic perspective. Importantly, the review also incorporates historical context and traditional uses, as well as a unique focus on veterinary applications, setting it apart from previous works and providing a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners in the field.

Inhibition effect of copper-bearing metals on arterial neointimal hyperplasia via the AKT/Nrf2/ARE pathway in vitro and in vivo

In-stent restenosis can be caused by the activation, proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), which affects long-term efficacy of interventional therapy. Copper (Cu) has been proved to accelerate the endothelialization and reduce thrombosis formation, but little is known about its inhibition effect on the excessive proliferation of VSMCs. In this study, 316L-Cu stainless steel and L605-Cu cobalt-based alloy with varying Cu content were fabricated and their effects on surface property, blood compatibility and VSMCs were studied in vitro and in vivo. CCK-8 assay and EdU assay indicated that the Cu-bearing metals had obvious inhibitory effect on proliferation of VSMCs. Blood clotting and hemolysis tests showed that the Cu-bearing metals had good blood compatibility. The inhibition effect of the Cu-bearing metals on migration of cells was detected by Transwell assay. Further studies showed that Cu-bearing metals significantly decreased the mRNA expressions of bFGF, PDGF-B, HGF, Nrf2, GCLC, GCLM, NQO1 and HO1. The phosphorylation of AKT and Nrf2 protein expressions in VSMCs were significantly decreased by Cu-bearing metals. Furthermore, it was also found that SC79 and TBHQ treatments could recover the protein expressions of phospho-AKT and Nrf2, and their downstream proteins as well. Moreover, 316L-Cu stent proved its inhibitory action on the proliferation of VSMCs in vivo. In sum, the results demonstrated that the Cu-bearing metals possessed apparent inhibitory effect on proliferation and migration of VSMCs via regulating the AKT/Nrf2/ARE pathway, showing the Cu-bearing metals as promising stent materials for long-term efficacy of implantation.

Bee Sting Venom as a Viable Therapy for Breast Cancer: A Review Article

Breast cancer is a kind of aggressive cancer that significantly affects women worldwide, thus making research on alternative and new therapies necessary. The potential impact of bee venom on breast cancer is the main subject of this analysis of this research article. Bee venom has drawn the attention of the world with the help of its constituent ingredients, namely the bioactive compounds, enzymes, and complex blend of proteins. They have a particularly varied chemical makeup and proven anti-cancer capabilities. This is a detailed review demonstrating the components of bee venom and their individual functions in fighting cancer, as well as the results of previously conducted in-vitro and in-vivo research. As described later, bee venom has given positive results in triggering apoptosis, preventing cell migration, inhibiting metastasis and invasion, and suppressing the existing breast cancer cells. It is found to have worked better along with the already existing chemotherapy treatments. These results were also proved with the help of various animal studies that showed reduced tumor development, reduced metastasis, and improved therapeutic effectiveness. Furthermore, certain studies and case reports from all over the world have exhibited consistent results in females affected by breast cancer. This study found that people receiving chemotherapy experienced improved health outcomes and reduced discomfort, with fewer negative side effects. It is important to conduct extensive research on the safety and effectiveness of this treatment because it is yet to be approved. The ideal dosage and administration methods must be explored in clinical trials. Moreover, it is imperative to evaluate the results of any combined treatments with current medications. There should be constant monitoring to prevent any potential side effects. Other important things like allergic reactions and hidden concerns should also be considered.

Therapeutic Use of Bee Venom and Potential Applications in Veterinary Medicine

Apitherapy is a branch of alternative medicine that consists of the treatment of diseases through products collected, processed, and secreted by bees, specifically pollen, propolis, honey, royal jelly, and bee venom. In traditional medicine, the virtues of honey and propolis have been well-known for centuries. The same, however, cannot be said for venom. The use of bee venom is particularly relevant for many therapeutic aspects. In recent decades, scientific studies have confirmed and enabled us to understand its properties. Bee venom has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, central nervous system inhibiting, radioprotective, antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal properties, among others. Numerous studies have often been summarised in reviews of the scientific literature that have focused on the results obtained with mouse models and their subsequent transposition to the human patient. In contrast, few reviews of scientific work on the use of bee venom in veterinary medicine exist. This review aims to take stock of the research achievements in this particular discipline, with a view to a recapitulation and stabilisation in the different research fields.

The Autotaxin-LPA Axis Emerges as a Novel Regulator of Smooth Muscle Cell Phenotypic Modulation during Intimal Hyperplasia

Neointimal hyperplasia is characterized by a loss of the contractile phenotype of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Our group has recently shown that VSMC proliferation and migration are mediated by lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) during restenosis, but the role of autotaxin (ATX; lysophospholipase D), which produces LPA, remains unclear. Endothelial denudation of the mouse carotid artery was performed to induce neointimal hyperplasia, and the extent of damage caused by the ATX-LPA axis was assessed in VSMCs. We observed the upregulation of ATX activity (p < 0.0002) in the injured carotid artery using an AR2 probe fluorescence assay. Further, the tissue carotid LPA levels were elevated 2.7-fold in carotid vessels, augmenting neointimal hyperplasia. We used an electrical cell-substrate impedance sensor (ECIS) to measure VSMC proliferation and migration. Treatment with an ATX inhibitor (PF8380) or LPA receptor inhibitor (Ki16425) attenuated VSMC proliferation (extracellular signal-regulated kinases) activity and migration in response to recombinant ATX. Indeed, PF8380 treatment rescued the aggravated post-wire injury neointima formation of carotid arteries. The upregulation of ATX following vessel injury leads to LPA production in VSMCs, favoring restenosis. Our observations suggest that inhibition of the ATX-LPA axis could be therapeutically targeted in restenosis to minimize VSMC phenotypic modulation and inflammation after vascular injury.

Effects of Apamin on MPP+-Induced Calcium Overload and Neurotoxicity by Targeting CaMKII/ERK/p65/STAT3 Signaling Pathways in Dopaminergic Neuronal Cells

Parkinson's disease (PD), a neurodegenerative disorder, is characterized by the loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons. The pathogenesis of PD is associated with several factors including oxidative stress, inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Ca2+ signaling plays a vital role in neuronal signaling and altered Ca2+ homeostasis has been implicated in many neuronal diseases including PD. Recently, we reported that apamin (APM), a selective antagonist of the small-conductivity Ca2+-activated K+ (SK) channel, suppresses neuroinflammatory response. However, the mechanism(s) underlying the vulnerability of DA neurons were not fully understood. In this study, we investigated whether APM affected 1-methyl-4-phenyl pyridinium (MPP+)-mediated neurotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells and rat embryo primary mesencephalic neurons. We found that APM decreased Ca2+ overload arising from MPP+-induced neurotoxicity response through downregulating the level of CaMKII, phosphorylation of ERK, and translocation of nuclear factor NFκB/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)3. Furthermore, we showed that the correlation of MPP+-mediated Ca2+ overload and ERK/NFκB/STAT3 in the neurotoxicity responses, and dopaminergic neuronal cells loss, was verified through inhibitors. Our findings showed that APM might prevent loss of DA neurons via inhibition of Ca2+-overload-mediated signaling pathway and provide insights regarding the potential use of APM in treating neurodegenerative diseases.

General Nutritional Profile of Bee Products and Their Potential Antiviral Properties against Mammalian Viruses

Bee products have been extensively employed in traditional therapeutic practices to treat several diseases and microbial infections. Numerous bioactive components of bee products have exhibited several antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anticancer, antiprotozoal, hepatoprotective, and immunomodulatory properties. Apitherapy is a form of alternative medicine that uses the bioactive properties of bee products to prevent and/or treat different diseases. This review aims to provide an elaborated vision of the antiviral activities of bee products with recent advances in research. Since ancient times, bee products have been well known for their several medicinal properties. The antiviral and immunomodulatory effects of bee products and their bioactive components are emerging as a promising alternative therapy against several viral infections. Numerous studies have been performed, but many clinical trials should be conducted to evaluate the potential of apitherapy against pathogenic viruses. In that direction, here, we review and highlight the potential roles of bee products as apitherapeutics in combating numerous viral infections. Available studies validate the effectiveness of bee products in virus inhibition. With such significant antiviral potential, bee products and their bioactive components/extracts can be effectively employed as an alternative strategy to improve human health from individual to communal levels as well.

Optimized Apamin-Mediated Nano-Lipidic Carrier Potentially Enhances the Cytotoxicity of Ellagic Acid against Human Breast Cancer Cells

Ellagic acid has recently attracted increasing attention regarding its role in the prevention and treatment of cancer. Surface functionalized nanocarriers have been recently studied for enhancing cancer cells' penetration and achieving better tumor-targeted delivery of active ingredients. Therefore, the present work aimed at investigating the potential of APA-functionalized emulsomes (EGA-EML-APA) for enhancing cytototoxic activity of EGA against human breast cancer cells. Phospholipon® 90 G: cholesterol molar ratio (PC: CH; X1, mole/mole), Phospholipon® 90 G: Tristearin weight ratio (PC: TS; X2, w/w) and apamin molar concentration (APA conc.; X3, mM) were considered as independent variables, while vesicle size (VS, Y1, nm) and zeta potential (ZP, Y2, mV) were studied as responses. The optimized formulation with minimized vs. and maximized absolute ZP was predicted successfully utilizing a numerical technique. EGA-EML-APA exhibited a significant cytotoxic effect with an IC50 value of 5.472 ± 0.21 µg/mL compared to the obtained value from the free drug 9.09 ± 0.34 µg/mL. Cell cycle profile showed that the optimized formulation arrested MCF-7 cells at G2/M and S phases. In addition, it showed a significant apoptotic activity against MCF-7 cells by upregulating the expression of p53, bax and casp3 and downregulating bcl2. Furthermore, NF-κB activity was abolished while the expression of TNfα was increased confirming the significant apoptotic effect of EGA-EML-APA. In conclusion, apamin-functionalized emulsomes have been successfully proposed as a potential anti-breast cancer formulation.

Novel Nanoconjugate of Apamin and Ceftriaxone for Management of Diabetic Wounds

Diabetic hyperglycemia delays wound healing, leading to serious consequences. Topical antibiotics can reduce the risk of a wound infection during healing; nevertheless, the microbial fight against antibiotics brings about public health challenges. Anti-microbial peptides (AMPs) belong to a novel class of drug that is used to prevent and treat systemic and topical infections. The aim of the current work was to achieve better wound healing in diabetic rats by conjugating the anti-microbial peptide "apamin" (APA) with the broad-spectrum antibiotic "ceftriaxone" (CTX) to form a nanocomplex. The CTX-APA nanoconjugate formulation was optimized using a Box-Behnken design. The optimized CTX-APA nanoconjugate formulation was evaluated for its size and zeta potential, and was then examined using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The CTX-APA nanoconjugate was loaded onto a hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (2% w/v)-based hydrogel. It was observed that the application of the CTX-APA nanocomplex on the wounded skin of diabetic rats accelerated the regeneration of the epithelium, granulation tissue formation, epidermal proliferation, and keratinization. The nanocomplex was capable of significantly reducing the expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin 6 (IL-6), while increasing the expression of transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-β1) as well as the angiogenic markers: hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Conclusively, the application of an ion-paired CTX-APA nanocomplex enhances wound healing in diabetic rats.

Evening Primrose Extracts Inhibit PDGF-BB-Induced Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation and Migration by Regulating Cell-Cycle-Related Proteins

The proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) are important factors in the occurrence of cardiovascular diseases, such as blood flow abnormalities, stroke and atherosclerosis. Evening primrose, known as Oenothera biennis, is a plant native to Korea that exerts physiological activities, such as antioxidant effects, the inhibition of lipid accumulation and the prevention of muscle atrophy. However, the function of evening primrose stem (EVP) in the regulation of VSMC proliferation and migration and the underlying mechanisms have not been identified. In this study, the effect of EVP on the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-induced proliferation and migration of VSMCs was investigated. The results show that PDGF-BB-induced proliferation of VSMCs was inhibited by EVP at concentrations of 25, 50 or 100 μg/mL in a concentration-dependent manner, and a migration assay showed that EVP inhibited cell migration. Cell cycle analysis was performed to confirm the mechanism by which cell proliferation and migration was inhibited. The results indicate that proteins involved in the cell cycle, such as cyclin, CDK and phosphorylated Rb, were downregulated by EVP at concentrations of 100 μg/mL, thereby increasing the proportion of cells in the G0/G1 phase and inhibiting cell cycle progression. In the PDGF receptor (PDGFR) signaling pathway, phosphorylation of the PDGFR was inhibited by EVP at concentrations of 100 μg/mL, and PLCγ phosphorylation was also decreased. The PDGF-BB-induced effect of EVP on the proliferation of VSMCs involved the inhibition of Akt phosphorylation and the reduction in the phosphorylation of MAPK proteins such as ERK, P38 and JNK. In conclusion, the results demonstrate that EVP inhibited PDGF-BB-induced VSMC proliferation and migration by regulating cell-cycle-related proteins.

Apamin inhibits renal fibrosis via suppressing TGF-β1 and STAT3 signaling in vivo and in vitro

Renal fibrosis is a progressive and chronic process that influences kidneys with chronic kidney disease (CKD), irrespective of cause, leading to irreversible failure of renal function and end-stage kidney disease. Among the signaling related to renal fibrosis, transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) signaling is a major pathway that induces the activation of myofibroblasts and the production of extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules. Apamin, a component of bee venom (BV), has been studied in relation to various diseases. However, the effect of apamin on renal interstitial fibrosis has not been investigated. The aim of this study was to estimate the beneficial effect of apamin in unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO)-induced renal fibrosis and TGF-β1-induced renal fibroblast activation. This study revealed that obstructive kidney injury induced an inflammatory response, tubular atrophy, and ECM accumulation. However, apamin treatment suppressed the increased expression of fibrotic-related genes, including α-SMA, vimentin, and fibronectin. Administration of apamin also attenuated the renal tubular cells injury and tubular atrophy. In addition, apamin attenuated fibroblast activation, ECM synthesis, and inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 by suppressing the TGF-β1-canonical and non-canonical signaling pathways. This study showed that apamin inhibits UUO-induced renal fibrosis in vivo and TGF-β1-induced renal fibroblasts activation in vitro. Apamin inhibited the inflammatory response, tubular atrophy, ECM accumulation, fibroblast activation, and renal interstitial fibrosis through suppression of TGF-β1/Smad2/3 and STAT3 signaling pathways. These results suggest that apamin might be a potential therapeutic agent for renal fibrosis. KEY MESSAGES: UUO injury can induce renal dysfunction; however, apamin administration prevents renal failure in UUO mice. Apamin inhibited renal inflammatory response and ECM deposition in UUO-injured mice. Apamin suppressed the activation of myofibroblasts in vivo and in vitro. Apamin has the anti-fibrotic effect on renal fibrosis via regulation of TGF-β1 canonical and non-canonical signaling.

Circular RNA circLMF1 regulates PDGF-BB-induced proliferation and migration of human aortic smooth muscle cells by regulating the miR-125a-3p/VEGFA or FGF1 axis

Atherosclerosis is a major cause of cardiovascular disease, in which vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) proliferation and migration play a vital role. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have been reported to be correlated with the VSMCs function. Therefore, this study is designed to explore the role and mechanism of circRNA lipase maturation factor 1 (circLMF1) in Human aortic VSMCs (HASMCs). The microarray was used for detecting the expression of circLMF1 in proliferative and quiescent HASMCs. Levels of circLMF1, microRNA-125a-3p (miR-125a-3p), vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA), and fibroblast growth factor 1 (FGF1) were determined by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Cell viability, cell cycle progression, and migration were assessed by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), flow cytometry, wound healing, and transwell assays, respectively. Western blot assay determined proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), Cyclin D1, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP2), osteopontin (OPN), VEGFA, and FGF1 protein levels. The possible interactions between miR-125a-3p and circLMF1, and miR-125a-3p and VEGFA or FGF1 were predicted by circbank or targetscan, and then verified by a dual-luciferase reporter, RNA Immunoprecipitation (RIP), RNA pull-down assays. CircLMF1, VEGFA, and FGF1 were increased, and miR-125a-3p was decreased in platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB)-inducted HASMCs. Functionally, circLMF1 knockdown hindered cell viability, cell cycle progression, and migration in PDGF-BB-treated HASMCs. Mechanically, circLMF1 could regulate VEGFA or FGF1 expression through sponging miR-125a-3p. Our findings revealed that circLMF1 deficiency could inhibit cell viability, cell cycle progression, and migration of PDGF-BB stimulated atherosclerosis model partly through the miR-125a-3p/VEGFA or FGF1 axis, suggesting that targeting circLMF1 can be a feasible therapeutic strategy for atherosclerosis.

LncRNA Fetal-Lethal Noncoding Developmental Regulatory RNA (FENDRR) Suppresses Cell Proliferation and Promotes Apoptosis in Platelet Derived Growth Factor BB/Tumor Necrosis Factor α Induced Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells

Atherosclerosis is one of the primary causes that lead to cardiovascular disease. LncRNAs have been regarded as key modulators in many pathological processes. The study aims to identify the regulatory role of LncRNA fetal-lethal noncoding developmental regulatory RNA (FENDRR) in atherosclerosis. Cell viability proliferation, cell cycle and cell apoptosis were evaluated by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay flow cytometric analysis and western blot analysis. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) was carried out to determine FENDRR expression in PDGF-BB/TNF-α induced VSMCs. Levels of TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, MCP-1 and ICAM-1 were investigated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The results showed that cell viability was enhanced and FENDRR expression was downregulated after VSMCs were induced by platelet derived growth factor BB (PDGF-BB) or tumor necrosis factor a (TNF-α). Cell proliferation was inhibited by FENDRR overexpression in a time-dependent manner in PDGF-BB or TNF-α induced VSMCs. Moreover, FENDRR overexpression blocked cell cycle, suppressed the generations of TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, MCP-1 and ICAM-1, and facilitated cell apoptosis in VSMCs induced by PDGF-BB or TNF-α. These findings indicate the functional role of LncRNA FENDRR in atherosclerosis that attenuates cell proliferation and accelerates cell apoptosis.

A heparin-rosuvastatin-loaded P(LLA-CL) nanofiber-covered stent inhibits inflammatory smooth-muscle cell viability to reduce in-stent stenosis and thrombosis

Background

An endovascular covered-stent has unique advantages in treating complex intracranial aneurysms; however, in-stent stenosis and late thrombosis have become the main factors affecting the efficacy of covered-stent treatment. Smooth-muscle-cell phenotypic modulation plays an important role in late in-stent stenosis and thrombosis. Here, we determined the efficacy of using covered stents loaded with drugs to inhibit smooth-muscle-cell phenotypic modulation and potentially lower the incidence of long-term complications.

Methods

Nanofiber-covered stents were prepared using coaxial electrospinning, with the core solution prepared with 15% heparin and 20 µM rosuvastatin solution (400: 100 µL), and the shell solution prepared with 120 mg/mL hexafluoroisopropanol. We established a rabbit carotid-artery aneurysm model, which was treated with covered stents. Angiography and histology were performed to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy and incidence rate of in-stent stenosis and thrombosis. Phenotype, function, and inflammatory factors of smooth-muscle cells were studied to explore the mechanism of rosuvastatin action in smooth-muscle cells.

Result

Heparin–rosuvastatin-loaded nanofiber scaffold mats inhibited the proliferation of synthetic smooth-muscle cells, and the nanofiber-covered stent effectively treated aneurysms in the absence of notable in-stent stenosis. Additionally, in vitro experiments showed that rosuvastatin inhibited the smooth-muscle-cell phenotypic modulation of platelet-derived growth factor-BB induction and decreased synthetic smooth-muscle-cell viability, as well as secretion of inflammatory cytokines.

Conclusion

Rosuvastatin inhibited the abnormal proliferation of synthetic smooth-muscle cells, and heparin–rosuvastatin-loaded covered stents reduced the incidence of stenosis and late thrombosis, thereby improving the healing rates of stents used for aneurysm treatment.

Graphic abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-021-00867-8.

Silence of Insulin-Like Growth Factor 2 mRNA-Binding Protein 1 Prevents Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells Proliferation via Nuclear Factor of Activated T Cells Isoform-3/Ca2+/Calmodulin Pathway

Increased proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) contributes to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis (AS), and the insulin like growth factor 2 (IGF2) is involved in AS through effects on VSMCs growth and migration. The IGF2 mRNA-binding protein 1(IGF2BP1) is a secreted protein that can bind to IGF2 and regulate its localization, however, whether IGF2BP1 could regulate VSMCs proliferation remains to be elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the role of IGF2BP1 in VSMCs proliferation and uncover the potential mechanism. Primary human aortic VSMCs that transfected with or without shRNA-IGF2BP1 were stimulated by platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB), and then cell proliferation, intracellular Ca2+ level, cell apoptosis and the expression of IGF2BP1, calmodulin (CaM) and cell cycle-related proteins were detected. RNA pull down assay was used to determine the interaction between IGF2BP1 and nuclear factor of activated T cells isoform-3 (NFATc3). We found that PDGF-BB promoted cell proliferation and enhanced IGF2BP1 protein expression in a concentration-dependent manner. The 10 μg/L PDGF-BB significantly increased intracellular Ca2+ level, NFATc3, CaM and calcineurin A protein expression, TUNEL-positive cells, and the expression of cell cycle-related proteins cyclin D1/E1/B1. However, knockdown of IGF2BP1 significantly blunted all these effects induced by PDGF-BB. In addition, IGF2BP1 could bind to NFATc3 RNA. Collectively, knockdown of IGF2BP1 could inhibit PDGFBB- induced VSMCs proliferation via targeting NFATc3/Ca2+/calmodulin pathway and disturbing the effect of NFATc3/ on cell cycle.

Reactive sulfur species inhibit the migration of PDGF-treated vascular smooth muscle cells by blocking the reactive oxygen species-regulated Akt signaling pathway

Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) migration contributes to vascular remodeling after injury, whereas oxidative stress generated through dysfunctional redox homeostasis induces hypermigration, leading to arteriosclerosis. Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) serve as intracellular signaling molecules in VSMCs. Reactive sulfur species (RSS) may serve as a biological defense system because of the antioxidative properties of highly nucleophilic sulfane sulfur. However, insufficient information is available on its function in PDGF-induced VSMC migration. Here we show that PDGF significantly increased the levels of intracellular sulfane sulfur and that intracellular sulfane sulfur donors, donor 5a and Na₂S₄, inhibited the increase in ROS levels in PDGF-treated VSMCs and inhibited their migration. Consistent with the migration results, sulfane sulfur donors inhibited Akt phosphorylation, a downstream signaling molecule in the PDGF cascade, without affecting the autophosphorylation of PDGF receptor-β. Further, sulfane sulfur donors inhibited vinculin and paxillin recruitment to the leading edge of VSMCs in response to PDGF to decrease focal adhesion formation. These findings suggest that RSS are required for PDGF-stimulated VSMC migration through the regulation of the ROS-regulated Akt pathway, which may contribute to focal adhesion formation. Our findings provide insight into RSS as novel regulators of vascular redox homeostasis.

Circ_0004872 promotes platelet-derived growth factor-BB-induced proliferation, migration and dedifferentiation in HA-VSMCs via miR-513a-5p/TXNIP axis

The proliferation, migration and dedifferentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) exert crucial roles in atherosclerosis (AS) progression. The aim of our study was to explore the influences of circular RNA 0004872 (circ_0004872) in platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB)-induced AS cell model and investigate the underlying mechanisms. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was implemented for the expression detection of circ_0004872, mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (MAPK1) messenger RNA (mRNA), microRNA-513a-5p (miR-513a-5p) and thioredoxin interacting protein (TXNIP). Cell proliferation was analyzed via Cell Counting Kit 8 (CCK8) assay. Cell migration was assessed via wound healing assay and transwell migration assay. Western blot assay was used to measure the expression of alpha smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), osteopontin (OPN), calponin and TXNIP. Dual-luciferase reporter assay and RNA-pull down assay were used for confirmation of interaction between miR-513a-5p and circ_0004872 or TXNIP. Circ_0004872 expression was elevated in PDGF-BB-induced human aortic vascular smooth muscle cells (HA-VSMCs) and carotid plaque tissues. Circ_0004872 silencing alleviated PDGF-BB-induced proliferation, migration and dedifferentiation in HA-VSMCs. MiR-513a-5p bound to circ_0004872, and circ_0004872 knockdown-induced effects in PDGF-BB-treated HA-VSMCs were largely attenuated by the silencing of miR-513a-5p. MiR-513a-5p bound to the 3' untranslated region (3'UTR) of TXNIP, and miR-513a-5p overexpression-mediated effects were counteracted by the transfection of pcDNA-TXNIP in PDGF-BB-induced HA-VSMCs. TXNIP was modulated by circ_0004872/miR-513a-5p signaling cascade in HA-VSMCs. Circ_0004872 accelerated PDGF-BB-induced proliferation, migration and dedifferentiation in HA-VSMCs through enhancing TXNIP level via sponging miR-513a-5p.

Inhibition of the Ras/ERK1/2 pathway contributes to the protective effect of ginsenoside Re against intimal hyperplasia

Neointimal hyperplasia is the major cause of carotid stenosis after vascular injury, which restricts the long-term efficacy of endovascular treatment and endarterectomy in preventing stenosis. Ginsenoside Re (Re) is a major active ingredient of ginseng having multifaceted pharmacological effects on the cardiovascular system, and is a potential treatment for restenosis. In this study, we demonstrated that Re treatment significantly inhibited vascular injury-induced neointimal thickening, reduced the intimal area and intima/media (I/M) ratio, increased the lumen area, and inhibited pro-inflammatory cytokines. In cultured A7R5 cells, Re inhibited LPS-induced proliferation and migration as evidenced by suppressed colony formation and shortened migration distance, accompanied by the downregulated expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Re promoted VSMC apoptosis induced by balloon injury in vivo and LPS challenge in vitro. Moreover, Re inhibited autophagy in VSMCs evoked by balloon injury and LPS as supported by reduced LC3II and increased p62 expressions. Suppression of autophagy with the specific autophagy inhibitor spautin-1 efficiently inhibited LPS-induced cell proliferation and inflammation and promoted caspase-3/7 activities. Mechanistically, we found that Re attenuated Ras/ERK1/2 expression in VSMCs in vivo and in vitro. The MEK1/2 inhibitor PD98059 showed similar effects to Re on cell proliferation, migration, apoptosis, and the levels of autophagy and cytokines. In conclusion, we provided significant evidence that Re inhibited vascular injury-induced neointimal thickening probably by promoting VSMC apoptosis and inhibiting autophagy via suppression of the Ras/MEK/ERK1/2 signaling pathway.

Bee Venom in Wound Healing

Bee venom (BV), also known as api-toxin, is widely used in the treatment of different inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis or multiple sclerosis. It is also known that BV can improve the wound healing process. BV plays a crucial role in the modulation of the different phases of wound repair. It possesses anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antifungal, antiviral, antimicrobial and analgesic properties, all of which have a positive impact on the wound healing process. The mentioned process consists of four phases, i.e., hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation and remodeling. The impaired wound healing process constitutes a significant problem especially in diabetic patients, due to hypoxia state. It had been found that BV accelerated the wound healing in diabetic patients as well as in laboratory animals by impairing the caspase-3, caspase-8 and caspase-9 activity. Moreover, the activity of BV in wound healing is associated with regulating the expression of transforming growth factor (TGF-β1), vascular endothelial growth factor and increased collagen type I. BV stimulates the proliferation and migration of human epidermal keratinocytes and fibroblasts. In combination with polyvinyl alcohol and chitosan, BV significantly accelerates the wound healing process, increasing the hydroxyproline and glutathione and lowering the IL-6 level in wound tissues. The effect of BV on the wounds has been proved by numerous studies, which revealed that BV in the wound healing process brings about a curative effect and could be applied as a new potential treatment for wound repair. However, therapy with bee venom may induce allergic reactions, so it is necessary to assess the existence of the patient’s hypersensitivity to apitoxin before treatment.

Apamin Suppresses LPS-Induced Neuroinflammatory Responses by Regulating SK Channels and TLR4-Mediated Signaling Pathways

Neuroinflammation plays a vital role in neurodegenerative conditions. Microglia are a key component of the neuroinflammatory response. There is a growing interest in developing drugs to target microglia and thereby control neuroinflammatory processes. Apamin (APM) is a specifically selective antagonist of small conductance calcium-activated potassium (SK) channels. However, its effect on neuroinflammation is largely unknown. We examine the effects of APM on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated BV2 and rat primary microglial cells. Regarding the molecular mechanism by which APM significantly inhibits proinflammatory cytokine production and microglial cell activation, we found that APM does so by reducing the expression of phosphorylated CaMKII and toll-like receptor (TLR4). In particular, APM potently suppressed the translocation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)3 and phosphorylated mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK)-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). In addition, the correlation of NF-κB/STAT3 and MAPK-ERK in the neuroinflammatory response was verified through inhibitors. The literature and our findings suggest that APM is a promising candidate for an anti-neuroinflammatory agent and can potentially be used for the prevention and treatment of various neurological disorders.

Activation of Inward Rectifier K+ Channel 2.1 by PDGF-BB in Rat Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells through Protein Kinase A

Platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) can induce the proliferation, migration, and phenotypic modulation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). We used patch clamp methods to study the effects of PDGF-BB on inward rectifier K⁺ channel 2.1 (Kir2.1) channels in rat thoracic aorta VSMCs (RASMCs). PDGF-BB (25 ng/mL) increased Kir2.x currents (−11.81 ± 2.47 pA/pF, P < 0.05 vs. CON, n = 10). Ba²⁺(50 μM) decreased Kir2.x currents (−2.13 ± 0.23 pA/pF, P < 0.05 vs. CON, n = 10), which were promoted by PDGF-BB (−6.98 ± 1.03 pA/pF). PDGF-BB specifically activates Kir2.1 but not Kir2.2 and Kir2.3 channels in HEK-293 cells. The PDGF-BB-induced stimulation of Kir2.1 currents was blocked by the PDGF-BB receptor β (PDGF-BBRβ) inhibitor AG1295 and was not affected by the PDGF-BBRα inhibitor AG1296. The PDGF-BB-induced stimulation of Kir2.1 currents was blocked by the protein kinase A inhibitor Rp-8-CPT-cAMPs; however, the antagonist of protein kinase B (GSK690693) had marginal effects on current activity. The PDGF-BB-induced stimulation of Kir2.1 currents was enhanced by forskolin, an adenylyl cyclase (AC) activator, and was blocked by the AC inhibitor SQ22536. We conclude that PDGF-BB increases Kir2.1 currents via PDGF-BBRβ through activation of cAMP-PKA signaling in RASMCs.

Therapeutic Effects of Apamin as a Bee Venom Component for Non-Neoplastic Disease

Bee venom is a natural toxin produced by honeybees and plays an important role in defending bee colonies. Bee venom has several kinds of peptides, including melittin, apamin, adolapamine, and mast cell degranulation peptides. Apamin accounts for about 2%-3% dry weight of bee venom and is a peptide neurotoxin that contains 18 amino acid residues that are tightly crosslinked by two disulfide bonds. It is well known for its pharmacological functions, which irreversibly block Ca2+-activated K+ (SK) channels. Apamin regulates gene expression in various signal transduction pathways involved in cell development. The aim of this study was to review the current understanding of apamin in the treatment of apoptosis, fibrosis, and central nervous system diseases, which are the pathological processes of various diseases. Apamin's potential therapeutic and pharmacological applications are also discussed.

Homeobox B5 suppression attenuates proliferation and elevates apoptosis in hepatoma cell lines through ERK/MDM2 signalling

Homeobox B5 (HOXB5), a member of the HOX gene family, is an important gene in tumourigenesis. However, its role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell proliferation and apoptosis remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the role and regulation mechanism of HOXB5 in HCC cell lines Hep3B and LM6. The data indicated high expression of HOXB5 in HCC tissues and cell lines. In HCC cells, inhibition of HOXB5 by transfection with HOXB5 siRNA significantly constrained cell viability, and Bcl-2 levels, and it increased cell apoptosis, cytochrome c levels, BAX levels, and caspase-3 activity. On the contrary, HOXB5 overexpression increased proliferation and Bcl-2 levels but inhibited BAX levels and caspase-3 activity in these cells. HOXB5 downregulation attenuated activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and expression of the murine double minute 2 (MDM2) oncogene. Incubation with the ERK activator, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (40 μmol/L), for 12 hours reversed the effects of HOXB5 inhibition on MDM2 expression, cell proliferation, and apoptosis in HCC cells. Overall, this study demonstrated that HOXB5 inhibition regulated MDM2 expression by controlling ERK activation and that it modulated proliferation and apoptosis in HCC cells.

Contribution of transcription factor EB to adipoRon-induced inhibition of arterial smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration

Abnormal vascular smooth muscle cell (SMC) dedifferentiation with increased proliferation and migration during pathological vascular remodeling is associated with vascular disorders, such as atherosclerosis and in-stent restenosis. AdipoRon, a selective agonist of adiponectin receptor, has been shown to protect against vascular remodeling by preventing SMC dedifferentiation. However, the molecular mechanisms that mediate adipoRon-induced SMC differentiation are not well understood. The present study aimed to elucidate the role of transcription factor EB (TFEB), a master regulator of autophagy, in mediating adipoRon's effect on SMCs. In cultured arterial SMCs, adipoRon dose-dependently increased TFEB activation, which is accompanied by upregulated transcription of genes involved in autophagy pathway and enhanced autophagic flux. In parallel, adipoRon suppressed serum-induced cell proliferation and caused cell cycle arrest. Moreover, adipoRon inhibited SMC migration as characterized by wound-healing retardation, F-actin reorganization, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 downregulation. These inhibitory effects of adipoRon on proliferation and migration were attenuated by TFEB gene silencing. Mechanistically, activation of TFEB by adipoRon is dependent on intracellular calcium, but it is not associated with changes in AMPK, ERK1/2, Akt, or molecular target of rapamycin complex 1 activation. Using ex vivo aortic explants, we demonstrated that adipoRon inhibited sprouts that had outgrown from aortic rings, whereas lentiviral TFEB shRNA transduction significantly reversed this effect of adipoRon on aortic rings. Taken together, our results indicate that adipoRon activates TFEB signaling that helps maintain the quiescent and differentiated status of arterial SMCs, preventing abnormal SMC dedifferentiation. This study provides novel mechanistic insights into understanding the therapeutic effects of adipoRon on TFEB signaling and pathological vascular remodeling.

Activation of TFEB ameliorates dedifferentiation of arterial smooth muscle cells and neointima formation in mice with high-fat diet

Autophagy is recently implicated in regulating vascular smooth muscle cell (SMC) homeostasis and in the pathogenesis of vascular remodeling. Transcription factor EB (TFEB) is a master regulator of autophagy signaling pathways. However, the molecular mechanisms and functional roles of TFEB in SMC homeostasis have not been elucidated. Here, we surveyed the ability of TFEB to regulate autophagy pathway in SMCs, and whether pharmacological activation of TFEB favors SMC homeostasis preventing dedifferentiation and pathogenic vascular remodeling. In primary cultured SMCs, TFEB activator trehalose induced nuclear translocation of TFEB and upregulation of TFEB-controlled autophagy genes leading to enhanced autophagy signaling. Moreover, trehalose suppressed serum-induced SMC dedifferentiation to synthetic phenotypes as characterized by inhibited proliferation and migration. These effects of trehalose were mimicked by ectopic upregulation of TFEB and inhibited by TFEB gene silencing. In animal experiments, partial ligation of carotid arteries induced downregulation of TFEB pathway in the media layer of these arteries. Such TFEB suppression was correlated with increased SMC dedifferentiation and aggravated high-fat diet (HFD)-induced neointima formation. Treatment of mice with trehalose reversed this TFEB pathway suppression, and prevented SMC dedifferentiation and HFD-induced neointima formation. In conclusion, our findings have identified TFEB as a novel positive regulator for autophagy pathway and cellular homeostasis in SMCs. Our data suggest that suppression of TFEB may be an initiating mechanism that promotes SMC dedifferentiation leading to accelerated neointima formation in vascular disorders associated with metabolic stress, whereas trehalose reverses these changes. These findings warrant further evaluation of trehalose in the clinical settings.

MicroRNA-125a-3p affects smooth muscle cell function in vascular stenosis

AIMS

Many studies have indicated that microRNAs are closely related to the process of peripheral arterial disease (PAD). Previously, we found that microRNA-125a-3p (miR-125a-3p) in restenotic arteries after interventional therapy of lower extremity vessels was notably decreased compared with that of normal control arteries. However, its role in the development of vascular stenosis is not yet clearly understood. The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression, regulatory mechanism and function of miR-125a-3p in the process of vascular stenosis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction assays indicated that miR-125a-3p in restenotic arteries after interventional therapy was significantly lower than that in normal control arteries. Immunofluorescence and in situ hybridization co-staining assays in arterial sections demonstrated that miR-125a-3p was mainly expressed in the medial smooth muscle layer. Transfection of miR-125a-3p mimics into cultured vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) effectively inhibited cell proliferation and migration. Then, western blot and luciferase activity assays showed that recombinant human mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (MAPK1) was a functional target of miR-125a-3p and was involved in miR-125a-3p-mediated cell effects. Finally, the lentiviral infection of miR-125a-3p in balloon-injured rat carotid vascular walls showed that miR-125a-3p overexpression significantly reduced the probability of neointimal membrane production.

CONCLUSIONS

miR-125a-3p can effectively inhibit the function of VSMCs and the occurrence of vascular stenosis by targeting MAPK1. This study introduces a new molecular mechanism of PAD. We show that regulation of the miR-125a-3p level has the potential to provide a new treatment for PAD and other proliferative vascular diseases.

Bee Venom: Overview of Main Compounds and Bioactivities for Therapeutic Interests

Apitherapy is an alternate therapy that relies on the usage of honeybee products, most importantly bee venom for the treatment of many human diseases. The venom can be introduced into the human body by manual injection or by direct bee stings. Bee venom contains several active molecules such as peptides and enzymes that have advantageous potential in treating inflammation and central nervous system diseases, such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Moreover, bee venom has shown promising benefits against different types of cancer as well as anti-viral activity, even against the challenging human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Many studies described biological activities of bee venom components and launched preclinical trials to improve the potential use of apitoxin and its constituents as the next generation of drugs. The aim of this review is to summarize the main compounds of bee venom, their primary biological properties, mechanisms of action, and their therapeutic values in alternative therapy strategies.

MicroRNA-451 inhibits vascular smooth muscle cell migration and intimal hyperplasia after vascular injury via Ywhaz/p38 MAPK pathway

Increasing evidence has indicated that intimal hyperplasia is a common event in the pathophysiology of many vascular diseases including atherosclerosis (AS). Recently, deregulated microRNAs (miRNAs) have been reported to be associated with the pathophysiology of AS. However, the biological function and regulatory mechanisms of miRNAs in intimal hyperplasia in AS remain largely unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of miRNAs on intimal hyperplasia and reveal the underlying mechanisms of their effects. Firstly, the model of rat vascular injury was successfully constructed in vivo. Then, the miRNAs expression profiles were analyzed by miRNA microarray. It was observed that miR-451 was significantly downregulated in injury carotid arteries. Subsequently, we investigated miR-451 function and found that upregulation of miR-451 by agomir-451 improves intimal thickening in rats following vascular injury. It was also observed that miR-451 was downregulated in the VSMCs following platelet-derived growth factor type BB (PDGF-BB) stimulation. The upregulation of miR-451 attenuated PDGF-BB-induced VSMCs injury, as evidenced by inhibition of proliferation, invasion and migration. Besides, overexpression of miR-451 blocked the activation of p38 MAPK signaling pathway in PDGF-BB treated VSMCs, as demonstrated by the downregulation of phosphorylated (p-) p38. In addition, Ywhaz, a positive regulator of p38 MAPK signaling pathway, was found to be a direct target of miR-451 in the VSMCs and this was validated using a luciferase reporter assay. Overexpression of Ywhaz partially abolished the inhibitory effects of miR-451 overexpression on PDGF-BB induced VSMCs injury. Collectively, these findings indicated that miR-451 protected intimal hyperplasia and PDGF-BB-induced VSMCs injury by Ywhaz/p38 MAPK pathway, and miR-451 may be considered as a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of AS.

Serum protein signature of coronary artery disease in type 2 diabetes mellitus

Background

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The purpose of the present study was to discriminate the Indian CAD patients with or without T2DM by using multiple pathophysiological biomarkers.

Methods

Using sensitive multiplex protein assays, we assessed 46 protein markers including cytokines/chemokines, metabolic hormones, adipokines and apolipoproteins for evaluating different pathophysiological conditions of control, T2DM, CAD and T2DM with CAD patients (T2DM_CAD). Network analysis was performed to create protein-protein interaction networks by using significantly (p < 0.05) altered protein markers in each disease using STRING 10.5 database. We used two supervised analysis methods i.e., between class analysis (BCA) and principal component analysis (PCA) to reveals distinct biomarkers profiles. Further, random forest classification (RF) was used to classify the diseases by the panel of markers.

Results

Our two supervised analysis methods BCA and PCA revealed a distinct biomarker profiles and high degree of variability in the marker profiles for T2DM_CAD and CAD. Thereafter, the present study identified multiple potential biomarkers to differentiate T2DM, CAD, and T2DM_CAD patients based on their relative abundance in serum. RF classified T2DM based on the abundance patterns of nine markers i.e., IL-1β, GM-CSF, glucagon, PAI-I, rantes, IP-10, resistin, GIP and Apo-B; CAD by 14 markers i.e., resistin, PDGF-BB, PAI-1, lipocalin-2, leptin, IL-13, eotaxin, GM-CSF, Apo-E, ghrelin, adipsin, GIP, Apo-CII and IP-10; and T2DM _CAD by 12 markers i.e., insulin, resistin, PAI-1, adiponectin, lipocalin-2, GM-CSF, adipsin, leptin, Apo-AII, rantes, IL-6 and ghrelin with respect to the control subjects. Using network analysis, we have identified several cellular network proteins like PTPN1, AKT1, INSR, LEPR, IRS1, IRS2, IL1R2, IL6R, PCSK9 and MYD88, which are responsible for regulating inflammation, insulin resistance, and atherosclerosis.

Conclusion

We have identified three distinct sets of serum markers for diabetes, CAD and diabetes associated with CAD in Indian patients using nonparametric-based machine learning approach. These multiple marker classifiers may be useful for monitoring progression from a healthy person to T2DM and T2DM to T2DM_CAD. However, these findings need to be further confirmed in the future studies with large number of samples.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12967-018-1755-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Contribution of p62/SQSTM1 to PDGF-BB-induced myofibroblast-like phenotypic transition in vascular smooth muscle cells lacking Smpd1 gene

Accumulating evidence indicates a critical role of autophagy in regulating vascular smooth muscle cell (SMC) homeostasis in atherogenesis. However, little is known about the modulatory role of autophagy in PDGF-BB-induced SMC transition towards the synthetic phenotype and extracellular matrix remodeling. We recently demonstrated that acid sphingomyelinase (ASM, encoded by Smpd1 gene) controls autophagy maturation in coronary arterial SMCs. Here, we demonstrate that PDGF-BB stimulation causes a myofibroblast-like non-canonical synthetic phenotype transition in Smpd1^−/− SMCs. These non-canonical phenotypic changes induced by PDGF-BB in Smpd1^−/− SMCs were characterized by increased expression of fibroblast-specific protein (FSP-1), massive deposition of collagen type I, decreased cell size, elevated inflammatory status with enhanced cytokine release and adhesion molecule expression. Mechanistically, PDGF-BB induces prolonged Akt activation that causes decreased autophagosome biogenesis and thereby exaggerates p62/SQSTM1 accumulation in Smpd1^−/− SMCs. More importantly, Akt inhibition or p62/SQSTM1 gene silencing attenuates PDGF-BB-induced phenotypic changes in Smpd1^−/− SMCs. This first demonstration of a p62/SQSTM1-dependent myofibroblast-like phenotypic transition in Smpd1^−/− SMCs suggests that ASM-mediated autophagy pathway contributes to maintaining the arterial smooth muscle homeostasis in situation of vascular remodeling during atherosclerosis.

Nicotinic ACh receptor α7 inhibits PDGF-induced migration of vascular smooth muscle cells by activating mitochondrial deacetylase sirtuin 3

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

PDGF-BB is an angiogenic factor involved in cardiovascular diseases. Here, we investigated the possible effects of activation of the nicotinic ACh receptor α7 subtype (α7nAChR) on PDGF-BB-induced proliferation and migration in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs).

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

PNU-282987, a selective α7nAChR pharmacological agonist, was used to activate α7nAChR. The influences of α7nAChR activation on PDGF-BB-induced proliferation and migration, as well as the phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK)/Src, a pro-migration signalling pathway, were determined in VSMCs. A variety of biochemical assays were applied to explore the underlying molecular mechanisms.

KEY RESULTS

PDGF-BB induced pronounced migration and proliferation of VSMCs. Activation of α7nAChRs by PNU-282987 blocked PDGF-BB-induced migration but not proliferation in wild-type (WT) VSMCs, whereas this effect was absent in α7nAChR-knockout VSMCs. Accordingly, PNU-282987 attenuated PDGF-BB-induced phosphorylation of FAK^Tyr397 and Src^Tyr416 in WT VSMCs. Mechanistically, PNU-282987 suppressed PDGF-BB-induced oxidative stress, as demonstrated by the alterations in ROS, H₂ O₂ content, superoxide anion and total antioxidant activity. A sirtuin 3 (SIRT3) inhibitor 3-(1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl) pyridine or shRNA-mediated SIRT3 knockdown abolished the inhibitory effect of PNU-282987. PNU-282987 did not modulate SIRT3 protein expression but enhanced mitochondrial SIRT3 deacetylase activity. In line with this action, PNU-282987 enhanced the deacetylation of mitochondrial FoxO3. Lastly, PNU-282987 corrected the PDGF-BB-induced mitochondrial dysfunction by increasing mitochondrial citrate synthase activity, ATP content and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide pool.

CONCLUSIONS

Pharmacological activation of α7nAChRs inhibits PDGF-BB-induced VSMC migration by activating the mitochondrial deacetylase SIRT3, implying an important role for α7nAChRs in mitochondria biology and PDGF-related diseases.

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed section on Mitochondrial Pharmacology: Featured Mechanisms and Approaches for Therapy Translation. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.22/issuetoc.

Inhibitory Antibodies against Activin A and TGF-β Reduce Self-Supported, but Not Soluble Factors-Induced Growth of Human Pulmonary Arterial Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension

Increased growth and proliferation of distal pulmonary artery vascular smooth muscle cells (PAVSMC) is an important pathological component of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily plays a critical role in PAH, but relative impacts of self-secreted Activin A, Gremlin1, and TGF-β on PAH PAVSMC growth and proliferation are not studied. Here we report that hyper-proliferative human PAH PAVSMC have elevated secretion of TGF-β1 and, to a lesser extent, Activin A, but not Gremlin 1, and significantly reduced Ser^465/467-Smad2 and Ser^423/425-Smad3 phosphorylation compared to controls. Media, conditioned by PAH PAVSMC, markedly increased Ser^465/467-Smad2, Ser^423/425-Smad3, and Ser^463/465-Smad1/5 phosphorylation, up-regulated Akt, ERK1/2, and p38 MAPK, and induced significant proliferation of non-diseased PAVSMC. Inhibitory anti-Activin A antibody reduced PAH PAVSMC growth without affecting canonical (Smads) or non-canonical (Akt, ERK1/2, p38 MAPK) effectors. Inhibitory anti-TGF-β antibody significantly reduced P-Smad3, P-ERK1/2 and proliferation of PAH PAVSMC, while anti-Gremlin 1 had no anti-proliferative effect. PDGF-BB diminished inhibitory effects of anti-Activin A and anti-TGF-β antibodies. None of the antibodies affected growth and proliferation of non-diseased PAVSMC induced by PAH PAVSMC-secreted factors. Together, these data demonstrate that human PAH PAVSMC have secretory, proliferative phenotype that could be targeted by anti-Activin A and anti-TGF-β antibodies; potential cross-talk with PDGF-BB should be considered while developing therapeutic interventions.

Bee venom therapy: Potential mechanisms and therapeutic applications

Bee venom is a very complex mixture of natural products extracted from honey bee which contains various pharmaceutical properties such as peptides, enzymes, biologically active amines and nonpeptide components. The use of bee venom into the specific points is so called bee venom therapy, which is widely used as a complementary and alternative therapy for 3000 years. A growing number of evidence has demonstrated the anti-inflammation, the anti-apoptosis, the anti-fibrosis and the anti-arthrosclerosis effects of bee venom therapy. With these pharmaceutical characteristics, bee venom therapy has also been used as the therapeutic method in treating rheumatoid arthritis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, liver fibrosis, atherosclerosis, pain and others. Although widely used, several cases still reported that bee venom therapy might cause some adverse effects, such as local itching or swelling. In this review, we summarize its potential mechanisms, therapeutic applications, and discuss its existing problems.

CTRP6 inhibits PDGF-BB-induced vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration

Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation and migration play critical roles in the development and progression of atherosclerosis. C1q/tumor necrosis factor-related protein 6 (CTRP6), a member of CTRPs family, was involved in cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory reaction and adipogenesis. However, the role of CTRP6 in VSMCs remains largely unknown. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of CTRP6 on VSMC proliferation and migration and explore the possible mechanism. Our results indicated that CTRP6 expression was dramatically down-regulated in human atherosclerotic tissues and in cultured VSMCs stimulated by platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB). In addition, CTRP6 overexpression significantly inhibited the proliferation and migration of VSMCs exposed to PDGF-BB, as well as increased expression of α-SMA and SM22α in PDGF-BB-stimulated VSMCs. Furthermore, CTRP6 overexpression efficiently prevented the activation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR in VSMCs in response to PDGF-BB. In conclusion, these findings showed that CTRP6 inhibits PDGF-BB-induced VSMC proliferation and migration, at least in part, through suppressing the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. Therefore, CTRP6 may be a potential target for the treatment of atherosclerosis.

Extract of Oxytropis pseudoglandulosa inhibits vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration via suppression of ERK1/2 and Akt signaling pathways1

Excessive vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation and migration accelerate the development of occlusive vascular disease. Therefore, finding a means to control the aberrant proliferation and migration of VSMCs has own clinical significance. In the present study, we examined the feasibility of using extract from medicinal plant Oxytropis pseudoglandulosa (OG) to control pathologic proliferation and migration of VSMCs, which never have been tested. Our data indicate that the extract of OG significantly suppressed proliferation and migration of VSMCs without cytotoxic effect, suggesting the OG extract may be an alternative agent to effectively control the aberrant VSMC proliferation and migration without any serious adverse effect. These data suggest that the extract of OG may be a potent therapeutic agent for the treatment of occlusive vascular disease and warrant further studies to identify the major acting ingredient and to validate in vivo efficacy.

Vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation as a therapeutic target. Part 2: Natural products inhibiting proliferation

Many natural products have been so far tested regarding their potency to inhibit vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation, a process involved in atherosclerosis, pulmonary hypertension and restenosis. Compounds studied in vitro and in vivo as VSMC proliferation inhibitors include, for example indirubin-3'-monoxime, resveratrol, hyperoside, plumericin, pelargonidin, zerumbone and apamin. Moreover, taxol and rapamycin, the most prominent compounds applied in drug-eluting stents to counteract restenosis, are natural products. Numerous studies show that natural products have proven to yield effective inhibitors of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and ongoing research effort might result in the discovery of further clinically relevant compounds.

Crocin prevents platelet‑derived growth factor BB‑induced vascular smooth muscle cells proliferation and phenotypic switch

The phenotypic switch of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is a major initiating factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. Platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) initiates a number of biological processes that contribute to VSMC proliferation and phenotypic switch. Crocin, a component of saffron, has been reported to inhibit atheromatous plaque formation. However, the effects of crocin on PDGF-BB-induced VSMC proliferation and phenotypic switch remain unclear. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of crocin on PDGF-BB-induced VSMCs proliferation and phenotypic switch and its underlying mechanisms. Cell proliferation and markers of VSMCs phenotypic switch were measured using a Cell Counting Kit-8 assay and western blot analysis, respectively. The signaling pathways involved in the effects of crocin on VSMCs were validated by western blot analysis with or without the use of specific pathway inhibitors. Crocin significantly inhibited PDGF-BB-induced VSMCs proliferation compared with the PDGF-BB only group (P<0.05). In addition, crocin significantly abrogated the PDGF-BB-induced increase in contractile protein α-smooth muscle actin, calponin and decrease in synthetic proteins osteopontin (OPN) in a concentration dependent manner (P<0.05). In addition, crocin slowed PDGF-BB-induced Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)/Kruppel-like factor 4 (KLF4) signaling activation in VSMCs. By applying the JAK inhibitor (AG490) and ERK1/2 inhibitor (U0126), the results suggested that the crocin inhibited PDGF-BB-induced VSMCs phenotypic switch through the JAK/STAT3 and ERK/KLF4 signaling pathways. These results suggested that crocin may effectively prevent PDGF-BB-induced VSMCs proliferation and phenotypic switch and may be a promising candidate for the therapy of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases.

PDGF-mediated PI3K/AKT/β-catenin signaling regulates gap junctions in corpus cavernosum smooth muscle cells

Erectile dysfunction (ED) is the most common sexual disorder that men report to healthcare providers. Gap junctions (GJs) are thought to be responsible for synchronous shrinkage of corpus cavernosum smooth muscle cells (CCSMCs), and play thus an important role in the maintenance of an erection. Hypoxia has been suggested as a pathological mechanism underlying ED. Here we demonstrate that hypoxia increased the expression of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and the main GJ component connexin (Cx)43 in CCSMCs. Inhibiting PDGF receptor (PDGFR) activity decreased Cx43 expression. Treatment with different concentrations of PDGF increased the levels of phosphorylated protein kinase B (AKT), β-catenin, and Cx43, whereas inhibition of PDGFR or activation of phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K)/AKT signaling altered β-catenin and Cx43 expression. Meanwhile, silencing β-catenin resulted in the downregulation of Cx43. These results demonstrate that PDGF secretion by CCSMCs and vascular endothelial cells is enhanced under hypoxic conditions, leading to increased Cx43 expression through PI3K/AKT/β-catenin signaling and ultimately affecting GJ function in ED. Thus, targeting this pathway is a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of ED.

Small molecule-mediated induction of miR-9 suppressed vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and neointima formation after balloon injury

Pathologic proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) exacerbate cardiovascular disease. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), as endogenous inhibitors of protein synthesis, are expected to modulate pathologic proliferation of VSMCs. Here we report that both platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) targeting miR-9 and a small molecule that increases miR-9 can inhibit the serum-induced proliferation of VSMCs. First, based on miRNA-target prediction databases and empirical data, we have selected miR-9 as a potent anti-proliferative miRNA in VSMCs. Further examination indicated that miR-9 directly targets PDGFR disrupting downstream signaling cascades, and this resulted in inhibition of VSMC proliferation and migration. Exogenous delivery of miR-9 inhibited VSMC proliferation in vitro, and a small molecule that increased miR-9 expression also inhibited neointima formation following balloon injury in vivo. We provide evidence of miRNA-mediated modulation of VSMC proliferation and further demonstrate that small molecule-mediated regulation of miRNA targeting a key regulator of VSMC proliferation is a viable therapeutic strategy for treating vascular disease involving pathologic VSMC proliferation such as restenosis.

Apamin inhibits TNF-α- and IFN-γ-induced inflammatory cytokines and chemokines via suppressions of NF-κB signaling pathway and STAT in human keratinocytes

BACKGROUND

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is identified by an increase in infiltrations of several inflammatory cells including type 2 helper (Th2) lymphocytes. Th2-related chemokines such as thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC/CCL17) and macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC/CCL22), and pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 are considered to play a crucial role in AD. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α- and interferon (IFN)-γ induce the inflammatory condition through production of TARC, MDC, IL-1β and IL-6, and activations of related transcription factors, such as nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) in keratinocytes. Apamin, a peptide component of bee venom, has been reported its beneficial activities in various diseases. However, anti-inflammatory effects of apamin on inflammatory condition in keratinocytes have not been explored. Therefore, the present study aimed to demonstrate the anti-inflammatory effect of apamin on TNF-α- and IFN-γ-induced inflammatory condition in keratinocytes.

METHODS

HaCaT was used as human keratinocytes cell line. Cell Counting Kit-8 was performed to measure a cytotoxicity of apamin. The effects of apamin on TNF-α-/IFN-γ-induced inflammatory condition were determined by real-time PCR and Western blot analysis. Further, NF-κB signaling pathways, STAT1, and STAT3 were analyzed by Western blot and immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

Apamin ameliorated the inflammatory condition through suppression of Th2-related chemokines and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Further, apamin down-regulated the activations of NF-κB signaling pathways and STATs in HaCaT cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that apamin has therapeutic effect on AD through improvement of inflammatory condition.

Wedelolactone, a plant coumarin, prevents vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and injury-induced neointimal hyperplasia through Akt and AMPK signaling

Wedelolactone (WDL) is a natural compound derived from Chinese herbal medicine Eclipta prostrate L, and has been reported to exhibit various effects potentially beneficial for human health. However, the possible preventive effects of WDL toward vascular remodeling and mechanisms involved have not been investigated to date. In this study, we investigated the effects of WDL on proliferation induced by platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) in primary rat aortic smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and on neointimal hyperplasia resulted from balloon injury in rats. WDL exhibited strong inhibitory effects against PDGF-induced VSMC proliferation. Cell cycle analysis revealed that WDL induced G0/G1 arrest and prevented cell cycle from entering S phase. Immunoblot analysis suggested that the cell cycle arrest induced by WDL was through Akt suppression and adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation, with a subsequent cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 induction and cyclin D1 inhibition. We also observed that WDL notably reduced neointima-to-media area ratio of balloon-injured rat common carotid arteries (CCAs) in comparison with those untreated balloon-injured CCAs. The regulation of WDL on protein expressions of Akt, AMPK and cyclin D1 in vivo were also consistent with that in vitro. Taken together, our results suggest WDL exhibits potential preventive effects toward vascular remodeling and neointimal hyperplasia through the reduction of VSMC proliferation via inhibition of Akt and activation of AMPK.

Apamin suppresses biliary fibrosis and activation of hepatic stellate cells

Cholestatic liver disease is characterized by the progressive destruction of biliary epithelial cells (BECs) followed by fibrosis, cirrhosis and liver failure. Activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and portal fibroblasts are the major cellular effectors of enhanced collagen deposition in biliary fibrosis. Apamin, an 18 amino acid peptide neurotoxin found in apitoxin (bee venom), is known to block Ca2+-activated K+ channels and prevent carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis. In the present study, we aimed to ascertain whether apamin inhibits biliary fibrosis and the proliferation of HSCs. Cholestatic liver fibrosis was established in mouse models with 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine (DDC) feeding. Cellular assays were performed on HSC-T6 cells (rat immortalized HSCs). DDC feeding led to increased hepatic damage and proinflammtory cytokine levels. Notably, apamin treatment resulted in decreased liver injury and proinflammatory cytokine levels. Moreover, apamin suppressed the deposition of collagen, proliferation of BECs and expression of fibrogenic genes in the DDC-fed mice. In HSCs, apamin suppressed activation of HSCs by inhibiting the Smad signaling pathway. These data suggest that apamin may be a potential therapeutic target in cholestatic liver disease.

7-cyclopentyl-5-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d] pyrimidin-4-ylamine inhibits the proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells by suppressing ERK and Akt pathways

Excessive vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation and migration after vascular injury significantly contributes to the development of occlusive vascular disease. Therefore, inhibiting the proliferation and migration of VSMCs is a validated therapeutic modality for occlusive vascular disease such as atherosclerosis and restenosis. In the present study, we screened chemical compounds for their anti-proliferative effects on VSMCs using multiple approaches, such as MTT assays, wound healing assays, and trans-well migration assays. Our data indicate that 7-cyclopentyl-5-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d] pyrimidin-4-ylamine, a lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase (Lck) inhibitor, significantly inhibited both VSMC proliferation and migration. 7-cyclopentyl-5-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidin-4-ylamine suppresses VSMC proliferation and migration via down-regulating the protein kinase B (Akt) and extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) pathways, and it significantly decreased the expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and cyclin D1 and, the phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein (pRb). Additionally, 7-cyclopentyl-5-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d] pyrimidin-4-ylamine suppressed the migration of VSMCs from endothelium-removed aortic rings, as well as neointima formation following rat carotid balloon injury. The present study identified 7-cyclopentyl-5-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidin-4-ylamine as a potent VSMC proliferation and migration inhibitor and warrants further studies to elucidate its more detailed molecular mechanisms, such as its primary target, and to further validate its in vivo efficacy as a therapeutic agent for pathologic vascular conditions, such as restenosis and atherosclerosis.

IP-10/CXCR3 Axis Promotes the Proliferation of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells through ERK1/2/CREB Signaling Pathway

Excessive proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells is one of the main pathological processes leading to atherosclerosis and intimal hyperplasia after vascular interventional therapy. Our previous study has shown that interferon-γ inducible protein-10 contributes to the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cell. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, serine/threonine kinase Akt, and cAMP response element binding protein are signaling pathways, which are considered to play important roles in the processes of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation. Moreover, chemokine receptor 3 and Toll-like receptor 4 are potential receptors of inducible protein-10 in this process. In the present study, IP-10 was found to directly induce vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation, and exposure to inducible protein-10 activated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, serine/threonine kinase, and cAMP response element binding protein signaling. Inhibitor of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, rather than inhibitor of serine/threonine kinase, inhibited the phosphorylation of cAMP response element binding protein and reduced inducible protein-10-stimulated vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation. Knockdown of cAMP response element binding protein by siRNA inhibited inducible protein-10-induced vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation. Moreover, anti-CXCR3 IgG, instead of anti-Toll-like receptor 4 IgG, reduced inducible protein-10-induced vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and inducible protein-10-stimulated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and cAMP response element binding protein activation. Together, these results indicate that inducible protein-10 promotes vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation via chemokine receptor 3 and activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 inducible protein-10-induced vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation. These data provide important targets for future studies to modulate atherosclerosis and restenosis after vascular interventional therapy.

The small neurotoxin apamin blocks not only small conductance Ca2+ activated K+ channels (SK type) but also the voltage dependent Kv1.3 channel

Apamin is frequently used as a specific blocker of small-conductance Ca²⁺-activated (SK type) K⁺ channels. Here we show that the small neurotoxin is not as specific as anticipated. It is also a high-affinity inhibitor with an IC₅₀ of 13 nM of the Kv1.3 channel; it blocks the latter with potency similar to the Kv1.3 blocker PAP-1. Since SK type channels and Kv1.3 channels are frequently coexpressed in different tissues such as cells of the immune system, apamin must be used with caution as a pharmacological tool.

An Introduction to the Toxins Special Issue on "Bee and Wasp Venoms: Biological Characteristics and Therapeutic Application"

n/a.

Effects of Animal Venoms and Toxins on Hallmarks of Cancer

Animal venoms are a cocktail of proteins and peptides, targeting vital physiological processes. Venoms have evolved to assist in the capture and digestion of prey. Key venom components often include neurotoxins, myotoxins, cardiotoxins, hematoxins and catalytic enzymes. The pharmacological activities of venom components have been investigated as a source of potential therapeutic agents. Interestingly, a number of animal toxins display profound anticancer effects. These include toxins purified from snake, bee and scorpion venoms effecting cancer cell proliferation, migration, invasion, apoptotic activity and neovascularization. Indeed, the mechanism behind the anticancer effect of certain toxins is similar to that of agents currently used in chemotherapy. For example, Lebein is a snake venom disintegrin which generates anti-angiogenic effects by inhibiting vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF). In this review article, we highlight the biological activities of animal toxins on the multiple steps of tumour formation or hallmarks of cancer. We also discuss recent progress in the discovery of lead compounds for anticancer drug development from venom components.