A systematic expression analysis implicates Plexin-B2 and its ligand Sema4C in the regulation of the vascular and endocrine system

Plexin B2 in physiology and pathophysiology of the central nervous system

The Plexin protein family was initially found in 1995, comprising subfamilies from Plexin A to Plexin D. Plexin B2, a member of the Plexin subfamily, has widespread expression in many human organs and tissues, particularly in the nervous system where expression levels are significantly heightened. The biological roles of Plexin B2 are mostly determined by its protein structure and functional domains. These domains regulate the binding selectivity and affinity for ligands. Ligand binding activates signal transduction pathways, resulting in regulatory effects on several biological processes. This includes managing brain growth and change, keeping angiogenesis and vascular homeostasis in check, and preventing the start, growth, and metastasis of cancer. Plexin B2 has also been associated with the onset of many nervous system illnesses. Plexin B2 aids in the invasion and spread of malignant cells, facilitates nerve healing following spinal cord damage, and plays a role in the etiology of schizophrenia. This article thoroughly examines the existing research on Plexin B2 and its importance in central nervous system biology. Simultaneously, it investigates the regulatory function of Plexin B2 across many cell types in the central nervous system, specifically neural stem cells, neurons, microglia, and astrocytes. This study examines the current knowledge of Plexin B2's role in central nervous system diseases, including schizophrenia, spinal cord injury, neuroblastoma, and fear memory. Overall, the prospects for the clinical translation of Plexin B2 are promising. However, challenges related to specificity and drug delivery must be addressed. Future research could explore the integration of nanodrug delivery systems to enhance the clinical application of Plexin B2-targeted therapies.

Engineering strategies for apoptotic bodies

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer vesicles containing proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and metabolites secreted by cells under various physiological and pathological conditions that mediate intercellular communication. The main types of EVs include exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies (ABs). ABs are vesicles released during the terminal stages of cellular apoptosis, enriched with diverse biological entities and characterized by distinct morphological features. As a result, ABs possess great potential in fields like disease diagnosis, immunotherapy, regenerative therapy, and drug delivery due to their specificity, targeting capacity, and biocompatibility. However, their therapeutic efficacy is notably heterogeneous, and an overdose can lead to side effects such as accumulation in the liver, spleen, lungs, and gastrointestinal system. Through bioengineering, the properties of ABs can be optimized to enhance drug-loading efficiency, targeting precision, and multifunctionality for clinical implementations. This review focuses on strategies such as transfection, sonication, electroporation, surface engineering, and integration with biomaterials to enable ABs to load cargoes and enhance targeting, providing insights into the engineering of ABs.

Evidence for common mechanisms of pathology between SHANK3 and other genes of Phelan-McDermid syndrome

Chromosome 22q13.3 deletion (Phelan-McDermid) syndrome (PMS, OMIM 606232) is a rare genetic condition that impacts neurodevelopment. PMS most commonly results from heterozygous contiguous gene deletions that include the SHANK3 gene or likely pathogenic variants of SHANK3 (PMS-SHANK3 related). Rarely, chromosomal rearrangements that spare SHANK3 share the same general phenotype (PMS-SHANK3 unrelated). Very recent human and model system studies of genes that likely contribute to the PMS phenotype point to overlap in gene functions associated with neurodevelopment, synaptic formation, stress/inflammation and regulation of gene expression. In this review of recent findings, we describe the functional overlaps between SHANK3 and six partner genes of 22q13.3 (PLXNB2, BRD1, CELSR1, PHF21B, SULT4A1, and TCF20), which suggest a model that explains the commonality between PMS-SHANK3 related and PMS-SHANK3 unrelated classes of PMS. These genes are likely not the only contributors to neurodevelopmental impairments in the region, but they are the best documented to date. The review provides evidence for the overlapping and likely synergistic contributions of these genes to the PMS phenotype.

Multi-omic prediction of incident type 2 diabetes

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

The identification of people who are at high risk of developing type 2 diabetes is a key part of population-level prevention strategies. Previous studies have evaluated the predictive utility of omics measurements, such as metabolites, proteins or polygenic scores, but have considered these separately. The improvement that combined omics biomarkers can provide over and above current clinical standard models is unclear. The aim of this study was to test the predictive performance of genome, proteome, metabolome and clinical biomarkers when added to established clinical prediction models for type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

We developed sparse interpretable prediction models in a prospective, nested type 2 diabetes case-cohort study (N=1105, incident type 2 diabetes cases=375) with 10,792 person-years of follow-up, selecting from 5759 features across the genome, proteome, metabolome and clinical biomarkers using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression. We compared the predictive performance of omics-derived predictors with a clinical model including the variables from the Cambridge Diabetes Risk Score and HbA1c.

RESULTS

Among single omics prediction models that did not include clinical risk factors, the top ten proteins alone achieved the highest performance (concordance index [C index]=0.82 [95% CI 0.75, 0.88]), suggesting the proteome as the most informative single omic layer in the absence of clinical information. However, the largest improvement in prediction of type 2 diabetes incidence over and above the clinical model was achieved by the top ten features across several omic layers (C index=0.87 [95% CI 0.82, 0.92], Δ C index=0.05, p=0.045). This improvement by the top ten omic features was also evident in individuals with HbA1c <42 mmol/mol (6.0%), the threshold for prediabetes (C index=0.84 [95% CI 0.77, 0.90], Δ C index=0.07, p=0.03), the group in whom prediction would be most useful since they are not targeted for preventative interventions by current clinical guidelines. In this subgroup, the type 2 diabetes polygenic risk score was the major contributor to the improvement in prediction, and achieved a comparable improvement in performance when added onto the clinical model alone (C index=0.83 [95% CI 0.75, 0.90], Δ C index=0.06, p=0.002). However, compared with those with prediabetes, individuals at high polygenic risk in this group had only around half the absolute risk for type 2 diabetes over a 20 year period.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

Omic approaches provided marginal improvements in prediction of incident type 2 diabetes. However, while a polygenic risk score does improve prediction in people with an HbA1c in the normoglycaemic range, the group in whom prediction would be most useful, even individuals with a high polygenic burden in that subgroup had a low absolute type 2 diabetes risk. This suggests a limited feasibility of implementing targeted population-based genetic screening for preventative interventions.

Computational ranking-assisted identification of Plexin-B2 in homotypic and heterotypic clustering of circulating tumor cells in breast cancer metastasis

Metastasis is the cause of over 90% of all deaths associated with breast cancer, yet the strategies to predict cancer spreading based on primary tumor profiles and therefore prevent metastasis are egregiously limited. As rare precursor cells to metastasis, circulating tumor cells (CTCs) in multicellular clusters in the blood are 20-50 times more likely to produce viable metastasis than single CTCs. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying various CTC clusters, such as homotypic tumor cell clusters and heterotypic tumor-immune cell clusters, are yet to be fully elucidated. Combining machine learning-assisted computational ranking with experimental demonstration to assess cell adhesion candidates, we identified a transmembrane protein Plexin- B2 (PB2) as a new therapeutic target that drives the formation of both homotypic and heterotypic CTC clusters. High PB2 expression in human primary tumors predicts an unfavorable distant metastasis-free survival and is enriched in CTC clusters compared to single CTCs in advanced breast cancers. Loss of PB2 reduces formation of homotypic tumor cell clusters as well as heterotypic tumor-myeloid cell clusters in triple-negative breast cancer. Interactions between PB2 and its ligand Sema4C on tumor cells promote homotypic cluster formation, and PB2 binding with Sema4A on myeloid cells (monocytes) drives heterotypic CTC cluster formation, suggesting that metastasizing tumor cells hijack the PB2/Sema family axis to promote lung metastasis in breast cancer. Additionally, using a global proteomic analysis, we identified novel downstream effectors of the PB2 pathway associated with cancer stemness, cell cycling, and tumor cell clustering in breast cancer. Thus, PB2 is a novel therapeutic target for preventing new metastasis.

Sema4C Is Required for Vascular and Primary Motor Neuronal Patterning in Zebrafish

Endothelial cells (ECs) and neurons share a number of common signaling pathways and molecular mediators to orchestrate directional migration and guide the pattern of the vascular network and nervous system. So far, research concerning the functional coupling between vascular and neuronal pathfinding remains insufficient. Semaphorin4C (sema4C), a member of class 4 semaphorins, is initially described in the nervous system, whose role has been demonstrated in diverse biological developments. The present study focused on the role of sema4C in the vascular and neural development process in zebrafish embryos. It confirmed that sema4C is expressed in both the nervous system and intersegmental vessels (ISVs) in zebrafish embryos by diverse expression analysis. It also showed that the knockdown of sema4C caused a serious pathfinding anomaly both in the ISVs and primary motor neurons (PMNs) of zebrafish embryos. In addition, overexpressing exogenous sema4C mRNA in sema4C morphants remarkably neutralized the defective pattern of the vascular and neural system. Collectively, this report suggests that sema4C acts as a dual guiding factor regulating vascular and neuronal development. These findings elucidate a new molecular mechanism underlying blood vessel and nerve development and might serve as groundwork for future research on functional coupling between both systems.

An antagonistic monoclonal anti-Plexin-B1 antibody exerts therapeutic effects in mouse models of postmenopausal osteoporosis and multiple sclerosis

Osteoporosis and multiple sclerosis are highly prevalent diseases with limited treatment options. In light of these unmet medical needs, novel therapeutic approaches are urgently sought. Previously, the activation of the transmembrane receptor Plexin-B1 by its ligand semaphorin 4D (Sema4D) has been shown to suppress bone formation and promote neuroinflammation in mice. However, it is unclear whether inhibition of this receptor–ligand interaction by an anti–Plexin-B1 antibody could represent a viable strategy against diseases related to these processes. Here, we raised and systematically characterized a monoclonal antibody directed against the extracellular domain of human Plexin-B1, which specifically blocks the binding of Sema4D to Plexin-B1. In vitro, we show that this antibody inhibits the suppressive effects of Sema4D on human osteoblast differentiation and mineralization. To test the therapeutic potential of the antibody in vivo, we generated a humanized mouse line, which expresses transgenic human Plexin-B1 instead of endogenous murine Plexin-B1. Employing these mice, we demonstrate that the anti–Plexin-B1 antibody exhibits beneficial effects in mouse models of postmenopausal osteoporosis and multiple sclerosis in vivo. In summary, our data identify an anti–Plexin-B1 antibody as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of osteoporosis and multiple sclerosis.

The circular RNA circNlgnmediates doxorubicin-inducedcardiac remodeling and fibrosis

Doxorubicin is a chemotherapeutic medication commonly used to treat many types of cancers, but it has side effects including vomiting, rash, hair loss, and bone marrow suppression. The most dangerous side effects are cardiomyopathy, cardiofibrosis, and heart failure, as doxorubicin generates cytotoxicity and stops DNA replication. There is no treatment to block these side effects. We have developed a transgenic mouse line overexpressing the circular RNA circNlgn and shown that circNlgn is a mediator of doxorubicin-induced cardiofibrosis. Increased expression of circNlgn decreased cardiac function and induced cardiofibrosis by upregulating Gadd45b, Sema4C, and RAD50 and activating p38 and pJNK in circNlgn transgenic heart. Silencing circNlgn decreased the effects of doxorubicin on cardiac cell activities and prevented doxorubicin-induced expression of fibrosis-associated molecules. The protein (Nlgn173) translated by circNlgn could bind and activate H2AX, producing γH2AX, resulting in upregulation of IL-1b, IL-2Rb, IL-6, EGR1, and EGR3. We showed that silencing these molecules in the signaling pathway prevented doxorubicin-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis, increased cardiomyocyte viability, decreased cardiac fibroblast proliferation, and inhibited collagen production. This mechanism may hold therapeutic implications for mitigating the side effects of doxorubicin therapy in cancer patients.

Plexin-B2 and Semaphorins Do Not Drive Rhabdomyosarcoma Proliferation or Migration

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is the most common pediatric soft tissue sarcoma for which subsets of patients have longstanding unmet clinical needs. For example, children with alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma and metastases at diagnosis will experience only 8% disease-free 5-year survival for nonlocalized unresectable recurrent disease. Hence, development of novel therapeutic strategies is urgently needed to improve outcomes. The Plexin-Semaphorin pathway is largely unexplored for sarcoma research. However, emerging interest in the Plexin-Semaphorin signaling axis in pediatric sarcomas has led to phase I cooperative group dose-finding clinical trials, now completed (NCT03320330). In this study, we specifically investigated the protein expression of transmembrane receptor Plexin-B2 and its cognate SEMA4C ligands in clinical RMS tumors and cell models. By RNA interferences, we assessed the role of Plexin-B2 in cell growth and cell migration ability in selected alveolar and embryonal RMS cell model systems. Our results affirmed expression of Plexin-B2 across human samples, while also dissecting expression of the different protein subunits of Plexin-B2 along with the assessment of preferred Semaphorin ligands of Plexin-B2. Plexin-B2 knockdown had positive or negative effects on cell growth, which varied by cell model system. Migration assayed after Plexin-B2 knockdown revealed selective cell line specific migration inhibition, which was independent of Plexin-B2 expression level. Overall, these findings are suggestive of context-specific and possibly patient-specific (stochastic) role of Plexin-B2 and SEMA4 ligands in RMS.

MicroRNA-22 coordinates vascular and motor neuronal pathfinding via sema4 during zebrafish development

A precise guiding signal is crucial to orchestrate directional migration and patterning of the complex vascular network and neural system. So far, limited studies have reported the discovery and functions of microRNAs (miRNAs) in guiding vascular and neural pathfinding. Currently, we showed that the deficiency of miRNA-22a, an endothelial-enriched miRNA, caused dramatic pathfinding defects both in intersegmental vessels (ISVs) and primary motor neurons (PMNs) in zebrafish embryos. Furthermore, we found the specific inhibition of miR-22a in endothelial cells (ECs) resulted in patterning defects of both ISVs and PMNs. Neuronal block of miR-22a mainly led to axonal defects of PMN. Sema4c was identified as a potential target of miR-22a through transcriptomic analysis and in silico analysis. Additionally, a luciferase assay and EGFP sensor assay confirmed the binding of miR-22a with 3'-UTR of sema4c. In addition, downregulation of sema4c in the miR-22a morphants significantly neutralized the aberrant patterning of vascular and neural networks. Then we demonstrated that endothelial miR-22a regulates PMNs axonal navigation. Our study revealed that miR-22a acted as a dual regulatory cue coordinating vascular and neuronal patterning, and expanded the repertoire of regulatory molecules, which might be of use therapeutically to guide vessels and nerves in the relevant diseases.

Axon Guidance Molecules in the Islets of Langerhans

The islets of Langerhans, responsible for regulating blood glucose in vertebrates, are clusters of endocrine cells distributed throughout the exocrine pancreas. The spatial architecture of the different cell types within the islets controls cell-cell communication and impacts their ability to collectively regulate glucose. Islets rely on a range of chemotactic and adhesive cues to establish and manage intercellular relationships. Growing evidence indicates that axon guidance molecules such as Slit-Robo, Semaphorin-Neuropilin, Ephrin-Eph, and Netrins, influence endocrine progenitors' cell migration to establish correct architecture during islet morphogenesis, as well as directly regulating physical cell-cell communication in the mature islet to coordinate hormone secretion. In this mini-review, we discuss what is known and not yet known about how axon guidance molecules contribute to islet morphogenesis and function.

Circular RNA Circ_0013958 Functions as a Tumor Promoter in Ovarian Cancer by Regulating miR-637/PLXNB2 Axis

Background: Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have emerged as important regulators in diverse human malignancies, including ovarian cancer (OC). This study was performed to explore the function and regulatory mechanism underlying circ_0013958 in OC progression. Methods: Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) or Western blot assay was applied to examine the expression of circ_0013958, microRNA-637 (miR-637), and Plexin B2 (PLXNB2). The target relationship between miR-637 and circ_0013958 or PLXNB2 was verified by dual-luciferase reporter assay or RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) assay. Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) and colony formation assays were employed to detect cell viability and clonogenicity ability, respectively. Cell migration and invasion were analyzed by Transwell assay. Cell apoptosis was monitored by flow cytometry. The role of circ_0013958 in vivo was determined by xenograft tumor assay. Results: Circ_0013958 and PLXNB2 were upregulated, while miR-637 was downregulated in OC tissues and cells. Circ_0013958 acted as a sponge for miR-637 to regulate the expression of PLXNB2 in OC cells. The repression effects of circ_0013958 knockdown on cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and apoptosis in OC cells were partly attenuated by the miR-637 inhibitor. And miR-637 targeted PLXNB2 to suppress OC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Moreover, circ_0013958 silencing blocked OC tumor growth in vivo. Conclusion: Circ_0013958 knockdown impeded OC development through modulating the miR-637/PLXNB2 axis, highlighting a therapeutic target for OC.

Genetic drivers of m6A methylation in human brain, lung, heart and muscle

The most prevalent post-transcriptional mRNA modification, N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A), plays diverse RNA-regulatory roles, but its genetic control in human tissues remains uncharted. Here we report 129 transcriptome-wide m⁶A profiles, covering 91 individuals and 4 tissues (brain, lung, muscle and heart) from GTEx/eGTEx. We integrate these with interindividual genetic and expression variation, revealing 8,843 tissue-specific and 469 tissue-shared m⁶A quantitative trait loci (QTLs), which are modestly enriched in, but mostly orthogonal to, expression QTLs. We integrate m⁶A QTLs with disease genetics, identifying 184 GWAS-colocalized m⁶A QTL, including brain m⁶A QTLs underlying neuroticism, depression, schizophrenia and anxiety; lung m⁶A QTLs underlying expiratory flow and asthma; and muscle/heart m⁶A QTLs underlying coronary artery disease. Last, we predict novel m⁶A regulators that show preferential binding in m⁶A QTLs, protein interactions with known m⁶A regulators and expression correlation with the m⁶A levels of their targets. Our results provide important insights and resources for understanding both cis and trans regulation of epitranscriptomic modifications, their interindividual variation and their roles in human disease.

Mechanochemical control of epidermal stem cell divisions by B-plexins

The precise spatiotemporal control of cell proliferation is key to the morphogenesis of epithelial tissues. Epithelial cell divisions lead to tissue crowding and local changes in force distribution, which in turn suppress the rate of cell divisions. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this mechanical feedback are largely unclear. Here, we identify a critical requirement of B-plexin transmembrane receptors in the response to crowding-induced mechanical forces during embryonic skin development. Epidermal stem cells lacking B-plexins fail to sense mechanical compression, resulting in disinhibition of the transcriptional coactivator YAP, hyperproliferation, and tissue overgrowth. Mechanistically, we show that B-plexins mediate mechanoresponses to crowding through stabilization of adhesive cell junctions and lowering of cortical stiffness. Finally, we provide evidence that the B-plexin-dependent mechanochemical feedback is also pathophysiologically relevant to limit tumor growth in basal cell carcinoma, the most common type of skin cancer. Our data define a central role of B-plexins in mechanosensation to couple cell density and cell division in development and disease.

Apoptotic Bodies: Mechanism of Formation, Isolation and Functional Relevance

In the final stages of apoptosis, apoptotic cells can generate a variety of membrane-bound vesicles known as apoptotic extracellular vesicles (ApoEVs). Apoptotic bodies (ApoBDs), a major subset of ApoEVs, are formed through a process termed apoptotic cell disassembly characterised by a series of tightly regulated morphological steps including plasma membrane blebbing, apoptotic membrane protrusion formation and fragmentation into ApoBDs. To better characterise the properties of ApoBDs and elucidate their function, a number of methods including differential centrifugation, filtration and fluorescence-activated cell sorting were developed to isolate ApoBDs. Furthermore, it has become increasingly clear that ApoBD formation can contribute to various biological processes such as apoptotic cell clearance and intercellular communication. Together, recent literature demonstrates that apoptotic cell disassembly and thus, ApoBD formation, is an important process downstream of apoptotic cell death. In this chapter, we discuss the current understandings of the molecular mechanisms involved in regulating apoptotic cell disassembly, techniques for ApoBD isolation, and the functional roles of ApoBDs in physiological and pathological settings.

Plexin B2 Is a Regulator of Monocyte Apoptotic Cell Disassembly

Billions of cells undergo apoptosis daily and often fragment into small, membrane-bound extracellular vesicles termed apoptotic bodies (ApoBDs). We demonstrate that apoptotic monocytes undergo a highly coordinated disassembly process and form long, beaded protrusions (coined as beaded apoptopodia), which fragment to release ApoBDs. Here, we find that the protein plexin B2 (PlexB2), a transmembrane receptor that regulates axonal guidance in neurons, is enriched in the ApoBDs of THP1 monocytes and is a caspase 3/7 substrate. To determine whether PlexB2 is involved in the disassembly of apoptotic monocytes, we generate PlexB2-deficient THP1 monocytes and demonstrate that lack of PlexB2 impairs the formation of beaded apoptopodia and ApoBDs. Consequently, the loss of PlexB2 in apoptotic THP1 monocytes impairs their uptake by both professional and non-professional phagocytes. Altogether, these data identify PlexB2 as a positive regulator of apoptotic monocyte disassembly and demonstrate the importance of this process in apoptotic cell clearance.

The Role of Semaphorins in Metabolic Disorders

Semaphorins are a family originally identified as axonal guidance molecules. They are also involved in tumor growth, angiogenesis, immune regulation, as well as other biological and pathological processes. Recent studies have shown that semaphorins play a role in metabolic diseases including obesity, adipose inflammation, and diabetic complications, including diabetic retinopathy, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic neuropathy, diabetic wound healing, and diabetic osteoporosis. Evidence provides mechanistic insights regarding the role of semaphorins in metabolic diseases by regulating adipogenesis, hypothalamic melanocortin circuit, immune responses, and angiogenesis. In this review, we summarize recent progress regarding the role of semaphorins in obesity, adipose inflammation, and diabetic complications.

Plexin-B2 Mediates Physiologic and Pathologic Functions of Angiogenin

Angiogenin (ANG) is a secreted ribonuclease (RNase) with cell-type- and context-specific roles in growth, survival, and regeneration. Although these functions require receptor-mediated endocytosis and appropriate subcellular localization, the identity of the cell surface receptor remains undefined. Here, we show that plexin-B2 (PLXNB2) is the functional receptor for ANG in endothelial, cancer, neuronal, and normal hematopoietic and leukemic stem and progenitor cells. Mechanistically, PLXNB2 mediates intracellular RNA processing that contribute to cell growth, survival, and regenerative capabilities of ANG. Antibodies generated against the ANG-binding site on PLXNB2 restricts ANG activity in vitro and in vivo, resulting in inhibition of established xenograft tumors, ANG-induced neurogenesis and neuroprotection, levels of pro-self-renewal transcripts in hematopoietic and patient-derived leukemic stem and progenitor cells, and reduced progression of leukemia in vivo. PLXNB2 is therefore required for the physiological and pathological functions of ANG and has significant therapeutic potential in solid and hematopoietic cancers and neurodegenerative diseases.

Genome-Wide Association Study Reveals Multiple Novel QTL Associated with Low Oxygen Tolerance in Hybrid Catfish

Hypoxic condition is common in aquaculture, leading to major economic losses. Genetic analysis of hypoxia tolerance, therefore, is not only scientifically significant, but also economically important. Catfish is generally regarded as being highly tolerant to low dissolved oxygen, but variations exist among various populations, strains, and species. In this study, we conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) using the catfish 250 K SNP array to identify quantitative trait locus (QTL) associated with tolerance to low dissolved oxygen in the channel catfish × blue catfish interspecific system. Four linkage groups (LG2, LG4, LG23, and LG29) were found to be associated with low oxygen tolerance in hybrid catfish. Multiple significant SNPs were found to be physically linked in genomic regions containing significant QTL for low oxygen tolerance on LG2 and LG23, and in those regions containing suggestively significant QTL on LG2, LG4, LG23, and LG29, suggesting that the physically linked SNPs were genuinely segregating and related with low oxygen tolerance. Analysis of genes within the associated genomic regions suggested that many of these genes were involved in VEGF, MAPK, mTOR, PI3K-Akt, P53-mediated apoptosis, and DNA damage checkpoint pathways. Comparative analysis indicated that most of the QTL at the species level, as analyzed by using the interspecific system, did not overlap with those identified from six strains of channel catfish, confirming the complexity of the genetic architecture of hypoxia tolerance in catfish.

The role of semaphorin3A in myogenic regeneration and the formation of functional neuromuscular junctions on new fibres

Current research on skeletal muscle injury and regeneration highlights the crucial role of nerve-muscle interaction in the restoration of innervation during that process. Activities of muscle satellite or stem cells, recognized as the 'currency' of myogenic repair, have a pivotal role in these events, as shown by ongoing research. More recent investigation of myogenic signalling events reveals intriguing roles for semaphorin3A (Sema3A), secreted by activated satellite cells, in the muscle environment during development and regeneration. For example, Sema3A makes important contributions to regulating the formation of blood vessels, balancing bone formation and bone remodelling, and inflammation, and was recently implicated in the establishment of fibre-type distribution through effects on myosin heavy chain gene expression. This review highlights the active or potential contributions of satellite-cell-derived Sema3A to regulation of the processes of motor neurite ingrowth into a regenerating muscle bed. Successful restoration of functional innervation during muscle repair is essential; this review emphasizes the integrative role of satellite-cell biology in the progressive coordination of adaptive cellular and tissue responses during the injury-repair process in voluntary muscle.

Semaphorins and Plexins in Kidney Disease

Semaphorins are soluble or membrane-bound cues, which control multiple aspects of cell-cell communication, differentiation, morphology and function. Most of their effects are mediated by a family of transmembrane receptors called plexins. Semaphorins and plexins have emerged as central regulators of diverse physiological and pathophysiological processes in various organs. This review summarizes the role of semaphorins and plexins in renal pathophysiology and their potential use as biomarkers of kidney disease.

CD100 and plexins B2 and B1 mediate monocyte-endothelial cell adhesion and might take part in atherogenesis

Leukocyte migration is essential for the function of the immune system. Their recruitment from the vessels to the tissues involves sequential molecular interactions between leukocytes and endothelial cells (ECs). Many adhesion molecules involved in this process have already been described. However, additional molecules may be important in this interaction, and here we explore the potential role for CD100 and plexins in monocyte-EC binding. CD100 was shown to be involved in platelet-endothelial cell interaction, an important step in atherogenesis and thrombus formation. In a recent work we have described CD100 expression in monocytes and in macrophages and foam cells of human atherosclerotic plaques. In the present work, we have identified plexin B2 as a putative CD100 receptor in these cells. We have detected CD100 expression in the endothelium as well as in in vitro cultured endothelial cells. Blocking of CD100, plexin B1 and/or B2 in adhesion experiments have shown that both CD100 and plexins act as adhesion molecules involved in monocyte-endothelial cell binding. This effect may be mediated by CD100 expressed in both cell types, probably coupled to the receptors endothelial plexin B1 and monocytic plexin B2. These results can bring new insights about a possible biological activity of CD100 in monocyte adhesion and atherosclerosis, as well as a future candidate for targeting therapeutics.

Reduced expression of semaphorin 4D and plexin-B in breast cancer is associated with poorer prognosis and the potential linkage with oestrogen receptor

Involvement of semaphorin 4D (Sema4D) and the receptor proteins of the plexins B family (plexin-B1, -B2 and -B3) in solid tumours suggests they play a role in breast cancer. In the present study, the expression of Sema4D and plexin-Bs was examined in a breast cancer cohort. The expression of Sema4D and plexin-Bs was examined in 147 tumours together with 22 normal mammary tissues using quantitative PCR along with clinicopathological patient data, as well as in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cell lines treated with selective oestrogen receptor modulators (SERMs). The expression of Sema4D, plexin-B1 and -B2 was markedly reduced in tumours with local recurrence, compared to the patients that remained disease-free. The reduced Sema4D expression was associated with poorer disease-free survival (median, 111.6 months, 95% CI, 96.5-126.7), compared to the patients with a higher expression (median, 144.0 months; 95% CI, 130.8-157.3; p=0.033). A reduced expression of plexin-B1 was observed in tumours with poorer differentiation and was associated with poorer overall and disease-free survival. No similar association was identified in relation to plexin-B2 and -B3. A higher expression of Sema4D and plexin-B1 was observed in the ERα-positive tumours compared to the ERα-negative tumours. The expression of these molecules was largely regulated in breast cancer cells exposed to SERMs. A decreased expression of Sema4D, plexin-B1 and -B2 was associated with local recurrence and poor prognosis. Response to SERMs indicated potential perspectives of these molecules in clinical assessment and management of diseases.

Plexin-B3 suppresses excitatory and promotes inhibitory synapse formation in rat hippocampal neurons

Molecular mechanisms underlying synaptogenesis and synaptic plasticity have become one of the main topics in neurobiology. Increasing evidence suggests that axon guidance molecules including semaphorins and plexins participate in synapse formation and elimination. Although class B plexins are widely expressed in the brain, their role in the nervous system remains poorly characterized. We previously identified that B-plexins modulate microtubule dynamics and through this impact dendrite growth in rat hippocampal neurons. Here, we demonstrate that Plexin-B2 and Plexin-B3 are present in dendrites, but do not localize in synapses. We find that overexpression of all B-plexins leads to decreased volume of excitatory synapses, and at the same time Plexin-B1 and Plexin-B3 promote inhibitory synapse assembly. Plexin-B3 mutants revealed that these processes use different downstream pathways. While elimination of excitatory synapses is the result of Plexin-B3 binding to microtubule end binding proteins EB1 and EB3, the increase in inhibitory synapses is mediated by regulation of Ras and Rho GTPases. Overall, our findings demonstrate that Plexin-B3 contributes to regulating synapse formation.

Semaphorin-Plexin Signaling Controls Mitotic Spindle Orientation during Epithelial Morphogenesis and Repair

Morphogenesis, homeostasis, and regeneration of epithelial tissues rely on the accurate orientation of cell divisions, which is specified by the mitotic spindle axis. To remain in the epithelial plane, symmetrically dividing epithelial cells align their mitotic spindle axis with the plane. Here, we show that this alignment depends on epithelial cell-cell communication via semaphorin-plexin signaling. During kidney morphogenesis and repair, renal tubular epithelial cells lacking the transmembrane receptor Plexin-B2 or its semaphorin ligands fail to correctly orient the mitotic spindle, leading to severe defects in epithelial architecture and function. Analyses of a series of transgenic and knockout mice indicate that Plexin-B2 controls the cell division axis by signaling through its GTPase-activating protein (GAP) domain and Cdc42. Our data uncover semaphorin-plexin signaling as a central regulatory mechanism of mitotic spindle orientation necessary for the alignment of epithelial cell divisions with the epithelial plane.

Genome-wide DNA methylation analysis of human pancreatic islets from type 2 diabetic and non-diabetic donors identifies candidate genes that influence insulin secretion

Impaired insulin secretion is a hallmark of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Epigenetics may affect disease susceptibility. To describe the human methylome in pancreatic islets and determine the epigenetic basis of T2D, we analyzed DNA methylation of 479,927 CpG sites and the transcriptome in pancreatic islets from T2D and non-diabetic donors. We provide a detailed map of the global DNA methylation pattern in human islets, β- and α-cells. Genomic regions close to the transcription start site showed low degrees of methylation and regions further away from the transcription start site such as the gene body, 3'UTR and intergenic regions showed a higher degree of methylation. While CpG islands were hypomethylated, the surrounding 2 kb shores showed an intermediate degree of methylation, whereas regions further away (shelves and open sea) were hypermethylated in human islets, β- and α-cells. We identified 1,649 CpG sites and 853 genes, including TCF7L2, FTO and KCNQ1, with differential DNA methylation in T2D islets after correction for multiple testing. The majority of the differentially methylated CpG sites had an intermediate degree of methylation and were underrepresented in CpG islands (∼ 7%) and overrepresented in the open sea (∼ 60%). 102 of the differentially methylated genes, including CDKN1A, PDE7B, SEPT9 and EXOC3L2, were differentially expressed in T2D islets. Methylation of CDKN1A and PDE7B promoters in vitro suppressed their transcriptional activity. Functional analyses demonstrated that identified candidate genes affect pancreatic β- and α-cells as Exoc3l silencing reduced exocytosis and overexpression of Cdkn1a, Pde7b and Sept9 perturbed insulin and glucagon secretion in clonal β- and α-cells, respectively. Together, our data can serve as a reference methylome in human islets. We provide new target genes with altered DNA methylation and expression in human T2D islets that contribute to perturbed insulin and glucagon secretion. These results highlight the importance of epigenetics in the pathogenesis of T2D.

Genetic dissection of plexin signaling in vivo

Mammalian plexins constitute a family of transmembrane receptors for semaphorins and represent critical regulators of various processes during development of the nervous, cardiovascular, skeletal, and renal system. In vitro studies have shown that plexins exert their effects via an intracellular R-Ras/M-Ras GTPase-activating protein (GAP) domain or by activation of RhoA through interaction with Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor proteins. However, which of these signaling pathways are relevant for plexin functions in vivo is largely unknown. Using an allelic series of transgenic mice, we show that the GAP domain of plexins constitutes their key signaling module during development. Mice in which endogenous Plexin-B2 or Plexin-D1 is replaced by transgenic versions harboring mutations in the GAP domain recapitulate the phenotypes of the respective null mutants in the developing nervous, vascular, and skeletal system. We further provide genetic evidence that, unexpectedly, the GAP domain-mediated developmental functions of plexins are not brought about via R-Ras and M-Ras inactivation. In contrast to the GAP domain mutants, Plexin-B2 transgenic mice defective in Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor binding are viable and fertile but exhibit abnormal development of the liver vasculature. Our genetic analyses uncover the in vivo context-dependence and functional specificity of individual plexin-mediated signaling pathways during development.

Increased levels of plasma soluble Sema4D in patients with heart failure

Semaphorin 4D (Sema4D/CD100) is a 150-kDa transmembrane glycoprotein expressed by platelets and T-cells. When these cells are activated, Sema4D is cleaved proteolytically, generating a biologically active 120-kDa fragment (soluble Sema4D) capable of targeting receptors on platelets, B-cells, endothelial cells and tumor cells. However, its plasma levels and significance in heart failure (HF) have not been reported. In this study, we established an ELISA and detected soluble Sema4D in human plasma. In healthy controls, plasma Sema4D levels were higher in men than women (5.15±3.30 ng/mL, n = 63, vs. 4.19±2.39 ng/mL, n = 63, P<0.05). In HF patients, plasma Sema4D levels were significantly higher than those in healthy controls (8.94±5.89 ng/mL, n = 157 vs. 4.67±2.99 ng/mL, n = 126, P<0.0001) with the highest levels being in HF patients with diabetes mellitus (DM) (10.45±5.76 ng/mL, n = 40). We also found that there was a higher percentage of Sema4D(high) CD3(+) (P<0.01), CD4(+) (P<0.001), and CD8(+) (P<0.01) T-cells in samples from HF patients, but no changes in Sema4D expression levels in B cells and platelets. Therefore, our investigation shows that plasma Sema4D levels are increased in HF patients, especially in those who also have diabetes. There was an accompanying increase in the Sema4D(high) population of T-cells, suggesting a potential role of these T-cells in heart failure.

Identification of a calmodulin-binding domain in Sema4D that regulates its exodomain shedding in platelets

Semaphorin 4D (Sema4D) is a transmembrane protein that supports contact-dependent amplification of platelet activation by collagen before being gradually cleaved by the metalloprotease ADAM17, as we have previously shown. Cleavage releases a soluble 120-kDa exodomain fragment for which receptors exist on platelets and endothelial cells. Here we have examined the mechanism that regulates Sema4D exodomain cleavage. The results show that the membrane-proximal cytoplasmic domain of Sema4D contains a binding site for calmodulin within the polybasic region Arg762-Lys779. Coprecipitation studies show that Sema4D and calmodulin are associated in resting platelets, forming a complex that dissociates upon platelet activation by the agonists that trigger Sema4D cleavage. Inhibiting calmodulin with W7 or introducing a membrane-permeable peptide corresponding to the calmodulin-binding site is sufficient to trigger the dissociation of Sema4D from calmodulin and initiate cleavage. Conversely, deletion of the calmodulin-binding site causes constitutive shedding of Sema4D. These results show that (1) Sema4D is a calmodulin-binding protein with a site of interaction in its membrane-proximal cytoplasmic domain, (2) platelet agonists cause dissociation of the calmodulin-Sema4D complex, and (3) dissociation of the complex is sufficient to trigger ADAM17-dependent cleavage of Sema4D, releasing a bioactive fragment.

Plexin structures are coming: opportunities for multilevel investigations of semaphorin guidance receptors, their cell signaling mechanisms, and functions

Plexin transmembrane receptors and their semaphorin ligands, as well as their co-receptors (Neuropilin, Integrin, VEGFR2, ErbB2, and Met kinase) are emerging as key regulatory proteins in a wide variety of developmental, regenerative, but also pathological processes. The diverse arenas of plexin function are surveyed, including roles in the nervous, cardiovascular, bone and skeletal, and immune systems. Such different settings require considerable specificity among the plexin and semaphorin family members which in turn are accompanied by a variety of cell signaling networks. Underlying the latter are the mechanistic details of the interactions and catalytic events at the molecular level. Very recently, dramatic progress has been made in solving the structures of plexins and of their complexes with associated proteins. This molecular level information is now suggesting detailed mechanisms for the function of both the extracellular as well as the intracellular plexin regions. Specifically, several groups have solved structures for extracellular domains for plexin-A2, -B1, and -C1, many in complex with semaphorin ligands. On the intracellular side, the role of small Rho GTPases has been of particular interest. These directly associate with plexin and stimulate a GTPase activating (GAP) function in the plexin catalytic domain to downregulate Ras GTPases. Structures for the Rho GTPase binding domains have been presented for several plexins, some with Rnd1 bound. The entire intracellular domain structure of plexin-A1, -A3, and -B1 have also been solved alone and in complex with Rac1. However, key aspects of the interplay between GTPases and plexins remain far from clear. The structural information is helping the plexin field to focus on key questions at the protein structural, cellular, as well as organism level that collaboratoria of investigations are likely to answer.

The CD100 receptor interacts with its plexin B2 ligand to regulate epidermal γδ T cell function

γδ T cells respond rapidly to keratinocyte damage, providing essential contributions to the skin wound healing process. The molecular interactions regulating their response are unknown. Here, we identify a role for interaction of plexin B2 with the CD100 receptor in epithelial repair. In vitro blocking of plexin B2 or CD100 inhibited γδ T cell activation. Furthermore, CD100 deficiency in vivo resulted in delayed repair of cutaneous wounds due to a disrupted γδ T cell response to keratinocyte damage. Ligation of CD100 in γδ T cells induced cellular rounding via signals through ERK kinase and cofilin. Defects in this rounding process were evident in the absence of CD100-mediated signals, thereby providing a mechanistic explanation for the defective wound healing in CD100-deficient animals. The discovery of immune functions for plexin B2 and CD100 provides insight into the complex cell-cell interactions between epithelial resident γδ T cells and the neighboring cells they support.

Plexin-B2 and Plexin-D1 in dendritic cells: expression and IL-12/IL-23p40 production

Plexins are a family of genes (A,B,C, and D) that are expressed in many organ systems. Plexins expressed in the immune system have been implicated in cell movement and cell-cell interaction during the course of an immune response. In this study, the expression pattern of Plexin-B2 and Plexin-D1 in dendritic cells (DCs), which are central in immune activation, was investigated. Plexin-B2 and Plexin-D1 are reciprocally expressed in myeloid and plasmacytoid DC populations. Plasmacytoid DCs have high Plexin-B2 but low Plexin-D1, while the opposite is true of myeloid DCs. Expression of Plexin-B2 and Plexin-D1 is modulated upon activation of DCs by TLR ligands, TNFα, and anti-CD40, again in a reciprocal fashion. Semaphorin3E, a ligand for Plexin-D1 and Plexin-B2, is expressed by T cells, and interestingly, is dramatically higher on Th2 cells and on DCs. The expression of Plexins and their ligands on DCs and T cells suggest functional relevance. To explore this, we utilized chimeric mice lacking Plxnb2 or Plxnd1. Absence of Plexin-B2 and Plexin-D1 on DCs did not affect the ability of these cells to upregulate costimulatory molecules or the ability of these cells to activate antigen specific T cells. Additionally, Plexin-B2 and Plexin-D1 were dispensable for chemokine-directed in-vitro migration of DCs towards key DC chemokines, CXCL12 and CCL19. However, the absence of either Plexin-B2 or Plexin-D1 on DCs leads to constitutive expression of IL-12/IL-23p40. This is the first report to show an association between Plexin-B2 and Plexin-D1 with the negative regulation of IL-12/IL-23p40 in DCs. This work also shows the presence of Plexin-B2 and Plexin-D1 on mouse DC subpopulations, and indicates that these two proteins play a role in IL-12/IL-23p40 production that is likely to impact the immune response.

Interfacial stress affects rat alveolar type II cell signaling and gene expression

Previous work from our group (Ravasio A, Hobi N, Bertocchi C, Jesacher A, Dietl P, Haller T. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 300: C1456-C1465, 2011.) showed that contact of alveolar epithelial type II cells with an air-liquid interface (I(AL)) leads to a paradoxical situation. It is a potential threat that can cause cell injury, but also a Ca(2+)-dependent stimulus for surfactant secretion. Both events can be explained by the impact of interfacial tensile forces on cellular structures. Here, the strength of this mechanical stimulus became also apparent in microarray studies by a rapid and significant change on the transcriptional level. Cells challenged with an I(AL) in two different ways showed activation/inactivation of cellular pathways involved in stress response and defense, and a detailed Pubmatrix search identified genes associated with several lung diseases and injuries. Altogether, they suggest a close relationship of interfacial stress sensation with current models in alveolar micromechanics. Further similarities between I(AL) and cell stretch were found with respect to the underlying signaling events. The source of Ca(2+) was extracellular, and the transmembrane Ca(2+) entry pathway suggests the involvement of a mechanosensitive channel. We conclude that alveolar type II cells, due to their location and morphology, are specific sensors of the I(AL), but largely protected from interfacial stress by surfactant release.

More than nervous: the emerging roles of plexins

Plexins are the receptors for semaphorins, a large family of axon guidance cues. Accordingly, the role of plexins in the development of the nervous system was the first to be acknowledged. However, the expression of plexins is not restricted to neuronal cells, and recent research has been increasingly focused on the roles of plexin-semaphorin signalling outside of the nervous system. During embryogenesis, plexins regulate the development of many organs, including the cardiovascular system, skeleton and kidney. They have also been shown to be involved in immune system functions and tumour progression. Analyses of the plexin signalling in different tissues and cell types have provided new insight to the versatility of plexin interactions with semaphorins and other cell-surface receptors. In this review we try to summarise the current understanding of the roles of plexins in non-neural development and immunity.

Plexin-B2 negatively regulates macrophage motility, Rac, and Cdc42 activation

Plexins are cell surface receptors widely studied in the nervous system, where they mediate migration and morphogenesis though the Rho family of small GTPases. More recently, plexins have been implicated in immune processes including cell-cell interaction, immune activation, migration, and cytokine production. Plexin-B2 facilitates ligand induced cell guidance and migration in the nervous system, and induces cytoskeletal changes in overexpression assays through RhoGTPase. The function of Plexin-B2 in the immune system is unknown. This report shows that Plexin-B2 is highly expressed on cells of the innate immune system in the mouse, including macrophages, conventional dendritic cells, and plasmacytoid dendritic cells. However, Plexin-B2 does not appear to regulate the production of proinflammatory cytokines, phagocytosis of a variety of targets, or directional migration towards chemoattractants or extracellular matrix in mouse macrophages. Instead, Plxnb2^−/− macrophages have greater cellular motility than wild type in the unstimulated state that is accompanied by more active, GTP-bound Rac and Cdc42. Additionally, Plxnb2^−/− macrophages demonstrate faster in vitro wound closure activity. Studies have shown that a closely related family member, Plexin-B1, binds to active Rac and sequesters it from downstream signaling. The interaction of Plexin-B2 with Rac has only been previously confirmed in yeast and bacterial overexpression assays. The data presented here show that Plexin-B2 functions in mouse macrophages as a negative regulator of the GTPases Rac and Cdc42 and as a negative regulator of basal cell motility and wound healing.

Semaphorin 4C and 4G are ligands of Plexin-B2 required in cerebellar development

Semaphorins and Plexins are cognate ligand-receptor families that regulate important steps during nervous system development. The Plexin-B2 receptor is critically involved in neural tube closure and cerebellar granule cell development, however, its specific ligands have only been suggested by in vitro studies. Here, we show by in vivo and in vitro analyses that the two Semaphorin-4 family members Sema4C and Sema4G are likely to be in vivo ligands of Plexin-B2. The Sema4C and Sema4G genes are expressed in the developing cerebellar cortex, and Sema4C and Sema4G proteins specifically bind to Plexin-B2 expressing cerebellar granule cells. To further elucidate their in vivo function, we have generated and analyzed Sema4C and Sema4G knockout mouse mutants. Like Plexin-B2-/- mutants, Sema4C-/- mutants reveal exencephaly and subsequent neonatal lethality with partial penetrance. Sema4C-/- mutants that bypass exencephaly are viable and fertile, but display distinctive defects of the cerebellar granule cell layer, including gaps in rostral lobules, fusions of caudal lobules, and ectopic granule cells in the molecular layer. In addition to neuronal defects, we observed in Sema4C-/- mutants also ventral skin pigmentation defects that are similar to those found in Plexin-B2-/- mutants. The Sema4G gene deletion causes no overt phenotype by itself, but combined deletion of Sema4C and Sema4G revealed an enhanced cerebellar phenotype. However, Sema4C/Sema4G double mutants showed overall less severe cerebellar phenotypes than Plexin-B2-/- mutants, indicating that further ligands of Plexin-B2 exist. In explant cultures of the developing cerebellar cortex, Sema4C promoted migration of cerebellar granule cell precursors in a Plexin-B2-dependent manner, supporting the model that a reduced migration rate of granule cell precursors is the basis for the cerebellar defects of Sema4C-/- and Sema4C/Sema4G mutants.