Cited2 is required for fetal lung maturation

CITED2 Binding to EP300 Regulates Human Spermatogonial Stem Cell Proliferation and Survival Through HSPA6

Spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) are essential for the initiation and continuation of spermatogenesis, a process fundamental to male fertility. Despite extensive studies on mouse SSCs, the mechanisms governing self-renewal and differentiation in human SSCs remain to be elucidated. This study investigated the regulatory mechanisms of SSCs by analyzing single-cell sequencing data from the GEO dataset of human testis. Analysis revealed dominant expression of CITED2 in human SSCs. Reduction of CITED2 levels in hSSC lines significantly inhibited proliferation and increased apoptosis. Protein interaction prediction and immunoprecipitation identified interactions between CITED2 and EP300 in SSC lines. RNA sequencing results indicated that CITED2 knockdown significantly affected the MAPK pathway and the HSPA6 gene. Overexpression of HSPA6 mitigated the proliferative and apoptotic changes provoked by CITED2 downregulation. These findings provide novel insights into the regulatory and functional mechanisms of CITED2-mediated hSSC development.

PRDM3/16 regulate chromatin accessibility required for NKX2-1 mediated alveolar epithelial differentiation and function

While the critical role of NKX2-1 and its transcriptional targets in lung morphogenesis and pulmonary epithelial cell differentiation is increasingly known, mechanisms by which chromatin accessibility alters the epigenetic landscape and how NKX2-1 interacts with other co-activators required for alveolar epithelial cell differentiation and function are not well understood. Combined deletion of the histone methyl transferases Prdm3 and Prdm16 in early lung endoderm causes perinatal lethality due to respiratory failure from loss of AT2 cells and the accumulation of partially differentiated AT1 cells. Combination of single-cell RNA-seq, bulk ATAC-seq, and CUT&RUN data demonstrate that PRDM3 and PRDM16 regulate chromatin accessibility at NKX2-1 transcriptional targets critical for perinatal AT2 cell differentiation and surfactant homeostasis. Lineage specific deletion of PRDM3/16 in AT2 cells leads to lineage infidelity, with PRDM3/16 null cells acquiring partial AT1 fate. Together, these data demonstrate that NKX2-1-dependent regulation of alveolar epithelial cell differentiation is mediated by epigenomic modulation via PRDM3/16.

Cited2 is a key regulator of placental development and plasticity

The biology of trophoblast cell lineage development and placentation is characterized by the involvement of several known transcription factors. Central to the action of a subset of these transcriptional regulators is CBP-p300 interacting transactivator with Glu/Asp-rich carboxy-terminal domain 2 (CITED2). CITED2 acts as a coregulator modulating transcription factor activities and affecting placental development and adaptations to physiological stressors. These actions of CITED2 on the trophoblast cell lineage and placentation are conserved across the mouse, rat, and human. Thus, aspects of CITED2 biology in hemochorial placentation can be effectively modeled in the mouse and rat. In this review, we present information on the conserved role of CITED2 in the biology of placentation and discuss the use of CITED2 as a tool to discover new insights into regulatory mechanisms controlling placental development.

Dysregulation of CITED2 in abnormal lung development in the nitrofen rat model

PURPOSE

CITED2 both modulates lung, heart and diaphragm development. The role of CITED2 in the pathogenesis of congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is unknown. We aimed to study CITED2 during abnormal lung development in the nitrofen model.

METHODS

Timed-pregnant rats were given nitrofen on embryonic day (E) 9 to induce CDH. Fetal lungs were harvested on E15, 18 and 21. We performed RT-qPCR, RNAscope™ in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence staining for CITED2.

RESULTS

We observed no difference in RT-qPCR (control: 1.09 ± 0.22 and nitrofen: 0.95 ± 0.18, p = 0.64) and in situ hybridization (1.03 ± 0.03; 1.04 ± 0.03, p = 0.97) for CITED2 expression in E15 nitrofen and control pups. At E18, CITED2 expression was reduced in in situ hybridization of nitrofen lungs (1.47 ± 0.05; 1.14 ± 0.07, p = 0.0006), but not altered in RT-qPCR (1.04 ± 0.16; 0.81 ± 0.13, p = 0.33). In E21 nitrofen lungs, CITED2 RNA expression was increased in RT-qPCR (1.04 ± 0.11; 1.52 ± 0.17, p = 0.03) and in situ hybridization (1.08 ± 0.07, 1.29 ± 0.04, p = 0.02). CITED2 protein abundance was higher in immunofluorescence staining of E21 nitrofen lungs (2.96 × 109 ± 0.13 × 109; 4.82 × 109 ± 0.25 × 109, p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that dysregulation of CITED2 contributes to abnormal lung development of CDH, as demonstrated by the distinct spatial-temporal distribution in nitrofen-induced lungs.

Cited2 inhibited hypoxia-induced proliferation and migration of PASMCs via the TGF-β1/Cited2/PPARγ pathway

Objectives

Proliferation and migration of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) contribute to hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension (HPH). The transcription factor Cbp/p300-interacting transactivator with Glu/Asp-rich carboxy-terminal domain 2 (Cited2) has been implicated in the control of tumor cells and mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) and cardiomyocyte growth or migration. Whether Cited2 is involved in the proliferation and migration of PASMCs and the underlying mechanisms deserve to be explored.

Materials and Methods

Cited2 expression was detected in rat PASMCs under hypoxia conditions and HPH rat models. The effect of Cited2 on the proliferation and migration of PASMC was detected by overexpression or knockdown of the Cited2 gene. After PAMSCs were treated with recombinant TGF-β1 and the lentivirus vector overexpressing Cited2, expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) was examined by western blotting.

Results

We revealed that hypoxia down-regulated the expression of Cited2 in PASMCs and rat pulmonary arteries. Cited2 overexpression inhibited the proliferation and migration of PASMCs under hypoxia, while Cited2 knockdown induced the proliferation and migration of PASMCs. Cited2 inhibits the negative regulation of the TGF-β1 pathway on PPARγ to inhibit the proliferation and migration of PASMCs.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that increased Cited2 expression contributes to the inhibition of PASMCs proliferation and migration by regulating TGF-β1-mediated target gene expression in HPH and provides a new target for molecular therapy of HPH.

PRDM3/16 Regulate Chromatin Accessibility Required for NKX2-1 Mediated Alveolar Epithelial Differentiation and Function

Differential chromatin accessibility accompanies and mediates transcriptional control of diverse cell fates and their differentiation during embryogenesis. While the critical role of NKX2-1 and its transcriptional targets in lung morphogenesis and pulmonary epithelial cell differentiation is increasingly known, mechanisms by which chromatin accessibility alters the epigenetic landscape and how NKX2-1 interacts with other co-activators required for alveolar epithelial cell differentiation and function are not well understood. Here, we demonstrate that the paired domain zinc finger transcriptional regulators PRDM3 and PRDM16 regulate chromatin accessibility to mediate cell differentiation decisions during lung morphogenesis. Combined deletion of Prdm3 and Prdm16 in early lung endoderm caused perinatal lethality due to respiratory failure from loss of AT2 cell function. Prdm3/16 deletion led to the accumulation of partially differentiated AT1 cells and loss of AT2 cells. Combination of single cell RNA-seq, bulk ATAC-seq, and CUT&RUN demonstrated that PRDM3 and PRDM16 enhanced chromatin accessibility at NKX2-1 transcriptional targets in peripheral epithelial cells, all three factors binding together at a multitude of cell-type specific cis-active DNA elements. Network analysis demonstrated that PRDM3/16 regulated genes critical for perinatal AT2 cell differentiation, surfactant homeostasis, and innate host defense. Lineage specific deletion of PRDM3/16 in AT2 cells led to lineage infidelity, with PRDM3/16 null cells acquiring partial AT1 fate. Together, these data demonstrate that NKX2-1-dependent regulation of alveolar epithelial cell differentiation is mediated by epigenomic modulation via PRDM3/16.

Disruption of Cdyl gene impairs mouse lung epithelium differentiation and maturation

CDYL is a chromodomain protein that has been identified as a transcriptional co-repressor that is primarily involved in the formation of repressor complexes which coordinate histone modifications to repress gene transcription. However, most functions and mechanisms of action of the CDYL protein are unknown. In this study, we show that Cdyl-/- mice died of respiratory distress immediately at birth because of distinct abnormalities in distal lung morphogenesis which was characterized by thickened septal and expiratory alveolus atelectasis. Furthermore, Cdyl deletion in mice led to excessive proliferation of immature epithelial cells and an arrest in alveolar epithelium cell differentiation in late gestation which were associated with decreased secretion of mature surfactant proteins in alveolus. Microarray analysis showed that Cdyl gene deletion influenced the expression of genes regulating neuroactive ligand-receptor interactions, cell adhesion, and cell cycle. We validated that Cdyl repressed the transcriptional activity of Cks1 in vitro. In conclusion, Cdyl gene participates in the perinatal respiratory epithelium differentiation and maturation that is important for normal lung function at birth.

Development and function of the fetal adrenal

The adrenal cortex undergoes multiple structural and functional rearrangements to satisfy the systemic needs for steroids during fetal life, postnatal development, and adulthood. A fully functional adrenal cortex relies on the proper subdivision in regions or 'zones' with distinct but interconnected functions, which evolve from the early embryonic stages to adulthood, and rely on a fine-tuned gene network. In particular, the steroidogenic activity of the fetal adrenal is instrumental in maintaining normal fetal development and growth. Here, we review and discuss the most recent advances in our understanding of embryonic and fetal adrenal development, including the known causes for adrenal dys-/agenesis, and the steroidogenic pathways that link the fetal adrenal with the hormone system of the mother through the fetal-placental unit. Finally, we discuss what we think are the major open questions in the field, including, among others, the impact of osteocalcin, thyroid hormone, and other hormone systems on adrenal development and function, and the reliability of rodents as models of adrenal pathophysiology.

CITED2 is a conserved regulator of the uterine-placental interface

Establishment of the hemochorial uterine-placental interface requires exodus of trophoblast cells from the placenta and their transformative actions on the uterus, which represent processes critical for a successful pregnancy, but are poorly understood. We examined the involvement of CBP/p300-interacting transactivator with glutamic acid/aspartic acid-rich carboxyl-terminal domain 2 (CITED2) in rat and human trophoblast cell development. The rat and human exhibit deep hemochorial placentation. CITED2 was distinctively expressed in the junctional zone (JZ) and invasive trophoblast cells of the rat. Homozygous Cited2 gene deletion resulted in placental and fetal growth restriction. Small Cited2 null placentas were characterized by disruptions in the JZ, delays in intrauterine trophoblast cell invasion, and compromised plasticity. In the human placentation site, CITED2 was uniquely expressed in the extravillous trophoblast (EVT) cell column and importantly contributed to the development of the EVT cell lineage. We conclude that CITED2 is a conserved regulator of deep hemochorial placentation.

A miR-375/YAP axis regulates neuroendocrine differentiation and tumorigenesis in lung carcinoid cells

Lung carcinoids are variably aggressive and mechanistically understudied neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs). Here, we identified and elucidated the function of a miR-375/yes-associated protein (YAP) axis in lung carcinoid (H727) cells. miR-375 and YAP are respectively high and low expressed in wild-type H727 cells. Following lentiviral CRISPR/Cas9-mediated miR-375 depletion, we identified distinct transcriptomic changes including dramatic YAP upregulation. We also observed a significant decrease in neuroendocrine differentiation and substantial reductions in cell proliferation, transformation, and tumor growth in cell culture and xenograft mouse disease models. Similarly, YAP overexpression resulted in distinct and partially overlapping transcriptomic changes, phenocopying the effects of miR-375 depletion in the same models as above. Transient YAP knockdown in miR-375-depleted cells reversed the effects of miR-375 on neuroendocrine differentiation and cell proliferation. Pathways analysis and confirmatory real-time PCR studies of shared dysregulated target genes indicate that this axis controls neuroendocrine related functions such as neural differentiation, exocytosis, and secretion. Taken together, we provide compelling evidence that a miR-375/YAP axis is a critical mediator of neuroendocrine differentiation and tumorigenesis in lung carcinoid cells.

Adrenal cortex development and related disorders leading to adrenal insufficiency

The adult human adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones that are crucial for life, supporting immune response, glucose homeostasis, salt balance and sexual maturation. It consists of three histologically distinct and functionally specialized zones. The fetal adrenal forms from mesodermal material and produces predominantly adrenal C₁₉ steroids from its fetal zone, which involutes after birth. Transition to the adult cortex occurs immediately after birth for the formation of the zona glomerulosa and fasciculata for aldosterone and cortisol production and continues through infancy until the zona reticularis for adrenal androgen production is formed with adrenarche. The development of this indispensable organ is complex and not fully understood. This article gives an overview of recent knowledge gained of adrenal biology from two perspectives: one, from basic science studying adrenal development, zonation and homeostasis; and two, from adrenal disorders identified in persons manifesting with various isolated or syndromic forms of primary adrenal insufficiency.

Downregulation of SUV39H1 and CITED2 Exerts Additive Effect on Promoting Adipogenic Commitment of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Human adipogenesis is the process through which uncommitted human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) differentiate into adipocytes. Through a siRNA-based high-throughput screen that identifies adipogenic regulators whose expression knockdown leads to enhanced adipogenic differentiation of hMSCs, two new regulators, SUV39H1, a histone methyltransferase that catalyzes H3K9Me3, and CITED2, a CBP/p300-interacting transactivator with Glu/Asp-rich carboxy-terminal domain 2 were uncovered. Both SUV39H1 and CITED2 are normally downregulated during adipogenic differentiation of hMSCs. Further expression knockdown induced by siSUV39H1 or siCITED2 at the adipogenic initiation stage significantly enhanced adipogenic differentiation of hMSCs as compared with siControl treatment, with siSUV39H1 acting by both accelerating fat accumulation in individual adipocytes and increasing the total number of committed adipocytes, whereas siCITED2 acting predominantly by increasing the total number of committed adipocytes. In addition, both siSUV39H1 and siCITED2 were able to redirect hMSCs to undergo adipogenic differentiation in the presence of osteogenic inducing media, which normally only induces osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs in the absence of siSUV39H1 or siCITED2. Interestingly, simultaneous knockdown of both SUV39H1 and CITED2 resulted in even greater levels of adipogenic differentiation of hMSCs and expression of CEBPα and PPARγ, two master regulators of adipogenesis, as compared with those elicited by single gene knockdown. Furthermore, the effects of co-knockdown were equivalent to the additive effect of individual gene knockdown. Taken together, this study demonstrates that SUV39H1 and CITED2 are both negative regulators of human adipogenesis, and downregulation of both genes exerts an additive effect on promoting adipogenic differentiation of hMSCs through augmented commitment.

CITED4 enhances the metastatic potential of lung adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

CITED4 belongs to the CBP/p300-interacting transactivator with glutamic acid and aspartic acid-rich tail (CITED) family which is induced by various cytokines and participates in cytokine-induced proliferation and differentiation. CITED4 is induced by HB-EGF in lung cancer cells. However, it is unclear whether and how CITED4 contributes to the invasion and metastasis of lung adenocarcinoma (ADC).

METHODS

CITED4 expression in lung adenocarcinoma and its association with disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival were analyzed based on a cohort of 261 patients. The roles of CITED4 were validated via loss-of-function and gain-of-function experiments. The relationship between CITED4 and CLDN3 was validated by immunohistochemistry, Western blotting, and luciferase reporter assays. The function of the CITED4-CTNNB1-CLDN3 complex was fully validated and described.

RESULTS

CITED4 expression was significantly upregulated in ADC tissues and cells and a predictor for DFS. Downregulation of CITED4 attenuated the proliferation and invasion, whereas CITED4 overexpression enhanced these effects. Overexpression and knockdown of CITED4 resulted in the upregulation and downregulation of CLDN3, respectively. Moreover, CITED4 downregulation suppressed CLDN3-mediated ADC cell metastasis in vivo. CITED4 was highly expressed and positively correlated with CLDN3. Mechanistically, CITED4 interacted with CTNNB1 and functioned synergistically to enhance CLDN3 transcription. Importantly, CITED4 induced ADC invasion via a CLDN3-dependent pathway. CITED4 determined the level of CLDN3, which in turn affected the sensitivity of tumors to Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

The CITED4-CTNNB1-CLDN3 axis plays a key role in the invasion and metastasis of ADC and provides a novel therapeutic target for lung cancer treatment.

Atypical Neocortical Development in the Cited2 Conditional Knockout Leads to Behavioral Deficits Associated with Neurodevelopmental Disorders

The mammalian neocortex develops from a single layer of neuroepithelial cells to form a six-layer heterogeneous mosaic of differentiated neurons and glial cells. This process requires a complex choreography of temporally and spatially restricted transcription factors and epigenetic regulators. Even subtle disruptions in this regulation can alter the way the neocortex forms and functions, leading to a neurodevelopmental disorder. One epigenetic regulator that is essential for the precise development of the neocortex is CITED2 (CBP/p300 Interacting Transactivator with ED-rich termini). Cited2 is highly expressed by intermediate progenitor cells in the subventricular zone during the generation of the superficial layers of the neocortex. A forebrain-specific conditional knockout of Cited2 (cKO) exhibits reduced proliferation of intermediate progenitor cells embryonically, leading to reduced thickness of the superficial layers and reduced corpus callosum (CC) volume postnatally. Further, the Cited2 cKO display disruptions in balanced neocortical arealization, with a specific reduction in the somatosensory neocortical length, and dysregulation of precise, area-specific neuronal connectivity. Here, we explore the behavioral consequences resulting from this aberrant neocortical development. We demonstrate that Cited2 cKO mice display decreased maternal separation-induced ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) as neonates, and an increase in rearing behavior and lack of habituation following repeated acoustic startle as adults. They do not display alterations in anxiety-like behavior, overall locomotor activity, or social interactions. Together with the morphological, molecular, and connectivity disruptions, these results identify the Cited2 cKO neocortex as an ideal system to study mechanisms underlying neurodevelopmental and neuroanatomical disruptions with relevance to human neurodevelopmental disorders.

Role of CITED2 in stem cells and cancer

Cbp/P300 interacting transactivator with Glu/Asp-rich carboxy-terminal domain 2 (CITED2) is a transcription co-factor that interacts with several other transcription factors and co-factors, and serves critical roles in fundamental cell processes, including proliferation, apoptosis, differentiation, migration and autophagy. The interacting transcription factors or co-factors of CITED2 include LIM homeobox 2, transcription factor AP-2, SMAD2/3, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, oestrogen receptor, MYC, Nucleolin and p300/CBP, which regulate downstream gene expression, and serve important roles in the aforementioned fundamental cell processes. Emerging evidence has demonstrated that CITED2 serves an essential role in embryonic and adult tissue stem cells, including hematopoietic stem cells and tendon-derived stem/progenitor cells. Additionally, CITED2 has been reported to function in different types of cancer. Although the functions of CITED2 in different tissues vary depending on the interaction partner, altered CITED2 expression or altered interactions with transcription factors or co-factors result in alterations of fundamental cell processes, and may affect stem cell maintenance or cancer cell survival. The aim of this review is to summarize the molecular mechanisms of CITED2 function and how it serves a role in stem cells and different types of cancer based on the currently available literature.

CITED2 and the modulation of the hypoxic response in cancer

CITED2 (CBP/p300-interacting transactivator with Glu/Asp-rich C-terminal domain, 2) is a ubiquitously expressed protein exhibiting a high affinity for the CH1 domain of the transcriptional co-activators CBP/p300, for which it competes with hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs). CITED2 is particularly efficient in the inhibition of HIF-1α-dependent transcription in different contexts, ranging from organ development and metabolic homeostasis to tissue regeneration and immunity, being also potentially involved in various other physiological processes. In addition, CITED2 plays an important role in inhibiting HIF in some diseases, including kidney and heart diseases and type 2-diabetes. In the particular case of cancer, CITED2 either functions by promoting or suppressing cancer development depending on the context and type of tumors. For instance, CITED2 overexpression promotes breast and prostate cancers, as well as acute myeloid leukemia, while its expression is downregulated to sustain colorectal cancer and hepatocellular carcinoma. In addition, the role of CITED2 in the maintenance of cancer stem cells reveals its potential as a target in non-small cell lung carcinoma and acute myeloid leukemia, for example. But besides the wide body of evidence linking both CITED2 and HIF signaling to carcinogenesis, little data is available regarding CITED2 role as a negative regulator of HIF-1α specifically in cancer. Therefore, comprehensive studies exploring further the interactions of these two important mediators in cancer-specific models are sorely needed and this can potentially lead to the development of novel targeted therapies.

Exogenous WNT5A and WNT11 proteins rescue CITED2 dysfunction in mouse embryonic stem cells and zebrafish morphants

Mutations and inadequate methylation profiles of CITED2 are associated with human congenital heart disease (CHD). In mouse, Cited2 is necessary for embryogenesis, particularly for heart development, and its depletion in embryonic stem cells (ESC) impairs cardiac differentiation. We have now determined that Cited2 depletion in ESC affects the expression of transcription factors and cardiopoietic genes involved in early mesoderm and cardiac specification. Interestingly, the supplementation of the secretome prepared from ESC overexpressing CITED2, during the onset of differentiation, rescued the cardiogenic defects of Cited2-depleted ESC. In addition, we demonstrate that the proteins WNT5A and WNT11 held the potential for rescue. We also validated the zebrafish as a model to investigate cited2 function during development. Indeed, the microinjection of morpholinos targeting cited2 transcripts caused developmental defects recapitulating those of mice knockout models, including the increased propensity for cardiac defects and severe death rate. Importantly, the co-injection of anti-cited2 morpholinos with either CITED2 or WNT5A and WNT11 recombinant proteins corrected the developmental defects of Cited2-morphants. This study argues that defects caused by the dysfunction of Cited2 at early stages of development, including heart anomalies, may be remediable by supplementation of exogenous molecules, offering the opportunity to develop novel therapeutic strategies aiming to prevent CHD.

The pro-death role of Cited2 in stroke is regulated by E2F1/4 transcription factors

We previously reported that the cell cycle-related cyclin-dependent kinase 4-retinoblastoma (RB) transcriptional corepressor pathway is essential for stroke-induced cell death both in vitro and in vivo However, how this signaling pathway induces cell death is unclear. Previously, we found that the cyclin-dependent kinase 4 pathway activates the pro-apoptotic transcriptional co-regulator Cited2 in vitro after DNA damage. In the present study, we report that Cited2 protein expression is also dramatically increased following stroke/ischemic insult. Critically, utilizing conditional knockout mice, we show that Cited2 is required for neuronal cell death, both in culture and in mice after ischemic insult. Importantly, determining the mechanism by which Cited2 levels are regulated, we found that E2F transcription factor (E2F) family members participate in Cited2 regulation. First, E2F1 expression induced Cited2 transcription, and E2F1 deficiency reduced Cited2 expression. Moreover, determining the potential E2F-binding regions on the Cited2 gene regulatory sequence by ChIP analysis, we provide evidence that E2F1/4 proteins bind to this DNA region. A luciferase reporter assay to probe the functional outcomes of this interaction revealed that E2F1 activates and E2F4 inhibits Cited2 transcription. Moreover, we identified the functional binding motif for E2F1 in the Cited2 gene promoter by demonstrating that mutation of this site dramatically reduces E2F1-mediated Cited2 transcription. Finally, E2F1 and E2F4 regulated Cited2 expression in neurons after stroke-related insults. Taken together, these results indicate that the E2F-Cited2 regulatory pathway is critically involved in stroke injury.

Aberrant expression of CITED2 promotes prostate cancer metastasis by activating the nucleolin-AKT pathway

Despite many efforts to develop hormone therapy and chemotherapy, no effective strategy to suppress prostate cancer metastasis has been established because the metastasis is not well understood. We here investigate a role of CBP/p300-interacting transactivator with E/D-rich carboxy-terminal domain-2 (CITED2) in prostate cancer metastasis. CITED2 is highly expressed in metastatic prostate cancer, and its expression is correlated with poor survival. The CITED2 gene is highly activated by ETS-related gene that is overexpressed due to chromosomal translocation. CITED2 acts as a molecular chaperone to guide PRMT5 and p300 to nucleolin, thereby activating nucleolin. Informatics and experimental data suggest that the CITED2-nucleolin axis is involved in prostate cancer metastasis. This axis stimulates cell migration through the epithelial-mesenchymal transition and promotes cancer metastasis in a xenograft mouse model. Our results suggest that CITED2 plays a metastasis-promoting role in prostate cancer and thus could be a target for preventing prostate cancer metastasis.

CITED2 Restrains Proinflammatory Macrophage Activation and Response

Macrophages are strategically distributed in mammalian tissues and play an essential role in priming the immune response. However, macrophages need to constantly strike a balance between activation and inhibition states to avoid a futile inflammatory reaction. Here, we identify the CBP/p300-interacting transactivator with glutamic acid/aspartic acid-rich carboxyl-terminal domain 2 (CITED2) as a potent repressor of macrophage proinflammatory activation. Gain- and loss-of-function studies revealed that CITED2 is required for optimal peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) activation and attendant select anti-inflammatory gene expression in macrophages. More importantly, deficiency of CITED2 resulted in significant attenuation of rosiglitazone-induced PPARγ activity, PPARγ recruitment to target gene promoters, and anti-inflammatory target gene expression in macrophages. Interestingly, deficiency of Cited2 strikingly heightened proinflammatory gene expression through stabilization of hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF1α) protein in macrophages. Further, overexpression of Egln3 or inhibition of HIF1α in Cited2-deficient macrophages completely reversed elevated proinflammatory cytokine/chemokine gene expression. Importantly, mice bearing a myeloid cell-specific deletion of Cited2 were highly susceptible to endotoxin-induced sepsis symptomatology and mortality. Collectively, our observations identify CITED2 as a novel negative regulator of macrophage proinflammatory activation that protects the host from inflammatory insults.

Down-regulation of CITED2 attenuates breast tumor growth, vessel formation and TGF-β-induced expression of VEGFA

While we previously demonstrated that CITED2 expression in primary breast tumor tissues is elevated relative to normal mammary epithelium and inversely correlated with patient survival, its functional impact on primary tumor development and progression remained unknown. To address this issue, we examined the effect of CITED2 silencing on the growth of human breast cancer cell lines MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 following orthotopic administration in vivo. Here, we show that CITED2 silencing significantly attenuated MDA-MB-231 primary tumor growth concordant with reduced tumor vascularization, while MDA-MB-468 primary tumor growth and tumor vascularization remained unaffected. Correspondingly, expression of VEGFA was significantly reduced in shCITED2-expressing MDA-MB-231, but not MDA-MB-468 tumors. Consistent with the observed pattern of vascularization and VEGFA expression, we found that TGF-β stimulation induced expression of VEGFA and enhanced CITED2 recruitment to the VEGFA promoter in MDA-MA-231 cells, while failing to induce VEGFA expression in MDA-MB-468 cells. Further supporting its involvement in TGF-β-induced expression of VEGFA, CITED2 silencing prevented TGF-β induction of VEGFA expression in MDA-MB-231 cells. Collectively, these data indicate that CITED2 regulates primary breast tumor growth, likely by influencing tumor vasculature via TGF-β-dependent regulation of VEGFA.

CITED2 attenuates macrophage recruitment concordant with the downregulation of CCL20 in breast cancer cells

The transcriptional co-regulator Cbp/p300-interacting transactivator with Glu/Asp-rich carboxy-terminal domain-2 (CITED2) may promote breast tumor growth; however, the mechanisms by which its effects are mediated remain to be fully elucidated. Tumor-associated macrophages serve an important function in tumor development and progression and are recruited by chemotactic factors produced by cells within the tumor microenvironment. The present study assessed the effects of CITED2 silencing on macrophage recruitment in two xenograft mouse models of human breast cancer, one in which tumor growth was sensitive to CITED2 silencing (MDA-MB-231) and one in which it was insensitive (MDA-MB-468). The present study identified that silencing CITED2 significantly attenuated macrophage infiltration in MDA-MB-231 but not MDA-MB-468 orthotopic tumors, concordant with its effect on tumor growth. Correspondingly, conditioned media obtained from CITED2-silenced MDA-MB-231 cells exhibited a significantly decreased ability to induce macrophage recruitment by Transwell migration assay, whereas the chemotactic effect of MDA-MB-468 conditioned media was unaffected. Examining the expression of macrophage chemoattractants within orthotopic tumors and tumor cell-conditioned media revealed a significant decrease in C-C motif chemokine ligand (CCL)20 mRNA and protein expression following CITED2-silencing in MDA-MB-231 cells, compared with that in cells transfected with scramble shRNA. However, mRNA and protein expression was unaffected by CITED2-silencing in MDA-MB-468 cells. Furthermore, chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that CITED2 was localized to the CCL20 promoter in MDA-MB-231 cells, suggesting that it serves a direct function in its regulation, which is consistent with the effect of CITED2 silencing on CCL20 expression. Lastly, neutralizing CCL20 in the conditioned media of MDA-MB-231 cells significantly inhibited macrophage recruitment. Collectively, these results suggest that CITED2 is involved in modulating macrophage recruitment, representing a novel mechanism through which it may influence tumor growth. This may be partly mediated by regulating tumor cell production of the chemokine CCL20.

Cited2 Regulates Neocortical Layer II/III Generation and Somatosensory Callosal Projection Neuron Development and Connectivity

The neocortex contains hundreds to thousands of distinct subtypes of precisely connected neurons, allowing it to perform remarkably complex tasks of high-level cognition. Callosal projection neurons (CPN) connect the cerebral hemispheres via the corpus callosum, integrating cortical information and playing key roles in associative cognition. CPN are a strikingly diverse set of neuronal subpopulations, and development of this diversity requires precise control by a complex, interactive set of molecular effectors. We have found that the transcriptional coregulator Cited2 regulates and refines two stages of CPN development. Cited2 is expressed broadly by progenitors in the embryonic day 15.5 subventricular zone, during the peak of superficial layer CPN birth, with a progressive postmitotic refinement in expression, becoming restricted to CPN of the somatosensory cortex postnatally. We generated progenitor-stage and postmitotic forebrain-specific Cited2 conditional knock-out mice, using the Emx1-Cre and NEX-Cre mouse lines, respectively. We demonstrate that Cited2 functions in progenitors, but is not necessary postmitotically, to regulate both (1) broad generation of layer II/III CPN and (2) acquisition of precise area-specific molecular identity and axonal/dendritic connectivity of somatosensory CPN. This novel CPN subtype-specific and area-specific control from progenitor action of Cited2 adds yet another layer of complexity to the multistage developmental regulation of neocortical development.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

This study identifies Cited2 as a novel subtype-specific and area-specific control over development of distinct subpopulations within the broad population of callosal projection neurons (CPN), whose axons connect the two cerebral hemispheres via the corpus callosum (CC). Currently, how the remarkable diversity of CPN subtypes is specified, and how they differentiate to form highly precise and specific circuits, are largely unknown. We found that Cited2 functions within subventricular zone progenitors to both broadly regulate generation of superficial layer CPN throughout the neocortex, and to refine precise area-specific development and connectivity of somatosensory CPN. Gaining insight into molecular development and heterogeneity of CPN will advance understanding of both diverse functions of CPN and of the remarkable range of neurodevelopmental deficits correlated with CPN/CC development.

Widespread promoter methylation of synaptic plasticity genes in long-term potentiation in the adult brain in vivo

Background

DNA methylation is a key modulator of gene expression in mammalian development and cellular differentiation, including neurons. To date, the role of DNA modifications in long-term potentiation (LTP) has not been explored.

Results

To investigate the occurrence of DNA methylation changes in LTP, we undertook the first detailed study to describe the methylation status of all known LTP-associated genes during LTP induction in the dentate gyrus of live rats. Using a methylated DNA immunoprecipitation (MeDIP)-array, together with previously published matched RNA-seq and public histone modification data, we discover widespread changes in methylation status of LTP-genes. We further show that the expression of many LTP-genes is correlated with their methylation status. We show that these correlated genes are enriched for RNA-processing, active histone marks, and specific transcription factors. These data reveal that the synaptic activity-evoked methylation changes correlates with pre-existing activation of the chromatin landscape. Finally, we show that methylation of Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf) CpG-islands correlates with isoform switching from transcripts containing exon IV to exon I.

Conclusions

Together, these data provide the first evidence of widespread regulation of methylation status in LTP-associated genes.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-017-3621-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Knockdown of Cbp/P300-interacting transactivator with Glu/Asp-rich carboxy-terminal domain 2 inhibits cell division and increases apoptosis in gastric cancer

BACKGROUND

Cbp/P300-interacting transactivator with Glu/Asp-rich carboxy-terminal domain 2 (CITED2) is a pleiotropic protein associated with numerous cell functions, including transcription and differentiation. The role of CITED2 has been investigated in a number of malignancies; however, the roles of this protein in gastric cancers remain unclear. Therefore, we determined the role of CITED2 in gastric cancers.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Gastric cancer cell lines (MKN74, MKN28, 7901, and AGS) were used to assess CITED2 transcript levels. Messenger RNA levels were determined using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Lentiviral vectors containing CITED2 small interfering RNA were used to knockdown CITED2 expression. Cell proliferation was assessed with fluorescent imaging and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5- diphenyltetrazolium bromide assays. Apoptosis and cell cycle stages were assessed through flow cytometry, and formation of colonies was determined using a fluorescent microscope.

RESULTS

All cell lines tested in this study expressed CITED2. The cell line expressing the highest levels of CITED2 (MKN74) showed significant knockdown of endogenous CITED2 expression on lentiviral infection. Cell proliferation was shown to be lower in CITED2 knockdown MKN74 cells. G1/S-phase cell cycle arrest was observed on silencing of CITED2 in MKN74 cells. A significant increase in apoptosis was observed on CITED2 knock down in MKN74 cells, while colony forming ability was significantly inhibited after knock down of CITED2.

CONCLUSIONS

CITED2 supports gastric cancer cell colony formation and proliferation while inhibiting apoptosis making it a potential gene therapy target for gastric cancer.

The Signature of MicroRNA Dysregulation in Muscle Paralyzed by Spinal Cord Injury Includes Downregulation of MicroRNAs that Target Myostatin Signaling

Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in muscle atrophy, reduced force generation and an oxidative-to-glycolytic fiber type shift. The mechanisms responsible for these alterations remain incompletely understood. To gain new insights regarding mechanisms involved in deterioration of muscle after SCI, global expression profiles of miRs in paralyzed gastrocnemius muscle were compared between sham-operated (Sham) and spinal cord-transected (SCI) rats. Ingenuity Pathways Analysis of the altered miRs identified signaling via insulin, IGF-1, integrins and TGF-β as being significantly enriched for target genes. By qPCR, miRs 23a, 23b, 27b, 145, and 206, were downregulated in skeletal muscle 56 days after SCI. Using FISH, miR-145, a miR not previously implicated in the function of skeletal muscle, was found to be localized to skeletal muscle fibers. One predicted target of miR-145 was Cited2, a transcriptional regulator that modulates signaling through NF-κB, Smad3 and other transcription factors. The 3’ UTR of Cited2 mRNA contained a highly conserved miR-145 seed sequence. Luciferase reporter assays confirmed that miR-145 interacts with this seed sequence. However, Cited2 protein levels were similar between Sham and SCI groups, indicating a biochemical interaction that was not involved in the context of adaptations after SCI. Taken together, the findings indicate dysregulation of several highly expressed miRs in skeletal muscle after SCI and suggest that reduced expression of miR-23a, 145 and 206 may have roles in alteration in skeletal muscle mass and insulin responsiveness in muscle paralyzed by upper motor neuron injuries.

Lung epithelial tip progenitors integrate glucocorticoid- and STAT3-mediated signals to control progeny fate

Insufficient alveolar gas exchange capacity is a major contributor to lung disease. During lung development, a population of distal epithelial progenitors first produce bronchiolar-fated and subsequently alveolar-fated progeny. The mechanisms controlling this bronchiolar-to-alveolar developmental transition remain largely unknown. We developed a novel grafting assay to test if lung epithelial progenitors are intrinsically programmed or if alveolar cell identity is determined by environmental factors. These experiments revealed that embryonic lung epithelial identity is extrinsically determined. We show that both glucocorticoid and STAT3 signalling can control the timing of alveolar initiation, but that neither pathway is absolutely required for alveolar fate specification; rather, glucocorticoid receptor and STAT3 work in parallel to promote alveolar differentiation. Thus, developmental acquisition of lung alveolar fate is a robust process controlled by at least two independent extrinsic signalling inputs. Further elucidation of these pathways might provide therapeutic opportunities for restoring alveolar capacity.

CITED2 Modulates Breast Cancer Metastatic Ability through Effects on IKKα

Previously, we identified the transcriptional coactivator CITED2 as a potential facilitator of bone metastasis using a murine mammary cancer model. Extending these studies to human breast cancer, it was observed that CITED2 mRNA expression was significantly elevated in patient specimens of metastatic breast cancer relative to primary tumors, with highest levels in metastasis to bone relative to non-bone sites. To further evaluate CITED2 functions in breast cancer metastasis, CITED2 expression was stably reduced in the human breast cancer cell lines MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468, which are metastatic in animal models. While CITED2 knockdown had no effect on cell proliferation, cell migration and invasion were significantly reduced, as was the establishment of metastasis following intracardiac administration in athymic nude mice. To explore the mechanism behind these effects, gene expression following CITED2 knockdown in MDA-MB-231 cells by cDNA microarray was performed. As confirmed at the mRNA and protein levels in both MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells, expression of the NF-κB regulator IKKα was significantly reduced, along with several NF-κB targets with known roles in metastasis (OPN, MMP9, uPA, SPARC, IL11, and IL1β). Furthermore, ChIP assay revealed recruitment of CITED2 to the promoter of IKKα, indicating a direct role in regulating its expression. Consistent with reduced IKKα expression, CITED2 knockdown inhibited both canonical and noncanonical NF-κB signaling. Finally, restoration of IKKα expression following CITED2 knockdown in MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells rescued their invasive ability. Collectively, these data demonstrate that CITED2 modulates metastatic ability in human breast cancer cells, at least in part, through the regulation of IKKα.

IMPLICATIONS

The current study highlights the role of CITED2 in facilitating breast cancer metastasis, partly via regulation of IKKα. Mol Cancer Res; 14(8); 730-9. ©2016 AACR.

CITED2 modulation of trophoblast cell differentiation: insights from global transcriptome analysis

Trophoblast stem (TS) cells possess the capacity to differentiate along a multi-lineage pathway yielding several specialized cell types. The regulatory network controlling trophoblast cell differentiation is poorly understood. Cbp/p300-interacting transactivator with Glu/Asp-rich carboxy-terminal domain, 2 (CITED2) has been implicated in the regulation of placentation; however, we know little about how CITED2 acts to influence trophoblast cells. Rat Rcho-1 TS cells can be manipulated to proliferate or differentiate into specialized trophoblast lineages and are an excellent model for investigating trophoblast differentiation. CITED2 transcript and protein showed a robust induction during Rcho-1 TS cell differentiation. We used an shRNA knockdown approach to disrupt CITED2 expression in order to investigate its involvement in trophoblast cell differentiation. RNA-sequencing was used to examine the impact of CITED2 on trophoblast cell differentiation. CITED2 disruption affected the differentiating trophoblast cell transcriptome. CITED2 possessed a prominent role in the regulation of cell differentiation with links to several signal transduction pathways and to hypoxia-regulated and coagulation processes. In summary, our findings indicate that CITED2 contributes to the regulation of trophoblast cell differentiation.

Cited2 in hematopoietic stem cell function

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Transcription co-regulator Cited2 is essential for mouse development. Recent work has shown that Cited2 plays important roles in normal hematopoiesis in fetal liver and adult bone marrow. This review focuses on the function of Cited2 in the maintenance of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and its potential role in the metabolic regulation of HSCs.

RECENT FINDINGS

Fetal liver cells from Cited2 null embryos give rise to reduced numbers of hematopoietic colonies and display significantly impaired hematopoietic reconstitution capacity. In adult mice, conditional deletion of Cited2 markedly reduces the number of HSCs and compromises hematopoietic reconstitution in mice receiving a transplant of Cited2 deficient bone marrow cells. Additional deletion of Ink4a/Arf or p53 in a Cited2-deficient background restores HSC functionality. Meanwhile, Cited2 deficient HSCs display loss of quiescence, which can be partially rescued by additional deletion of hypoxia inducible factor-1α.

SUMMARY

Cited2 is an essential regulator in fetal liver and adult hematopoiesis. Further studies into the function of Cited2 and the underlying mechanism in the metabolic regulation of HSCs will provide a better understanding of the connection between energy metabolism and HSC quiescence and self-renewal. Investigations of the pathologic role of Cited2 in leukemogenesis may yield useful information in developing effective therapeutic strategies.

A cell-autonomous role of Cited2 in controlling myocardial and coronary vascular development

AIMS

Myocardial development is dependent on concomitant growth of cardiomyocytes and a supporting vascular network. The coupling of myocardial and coronary vascular development is partly mediated by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGFA) signalling and additional unknown mechanisms. We examined the cardiomyocyte specific role of the transcriptional co-activator Cited2 on myocardial microstructure and vessel growth, in relation to Vegfa expression.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A cardiomyocyte-specific knockout of mouse Cited2 (Cited2(Nkx)) was analysed using magnetic resonance imaging and histology. Ventricular septal defects and significant compact layer thinning (P < 0.02 at right ventricular apex, P < 0.009 at the left ventricular apex in Cited2(Nkx) vs. controls, n = 11 vs. n = 7, respectively) were found. This was associated with a significant decrease in the number of capillaries to larger vessels (ratio 1.56 ± 0.56 vs. 3.25 ± 1.63, P = 2.7 × 10(-6) Cited2(Nkx) vs. controls, n = 11 vs. n = 7, respectively) concomitant with a 1.5-fold reduction in Vegfa expression (P < 0.02, Cited2(Nkx) vs. controls, n = 12 vs. n = 12, respectively). CITED2 was subsequently found at the Vegfa promoter in mouse embryonic hearts using chromatin immunoprecipitation, and moreover found to stimulate human VEGFA promoter activity in cooperation with TFAP2 transcription factors in transient transfection assays. There was no change in the myocardial expression of the left-right patterning gene Pitx2c, a previously known target of CITED2.

CONCLUSIONS

This study delineates a novel cell-autonomous role of Cited2 in regulating VEGFA transcription and the development of myocardium and coronary vasculature in the mouse. We suggest that coupling of myocardial and coronary growth in the developing heart may occur in part through a Cited2→Vegfa pathway.

CITED2 modulates estrogen receptor transcriptional activity in breast cancer cells

Cbp/p300-interacting transactivator with Glu/Asp-rich carboxy-terminal domain 2 (CITED2) is a member of the CITED family of non-DNA binding transcriptional co-activators of the p300/CBP-mediated transcription complex. Previously, we identified CITED2 as being overexpressed in human breast tumors relative to normal mammary epithelium. Upon further investigation within the estrogen receptor (ER)-positive subset of these breast tumor samples, we found that CITED2 mRNA expression was elevated in those associated with poor survival. In light of this observation, we investigated the effect of elevated CITED2 levels on ER function. While ectopic overexpression of CITED2 in three ER-positive breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7, T47D, and CAMA-1) did not alter cell proliferation in complete media, growth was markedly enhanced in the absence of exogenous estrogen. Correspondingly, cells overexpressing CITED2 demonstrated reduced sensitivity to the growth inhibitory effects of the selective estrogen receptor modulator, 4-hydroxytamoxifen. Subsequent studies revealed that basal ER transcriptional activity was elevated in CITED2-overexpressing cells and was further increased upon the addition of estrogen. Similarly, basal and estrogen-induced expression of the ER-regulated genes trefoil factor 1 (TFF1) and progesterone receptor (PGR) was higher in cells overexpressing CITED2. Concordant with this observation, ChIP analysis revealed higher basal levels of CITED2 localized to the TFF-1 and PGR promoters in cells with ectopic overexpression of CITED2, and these levels were elevated further in response to estrogen stimulation. Taken together, these data indicate that CITED2 functions as a transcriptional co-activator of ER in breast cancer cells and that its increased expression in tumors may result in estrogen-independent ER activation, thereby reducing estrogen dependence and response to anti-estrogen therapy.

CITED2 functions as a molecular switch of cytokine-induced proliferation and quiescence

Transforming growth factor-α (TGF-α)-induced proliferation and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)-mediated quiescence are intricately balanced in normal lung-tissue homeostasis but are deregulated during neoplastic progression of lung cancer. Here, we show that Cbp/p300-interacting transactivator with Glu/Asp-rich carboxy-terminal domain 2 (CITED2), a novel MYC-interacting transcriptional modulator, responds to TGF-α induction and TGF-β suppression to orchestrate cellular proliferation and quiescence, respectively. Upon TGF-α induction, CITED2 was induced by MYC and further modulated MYC-mediated transcription in a feed-forward manner. CITED2 recruited p300 to promote MYC-p300-mediated transactivation of E2F3, leading to increased G1/S cell cycle progression. Moreover, CITED2 inhibited cellular quiescence by enhancing MYC-mediated suppression of p21(CIP1). CITED2 interacted with histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) and potentiated MYC-HDAC1 complex formation. TGF-β stimulation provoked downregulation of CITED2, which abrogated MYC-HDAC1-mediated p21(CIP1) suppression, causing cellular quiescence. Ectopic CITED2 expression enhanced tumor growth in nude mice; furthermore, CITED2 knockdown caused tumor shrinkage and increased overall host mouse survival rates. Expression of CITED2/MYC/E2F3/p21(CIP1) signaling molecules was associated with poor prognosis of lung cancer patients. Thus, CITED2 functions as a molecular switch of TGF-α and TGF-β-induced growth control, and MYC-CITED2 signaling axis provides a new index for predicting clinical outcome.

Genome-scale study of transcription factor expression in the branching mouse lung

BACKGROUND

Mammalian lung development consists of a series of precisely choreographed events that drive the progression from simple lung buds to the elaborately branched organ that fulfills the vital function of gas exchange. Strict transcriptional control is essential for lung development. Among the large number of transcription factors encoded in the mouse genome, only a small portion of them are known to be expressed and function in the developing lung. Thus a systematic investigation of transcription factors expressed in the lung is warranted.

RESULTS

To enrich for genes that may be responsible for regional growth and patterning, we performed a screen using RNA in situ hybridization to identify genes that show restricted expression patterns in the embryonic lung. We focused on the pseudoglandular stage during which the lung undergoes branching morphogenesis, a cardinal event of lung development. Using a genome-scale probe set that represents over 90% of the transcription factors encoded in the mouse genome, we identified 62 transcription factor genes with localized expression in the epithelium, mesenchyme, or both. Many of these genes have not been previously implicated in lung development.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide new starting points for the elucidation of the transcriptional circuitry that controls lung development.

Molecular mechanisms of MMP9 overexpression and its role in emphysema pathogenesis of Smad3-deficient mice

Previous studies have found that inappropriate elevation of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) expression and activity is coincident with early onset of emphysema in Smad3-null mice. Herein, we further investigated the role of increased MMP9 in emphysema pathogenesis and the related molecular regulatory mechanisms of elevated MMP9 in Smad3-null lung. Genetic blockade of MMP9 in Smad3-null mice significantly attenuated emphysema pathology but not hypoalveolarization during early postnatal lung development. Furthermore, Smad3 was found to be a transcription factor to positively regulate a protein deacetylase sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) by binding to an AP-1 site of SIRT1 promoter. A synergistic regulatory effect on SIRT1 expression was also detected between Smad3 and c-Jun. Consistently, Smad3 knockout lung at P28 had reduced SIRT1 expression, which in turn resulted in increased acetylation of histone H3 at the transcription factor activator protein 1 (AP-1), NF-κB, and Pea3 binding sites of MMP9 promoter and increased acetylation of NF-κB. In addition, increased Pea3 expression and nuclear accumulation was also detected in Smad3-null lungs at P28. Consistently, bindings of acetylated NF-κB and Pea3 to the MMP9 promoter were elevated in Smad3-null lung. We thus propose that deficiency of Smad3 causes downregulation of SIRT1 and increased Pea3 expression/nuclear accumulation, respectively. Decreased SIRT1 activity resulted in increased acetylation of histone H3 and NF-κB. Subsequently, increased bindings of transcription factors including NF-κB and Pea3 to MMP9 promoter significantly upregulate MMP9 transcription, contributing to emphysema pathogenesis.

Deletion of HIF-1α partially rescues the abnormal hyaloid vascular system in Cited2 conditional knockout mouse eyes

PURPOSE

Cited2 (CBP/p300-interacting transactivators with glutamic acid (E) and aspartic acid (D)-rich tail 2) is a member of a new family of transcriptional modulators. Cited2 null embryos exhibit hyaloid hypercellularity consisting of aberrant vasculature in the eye. The purpose of the study is to address whether abnormal lenticular development is a primary defect of Cited2 deletion and whether deletion of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1α or an HIF-1α target gene, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), could rescue abnormal hyaloid vascular system (HVS) in Cited2 deficient adult eyes.

METHODS

Le-Cre specific Cited2 knockout (Cited2(CKO)) mice with or without deletion of HIF-1α or VEGF were generated by standard Cre-Lox methods. Eyes collected from six-eight weeks old mice were characterized by Real Time PCR and immunohistological staining.

RESULTS

Cited2(CKO) mice had smaller lenses, abnormal lens stalk formation, and failed regression of the HVS in the adult eye. The eye phenotype had features similar to persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous (PHPV), a human congenital eye disorder leading to abnormal lenticular development. Deletion of HIF-1α or VEGF in Cited2 knockout eyes partially rescued the abnormal HVS but had no effect on the smaller lens and abnormal lens stalk differentiation. Intravitreal injection of Topotecan (TPT), a compound that inhibits HIF-1α expression, partially eliminated HVS defects in Cited2(CKO) lenses.

CONCLUSIONS

Abnormal HVS is a primary defect in Cited2 knockout mice, resulting in part from dysregulated functions of HIF-1 and VEGF. The Cited2(CKO) mouse line could be used as a novel disease model for PHPV and as an in vivo model for testing potential HIF-1 inhibitors.

Smad1 and its target gene Wif1 coordinate BMP and Wnt signaling activities to regulate fetal lung development

Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (Bmp4) is essential for lung development. To define the intracellular signaling mechanisms by which Bmp4 regulates lung development, BMP-specific Smad1 or Smad5 was selectively knocked out in fetal mouse lung epithelial cells. Abrogation of lung epithelial-specific Smad1, but not Smad5, resulted in retardation of lung branching morphogenesis and reduced sacculation, accompanied by altered distal lung epithelial cell proliferation and differentiation and, consequently, severe neonatal respiratory failure. By combining cDNA microarray with ChIP-chip analyses, Wnt inhibitory factor 1 (Wif1) was identified as a novel target gene of Smad1 in the developing mouse lung epithelial cells. Loss of Smad1 transcriptional activation of Wif1 was associated with reduced Wif1 expression and increased Wnt/β-catenin signaling activity in lung epithelia, resulting in specific fetal lung abnormalities. This suggests a novel regulatory loop of Bmp4-Smad1-Wif1-Wnt/β-catenin in coordinating BMP and Wnt pathways to control fetal lung development.

Loss of betaarrestin1 and betaarrestin2 contributes to pulmonary hypoplasia and neonatal lethality in mice

Less is known about the connection between the malfunction of betaarrestins and developmental defects as the mice with either of two betaarrestin isoforms knockout appear normal. In order to address the biological function of betaarrestins during developmental process, we generate betaarrestin1/2 double knockout mice. We found that betaarrestin1/2 dual-null mice developed respiratory distress and atelectasis that subsequently caused neonatal death. Morphological examination revealed type II pneumocyte immaturity. Our results indicate that not only betaarrestin1/2 double knockout lung tissue show disturbances in cell proliferation but betaarrestin1 and betaarrestin2 contribute to pulmonary surfactant complex generation during pulmonary maturation. Intra-amniotic delivery of recombinant adenovirus expressing betaarrestin1 or betaarrestin2 enhances surfactant-associated proteins synthesis in vivo. Our mRNA microarray data further reveal that betaarrestin1/2 double knockout results in downregulation of a significant proportion of genes involved in several lung morphogenesis processes. Together, our study demonstrates that betaarrestin1 and betaarrestin2 collaborate in embryonic development processes for epithelial pneumocyte differentiation and lung maturation.

Conditional deletion of Cited2 results in defective corneal epithelial morphogenesis and maintenance

Cited2 is an important transcriptional cofactor involved in multiple organ development. Gene profile analysis has identified Cited2 as one of the transcription factors expressed at high levels in adult mouse cornea. To address the function of Cited2 in corneal morphogenesis, we deleted Cited2 in surface ectoderm derived ocular structures including cornea by crossing Cited2-floxed mice with Le-Cre transgenic mice. Cited2(flox/flox);Le-Cre(+) eyes invariably displayed corneal opacity and developed spontaneous corneal neovascularization at older age. Fewer layers of corneal epithelial cells and the absence of cytokeratin 12 (K12) expression featured Cited2 deficient postnatal and adult eyes. Cited2 deficient cornea exhibited impaired healing in response to corneal epithelial debridement by manifesting abnormal histology, lack of K12 expression and corneal neovascularization. Moreover, mechanistic studies suggest that Cited2 may play a role in corneal morphogenesis in part through modulating the expression of Pax6 and Klf4. Collectively, these findings demonstrate a novel function of Cited2 in postnatal corneal morphogenesis and maintenance. Our study will help better understand the molecular mechanisms involved in corneal biology, and more importantly, it may provide a valuable animal model for testing therapeutics in the treatment of corneal disorders, especially blindness as a result of corneal epithelial cell deficiency.