Pesticides in Lebanon: a knowledge, attitude, and practice study

Pesticide exposure in greenspaces: Comparing field measurement of dermal contamination with values predicted by registration models

Since 2014, the Agricultural Operator Exposure Model (AOEM) has been the harmonised European model used for estimating non-dietary operator exposure to pesticide. It is based on studies conducted by the pesticide companies and it features 13 different crops including non-agricultural areas such as amenity grasslands. The objective of this study was to compare the dermal exposure measured during a field study conducted in a non-agricultural area with the corresponding values estimated by the model AOEM. The non-controlled field study was conducted in France in 2011 and included 24 private and public gardeners who apply glyphosate with knapsack sprayers. Dermal exposure was measured using the whole-body method and cotton gloves. Each measured value had an estimated value given by AOEM and we tested their correlation using linear regression. The model overestimated body exposure for all observations and there was no correlation between values. However, it underestimated hand exposure by 42 times and it systematically underestimated the exposure when the operators were wearing gloves, especially during the application. The model failed at being conservative regarding hand exposure and highly overestimated the protection afforded by the gloves. At a time of glyphosate renewed approval in Europe, non-controlled field studies conducted by academics are needed to improve AOEM model, especially in the non-agricultural sector. Indeed, among the 34 studies included in the model, none were conducted on a non-agricultural area and only four assessed the exposure when using a knapsack sprayer. Moreover, knapsack sprayers being the main equipment used worldwide in both agricultural and non-agricultural settings, it is also crucial to integrate new data specific to this equipment in the model. Operator exposure should be estimated with accuracy in the registration process of pesticides to ensure proper safety as well as in epidemiological studies to improve exposure assessment.

Safety behavior in pesticide use among farmers of northern Greece: the role of information sources

BACKGROUND

Farmers' compliance with common safety practices in pesticide use (i.e., keeping records of pesticide applications, reading the information of pesticide labels, and taking protective measures during pesticide handling) and the use of information sources about pesticides were studied in a simple random sample of farmers in Evros Province, northern Greece.

RESULTS

According to the three common safety practices considered in the study, most farmers (56.9%) complied with safety practices. Nevertheless, a noticeable proportion of the farmers never kept records of pesticide applications (33.9%), never read the information of pesticide labels (20.2%), and never took protective measures during pesticide handling (24.8%). Farmers reported using up to six different sources of information about pesticides, but the majority (51.4%) reported using up to one source and almost one-third (33.9%) relied on own sources. The most common information source about pesticides was the staff of the agricultural supply stores, used by 88.1% of the farmers. Safety behavior was positively correlated with total sources of information (P < 0.01) and information by the agricultural supply stores (P < 0.01). Multiple regression analysis showed that safety behavior was reduced in females, whereas it was increased in farmers with high education, high number of plots, and high level of information sources.

CONCLUSION

Despite good levels of safety behavior by most farmers, keeping records of sprayings should be improved. Using multiple information sources about pesticides is crucial to improve safety behavior of farmers. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Pesticide Take-Home Pathways, Storage, and Application Methods Among Hmong Farmers in Central Valley, California

OBJECTIVE

Pesticide exposure via take-home pathways is a major health concern among farmers. However, little is known about the effects of pesticide take-home pathways on small-scale Hmong farmers in the Central Valley. This study explored factors that contribute to pesticide exposure via the take-home pathway among small-scale Hmong farmers in the Central Valley.

METHODS

Detailed ethnographic observations of small-scale farms and corresponding homes were coupled with in-depth qualitative interviews with Hmong farmers to assess the extent of the pesticide take-home pathway.

RESULTS

The study found daily challenges and numerous ways that pesticide particles may be introduced into farmers' homes. Given the paucity of research about Hmong farmers' pesticide take-home pathways, the study's findings advance the scholarship on pesticide exposures in the Hmong farmer community.

CONCLUSION

This study advocates for more culturally and linguistically appropriate pesticide exposure training and educational programs tailored to Hmong farmers in the United States.

Differences in Knowledge, Awareness, Practice, and Health Symptoms in Farmers Who Applied Organophosphates and Pyrethroids on Farms

OBJECTIVE

This cross-sectional study aimed to examine farmers' knowledge, awareness, practices regarding pesticide use, and prevalence of health symptoms related to pesticides exposure among farmers who applied organophosphates (OP) and pyrethroids (PY).

METHODS

Data regarding demographic variables and health symptoms pertinent to pesticide use was collected from 67 farmers who applied OP and 50 farmers who applied PY using interviews from January to March 2021.

RESULTS

The farmers who applied OP had lower knowledge, awareness, and prevention practices regarding pesticide use than those who applied PY. After adjustment of covariate variables, the farmers who applied OP had a significantly higher prevalence of respiratory conditions (OR = 8.29 for chest pain, OR = 6.98 for chest tightness, OR = 27.54 for dry throat, and OR = 5.91 for cough), neurological symptoms (OR = 10.62 for fatigue and OR = 6.76 for paresthesia), and neurobehavioral symptoms (OR = 13.84 for poor concentration, OR = 3.75 for short term memory, and OR = 8.99 for insomnia) related to pesticide exposure than those who applied PY.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that OP had a more adverse effect on human health than PY, resulting in a higher prevalence of pesticide-related symptoms. The outcomes of this study have the benefit of providing vital information for all stakeholders with regard to the implementation of safe practices in the utilization of personal protective equipment (PPE) and pesticide use in a health intervention and health promotion program.

Does aquatic sediment pollution result in contaminated food sources?

The sediment pollution of the aquatic environment by waste due to anthropogenic activity is of an increasing concern. The contaminants coming from the aquatic environment can enter the aquatic food chain and accumulate in the tissues of fish and shellfish used for human consumption. The aim of this study was to sum up the current level of knowledge concerning the pollution of aquatic sediments and its transfer to aquatic foods as well as to indicate whether such contamination has the potential to affect the health and welfare of aquatic organisms as well as the quality and safety of the species intended for human consumption. Based on the results of scientific studies, the European Food Safety Authority, and the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed, contamination of fish and seafood occurs predominantly through their diet and the levels of bioaccumulative contaminants are higher in fish which rank higher in the food chain. Contamination of aquatic habitats can not only significantly affect behavior, development, and welfare of aquatic organisms, but it can also affect the safety of fish and seafood for human consumption.

Farmers' Knowledge, Attitudes, and Perceptions Regarding Carcinogenic Pesticides in Fez Meknes Region (Morocco)

Pesticides play an important role in the improvement of agricultural production, but their use may result in adverse effects on the environment, consumers, and farmers’ health. As there are limited data focusing on the factors influencing safety behavior toward pesticide use in Morocco, we conducted a cross-sectional survey in 15 rural communities of Morocco’s Fes Meknes region to assess the attitudes, knowledge, and practices regarding pesticide use. A structured questionnaire was completed, containing the data of the interviewed farmers, their behavior towards safety measures, the type of active ingredient used, as well as the perception of risks to their own health following exposure to pesticides by the existence of chronic, self-perceived symptoms. Non-probability (empirical) sampling with the quota method was carried out, which consists of constructing the sample. Results showed that most respondents have not been trained in the application of pesticides, with almost half of the farmers using a category of pesticides which are classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as probable human carcinogenic (i.e., Glyphosate, Malathion). In terms of pesticide storage, 40% of farmers said that they did not store pesticides in a separate room after purchasing or using them. The empty containers were buried or burnt by half of the responders, while the remainder were thrown at the edge of fields or in public dumps. Although the participants were aware of the negative effects on their own health and on the environment caused by the application of pesticides in use, the protection measures by individual equipment were insufficient. A canonical analysis indicates that these behaviors were influenced by the farming experience, the benefit of the agricultural council services, the follow-up of training, and the education level. These variables are important factors in explaining and understanding the dangers to both the environment and health caused by pesticides. The most recorded likely consequences of pesticide exposure were visual impairment (46%), followed by dizziness (44.3%), headache (39.4%), and excessive sweating (34.4%), and 30.2% of participants identified consequent respiratory problems. Extension services targeted at safety and protection measures should be developed and accompanied by educational programs to put farmers’ perceptions into practice and encourage them to adopt healthy and environmentally friendly behaviors.

Estimating Occupational Exposure to VOCs, SVOCs, Particles and Participant Survey Reported Symptoms in Central Thailand Rice Farmers Using Multiple Sampling Techniques

Thailand is known for its agricultural productivity and rice exportation. Most farms use small machines and manual labor, creating potential exposure to multiple health hazards. A cross-sectional study was conducted to measure pollutants liberated during preparation, pesticide application, and harvesting. Thirty rice farmers, mostly males from 41 to 50 years old, participated. The participant survey data showed that 53.3% of the respondents spent >2 h per crop on preparation, <1 h on pesticide application, and about 1-2 h harvesting; 86.7% of the respondents maintained and stored mechanical applicators at home, suggesting possible after-work exposures. Gloves, fabric masks, boots, and hats were worn during all activities, and >90% wore long sleeved shirts and pants. VOCs and SVOCs were collected using charcoal tubes and solid phase micro sample extraction (SPME). An analysis of the charcoal and SPME samplers found that 30 compounds were detected overall and that 10 were in both the charcoal tubes and SPME samplers. The chemicals most often detected were 1, 1, 1 Trichloro ethane and xylene. Additionally, farmers experienced the highest exposure to particulates during harvesting. These results demonstrated that farmers experience multiple exposures while farming and that risk communication with education or training programs may mitigate exposure.

Farmers' behavior in reading and using risk information displayed on pesticide labels: a test with the theory of planned behavior

BACKGROUND

Labels are the first source of information for the safe use of pesticides, but farmers rarely read labels before pesticide use. Using data from a sample of 300 orchard farmers in Meshginshar County, Iran, this study examined farmers' intention and behavior in reading and using risk information displayed on pesticide labels, using the theory of planned behavior (TPB).

RESULTS

Only 26% of the respondents mentioned that they read pesticide labels. Most farmers showed a low tendency towards reading pesticide labels due to low education, advanced age, and label-related problems, i.e., use of too technical language and unclear texts with small and illegible fonts. From the three basic variables of the TPB, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control (PBC) showed a significant impact on intention, while attitudes showed no significant impact. The three main variables of the TPB explained 90.2% of the variance in farmers' intention to read and use the labels. Furthermore, PBC and intention significantly affected farmers' actual behavior in reading and using the labels, explaining 78.5% of the variance in farmers' actual behavior. Age, experience in farming, and experience in spraying were negatively correlated with all variables of the TPB.

CONCLUSION

Findings provide new insights into farmers' behavior in reading pesticide labels by using for the first time the TPB. Pesticide manufacturers should consider the special conditions of subsistence farmers (low education and advanced age) when preparing pesticide labels and the extension services could use those findings to improve farmers' training in the use of pesticide labels. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Agrochemical Health Risks Exposure and Its Determinants: Empirical Evidence among Cassava Farmers in Nigeria

Background: Over the years there has been a change in the dimensions of agricultural health risk exposure among crop farmers in Nigeria due to innovation adoption. This study assessed agrochemical health risk exposures and its determinants among cassava farmers in Nigeria.Method: The study engaged the baseline of a longitudinal study conducted using a standardized questionnaire. Randomly selected and interviewed for the study were 480 small-scale cassava farmers across 24 farming communities in Kogi and Kwara States, Nigeria. Descriptive statistics, binary regression model, and Likert scale were used for analysis.Results: Most of the farmers were exposed to agrochemical health risks in cassava operations. The frequently used chemicals belong to WHO class II and III. There was poor knowledge of safe farm practices among cassava farmers. About 77% of farmers reported not using complete protective equipment while handling farm chemicals. Several risk factors were associated with farm chemical health risks exposure, including inappropriate time of spray (Odd ratio [OR] = 1.21), frequency of spray (OR = 1.06), long hours of daily chemical spray (OR = 1.10), and non-usage of chemical labels (OR = 2.31).Conclusion:The study concluded cassava farmers in some selected communities in Kogi and Kwara States, North-Central Nigeria engage in unsafe farm practices via the use of farm chemicals that expose them to health risks. There is, therefore, a need for efficiently delivered agricultural health education as an intervention tool to alleviate Nigerian crop farmers from being exposed to such health risks.

Pesticide practices in coastal agricultural farms of Lebanon

The agricultural sector in Lebanon relies heavily on agrochemicals for crop protection; thus exposing humans and the environment to the harmful effects of pesticides. This study investigated Lebanese farmers' pesticide use practices and explored the underlying factors associated with farmers' choices. Of the 104 surveyed farmers, around 87% were willing to use pesticides that are less toxic to humans and the environment than those currently using, if available. The majority of these farmers (92%) planted their crops in greenhouses. Willingness to use less toxic pesticides was significantly associated with farmers using greenhouses as opposed to open fields, after adjusting for demographic and behavioural characteristics (OR = 7.50; p = 0.010). There was no association between willingness to use less toxic pesticides and perceptions of pesticides' health effects. Policies banning the import and sale of internationally banned pesticides must be enforced. Farmers must be supported to make informed choices about pesticides and their use.

Farmer's behaviors toward pesticides use: insight from a field study in Oriental Morocco

Pesticides are a vital component of modern agriculture. So, these chemical compounds could play a crucial role in maintaining high agricultural productivity. However, high-input intensive agricultural production systems in which more effective and widespread use of pesticides could harm human health and the environment. As we know, most of the farmers in developing countries used pesticides without taking the necessary precautions. The present study aims to assess farmers’ knowledge and understand the pattern of use of pesticides in Oriental Morocco. We based our approach on a standardized questionnaire with 140 farmers to evaluate their knowledge, attitude, and awareness about the pictograms used on pesticide labels. The results show that the farmer had a low level of education; only 14% were in university. More than 65% overuse pesticides and 60% did not respect the pre-harvest interval. Many farmers did not know the standard pictograms used on pesticide labels, 90% acknowledged only the crossbones and the fire sign, and 33% gave false interpretation or misunderstood these pictograms. These results show that the farmers in Eastern Morocco seem to be ignorant of pesticide danger and lack of safety education. They have no idea how to deal with the pictogram on the pesticide label. Pesticide safety education is necessary to induce protective behavior among farmers and prevent the residue of pesticides in foodstuff. The comprehension of pictograms on pesticide labels is crucial to reduce the risk of poisoning.

Suggested policy and legislation reforms to reduce deleterious effect of pesticides in Lebanon

Countrywide pesticide management activities are resource draining, even for developed countries, which sometimes fall short in achieving the optimum protection against pesticides deleterious effects on humans and environment. Additionally, in Lebanon, basic flaws exist at different levels of pesticide management cycle. In this study, through an extensive review of relevant literature regarding the pesticides impact on humans and environment in Lebanon and adopted policies in existing legislation, several gaps have been identified. Accordingly, recommendations to reduce pesticide risk through a combination of reforms at the policy level and its tools, particularly legislation, are proposed. In our opinion, the starting point is to adopt a minimum list of lower risk pesticides supported by a combination of: “prescriptions” based on a comprehensive registration and an effective implementation systems, a suitable IPM/ICM government-supported credit system, traceability systems of agricultural commodities and pesticides containers, Pesticide stock management system to reduce the quantity of obsolete pesticides, and containers recycling system. For a global sustainability of pesticides risk reduction, a binding global intervention fostered by the UN, based on human rights for safe food, is called upon to ban hazardous pesticides-except those of WHO class IV- trafficking in developing countries scoring low in an international official assessment of their pesticides lifecycle management. At the same time, global funds should support pesticides alternatives and the enhancement of the developing countries capacities for pesticides lifecycle management, which is a part of a larger global matrix in risk reduction.

Do trained farmers protect themselves when using pesticides? Evidence from rural Vietnam

Programs designed to educate farmers on the safe use and application of agrochemicals, and to train them in integrated pest management, are common in developing countries, where the agricultural workers overuse pesticides and fail to use adequate protection. In this study, I evaluate the effects of exposure to both types of programs-the use of pesticides and protection. The data are from the Mekong Delta, which is the most fertile region of Vietnam, produces most of the country's rice and vegetables. The Vietnamese government began such educative campaigns in the late 1990s. The results show that while the abovementioned programs are effective in promoting the use of personal protection, they have less success in reducing the use of pesticides. Moreover, the evidence suggests that the two types of program are substitutes rather than complements.

Factors affecting use of personal protective equipment and pesticide safety practices: A systematic review

An evidence-based understanding of factors influencing PPE use and pesticide safety practices has the benefit of facilitating the design of interventions to minimize exposure to pesticides and the promotion of the utilization of PPE and safety practices among agricultural pesticide handlers. The aim of this study, therefore, is to review the available literature on the use of PPE in agricultural pesticide handlers in world regions, and also the factors associated with the use of PPE and pesticide safety practices in farmers and farm workers. Full-text articles published on PubMed, Scopus, and ISI databases between 1999 and 2019 were reviewed and the scientific evidence was evaluated. One hundred and twenty-one articles were eligible for inclusion in this quantitative synthesis: 110 evaluated PPE use in agricultural pesticide handlers, and 23 focused on factors affecting PPE use and pesticide safety practices. Considerable evidence was found to show that the most basic PPE worn among pesticide handlers in all world regions was a long sleeve shirt (66.1%), long sleeve trousers (71.1%), and a hat (47.3%). The lowest basic PPE worn was an apron (8.6%), goggles (24.3%), gloves (40.5%), boots (42.3%), and mask (43.2%). The PPE worn (except for an apron) was proportionally higher in farmers than in farm workers. There is considerable evidence to suggest that the significant determinants associated with PPE use and pesticide safety practices are as follows: (1) demographic factors (i.e. education/literacy level, experience of illness, income); (2) farm structure factors (i.e. farm size); (3) behavioral and psychosocial factors (i.e. contact with pesticides, perceptions, attitudes, awareness, norms and beliefs); and (4) environmental factors (i.e. information about pesticides, access to extension services, training program, and farm organization). Therefore, there is a recognizable need for a life-long education program with training to change the perception and behavior of pesticide handlers sustainably.

Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice of Pesticides Use Among Agricultural Workers

Background:

Pesticides have critical effects on human health. Because of the high amount of pesticides used, individual exposure is almost inevitable. According to the above-mentioned issues, few studies have been done in this area in Iran. Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the knowledge, attitude, and practice of pesticides use among farmers in Kabudrahang County, Hamadan Province, Iran.

Materials and Methods:

This cross-sectional study was conducted in Kabudrahang County. Data were collected from 262 farmer's sprayer, during April to July 2016. Data were collected, using convenience sampling through interviews with the farmers who had spryer during period spraying. Data collection instrument was a questionnaire that included three sections. Content validity ratio and content validity index indicators were used to measure the validity of questionnaire used from. Data were recorded in SPSS version 21.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois) and were analyzed using frequency analysis and Pearson correlation test.

Results:

Burning eyes and dizziness were the greater symptoms of poisoning with pesticides. Overall, most of them did not have proper knowledge. Many farmers had proper attitudes toward the use of personal protective equipment. However, 37.4% of them reported that the use of personal protective equipment is not easy. The farmers' practice toward the use of the personal protective equipment correlated with their knowledge and attitude (P < 0.001).

Conclusion:

It is proposed that educational sets consisted of acquaintance with poisons and their applications, storage, and carrying the pesticides, the methods for effective of different individual protection facilities, and utilizing the behavior to reduce the exposure to poisons should be developed and be available to farmers.

Knowledge, attitude and practices of farmers about pesticide use, risks, and wastes; a cross-sectional study (Kermanshah, Iran)

This study was aimed to investigate the knowledge, attitude, and behavior of farmers about the pesticide use and wastes, and to determine the factors affecting the use of pesticides and their health effects, in agricultural lands located in Kermanshah province, western Iran. Three hundred eleven (311) farmers were included in this study, and filled a structured questionnaire containing questions about their basic information, their knowledge and attitude regarding pesticides, and their practices for pesticide disposal. In addition, the type and amount of pesticide consumption, and the health symptoms during the last year were recorded. Prevalence ratios and linear regression were used to evaluate the association between the different factors, and health symptoms and the amount of pesticide use, respectively. The majority of respondents had not been trained formally for the use of pesticides before. Approximately 10%, 45%, and 17% of pesticides contained highly hazardous, moderately hazardous, and slightly hazardous compounds, respectively. The farmers mainly had incorrect knowledge about pesticides and their risks, and used incorrect and high-risk methods for handling and application of pesticides and relevant wastes. Health symptoms were more associated with age ≥ 65, having no education, having income < 482 USD, not trained for pesticide use, and applying highly hazardous pesticides. In addition, the factors contributing to the amount of pesticide use included age, education level, and pesticide training. In order to reduce the amount of pesticide released to the environment, comprehensive training programs and implementing a waste management system could be effective.

Health and safety of pesticide applicators in a high income agricultural setting: a knowledge, attitude, practice, and toxicity study from North-Eastern Italy

Background

We assessed knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding pesticide handling and related health problems among pesticide applicators (PAs) from the Autonomous Province of Trento, Italy.

Methods

A cross-sectional questionnaire-based study was performed in spring 2016, involving 260 PAs. Logistic regression analyses were used to identify factors associated with a safer use of pesticides.

Results

The mean age of participants was 48.8 ± 13.2 years. 89.2% were males. Use of personal protective equipment (PPE) was diffuse, particularly gloves (92.7%), face mask (91.2%), and post-spraying personal hygiene practices were extensively applied. Overall, 43.5% had experienced pesticide-related symptoms especially in subjects misusing PPE, but also for avoiding hygienic procedures. Knowledge about pesticides was a significant predictor for frequency of symptoms.

Conclusions

As a better knowledge of pesticide-related risks was a significant predictor to reduce symptoms, our results stress that improving awareness and promoting safe use of pesticide may improve the health of PAs.

Perceived usefulness of personal protective equipment in pesticide use predicts farmers' willingness to use it

Personal protective equipment (PPE) can substantially reduce the risk exposure from pesticide spraying, but compliance is rather low, particularly among small-scale farmers. In this study the connection between farmers' willingness to use PPE in pesticide handling and perceptions of PPE usefulness was examined through a survey of 341 small-scale farmers in Gorgan county of Golestan Province, Iran. Farmers who were not using PPE when working with pesticides were purposively selected to better serve the objective of the study. Multinomial logit regression models were employed to examine differences in farmers' willingness to use PPE in the future. Almost four out of ten farmers (38.1%) showed willingness to use PPE. However, 36.7% of the farmers showed unwillingness and 25.2% were unsure about using PPE. The average score of farmers' perceptions of PPE disadvantages (x=0.55) was significantly higher than the corresponding score of PPE advantages (x=0.38). Low availability and high price were considered the most important constraints in PPE use by the majority of farmers (75.4% and 74.8% of the farmers, respectively). Farmers who perceived usefulness of PPE, such as effectiveness, safety, and ease of use, were more willing to use PPE in the future. Those who perceived non-usefulness of PPE, driven by unavailability, high price, lack of use by neighbors or colleagues, and ignorance of PPE in extension trainings, were less likely to use PPE in the future. Findings revealed that willingness to use PPE among small-scale farmers when working with pesticides is strongly linked to their perception of PPE usefulness. Findings raise our understanding of the important role of farmers' knowledge in PPE acceptance and use and can motivate policy-makers to pay more attention to the role of farmers' perceptions and awareness in the success or failure of health and safety programs. It is necessary to incorporate farmers' preferences in extension programs to promote safety measures during working with pesticides.

Farmers Knowledge, Attitudes, Practices and Health Problems Associated with Pesticide Use in Rural Irrigation Villages, Southwest Ethiopia

Background

In Ethiopia, pesticides are widely used for a variety of purposes. The occurrence of contamination and poisoning for farmers is highly reported due to unsafe handling practices and their usage. We assessed knowledge, attitudes and experiences of previous pesticide exposure, and related health problems among farmers who use irrigation in Jimma Zone, Southwest Ethiopia.

Methods

A community based cross-sectional study was conducted among farmers living in the zone. Respondents were 796 irrigation farmers from 20 kebeles (lowest administration unit) in Jimma Zone. Data were collected using a pretested and structured questionnaire via face-to-face interviews. Both descriptive and inferential statistics analysis were performed. A binary logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with attitudes of farmers towards the safe use of pesticides at P value of ≤ 0.05 in the final model.

Results

Among the participants, 54.4% (95%CI, 50.7–58%) knew at least one pesticide control method and 53.7% had positive attitudes towards safe use of pesticide. The mean score of attitudes was found to be 3.9(±0.4). Knowledge including each of the following: the names of the pesticides (AOR, 0.41; 95%CI, 0.25–0.67), methods of pest control and the use of gloves during pesticide exposure (AOR, 1.52; 95%CI, 1.07–2.16) was found to be independent predictor of the farmers’ attitudes about safe use of pesticides. Past exposure of pesticide was reported by 89.6% of farmers. Participants reported ingestion (88.9%) and inhalation (90.4%) as possible mechanisms of pesticide exposure. Nearly 42% of farmers had never used any personal protective equipment (PPE) to protect themselves against pesticide exposure. Farmers reported several health complications, which were perceived as complications of pesticide exposure, including: headache, nausea and vomiting, skin rash and irritation and abdominal pain.

Conclusions

The study exposed the existence of high probability of pesticide exposure, the low safe use of pesticide and the low use of PPE. However, but farmers had positive attitudes towards safe use of pesticides. These findings appeal for the development of effective public health strategies to improve farmers’ awareness and safe use of PPE. In addition, there is a need to inform farmers about integrated pest management to prevent severe health complications, which may occur as a result of unsafe and inappropriate use of pesticides.

Knowledge, attitude, and practice of Indonesian farmers regarding the use of personal protective equipment against pesticide exposure

The use of synthetic pesticides in tropical countries has increased over the years, following the intensification of agriculture. However, awareness among farmers of the importance of protecting themselves from hazards associated with pesticide application is still lacking, especially in Indonesia. This paper reports results of an inventory on knowledge and attitudes regarding pesticide use by melon farmers of a village in Central Java, Indonesia. The importance of using personal protective equipment such as hats, masks, goggles, boots, and gloves on agricultural land is known and well understood by the farmers. However, in practice, only 3.8 % were wearing glasses and 1.9 % were using boots. In fact, the masks used only consisted of a part of their shirt tied around the mouth. The farmers were not wearing long pants and shirts with long sleeves and used the same clothes for more than 1 day without washing. Almost no farmers used personal protective equipment that was standard, in good condition, and complete. Based on the results of statistical analysis, no significant relationship was found between knowledge and attitude on the required practices on the one hand and the use of personal protective equipment in practice on the other hand. This shows that improved knowledge and attitudes are not enough to change the behavior of farmers to work in a healthy and safe way. The gap between knowledge and practice needs to be bridged by a more interactive and participatory training model. It is therefore of paramount importance to develop a special toolkit for pesticide risk reduction which is developed in a participatory manner involving the farmers as the main actors through a series of focus group discussions and field simulations.

Perceptions of pesticides exposure risks by operators, workers, residents and bystanders in Greece, Italy and the UK

The EU Directive on the sustainable use of pesticides (EU128/2009/EC) requires European Member States to develop training activities targeting occupational exposure to pesticides, and communication material aimed at residents and bystanders. Risk perceptions, knowledge and attitudes associated with passive and occupational exposure to pesticide potentially influence the extent to which different stakeholders adopt self-protective behaviour. A methodology for assessing the link between attitudes, adoption of self-protective behaviours and exposure was developed and tested. A survey was implemented in the Greece, Italy and the UK, and targeted stakeholders associated with pesticide exposure linked to orchards, greenhouse crops and arable crops respectively. The results indicated that the adoption of protective measures is low for residents and bystanders, with the exception of residents in Greece, when compared to operators and workers, who tend to follow recommended safety practices. A regression analysis was used to examine the factors affecting the probability of adopting protective measures as well the as the level of exposure in the case of operators and workers where data are available. The results indicate that the likelihood of engaging in self-protective behaviour is not significantly affected by perceptions of own health being affected by pesticides for residents and bystanders. However, operators who perceive that their heath has been negatively affected by the use of pesticides are found to be more likely to adopt self-protective behaviours. Gender and country differences, in perceptions, attitudes and self-protection are also observed. Recommendations for improved communication, in particular for vulnerable groups, are provided.

Personal safety issues related to the use of pesticides in agricultural production in the Al-Batinah region of Northern Oman

The level of uptake and use of personal protective equipment (PPE) by farm workers in Oman is low; the conditions under which pesticides are stored are frequently below acceptable international standards. Research was undertaken to explore the drivers working against safe storage of agrochemicals and effective personal protection usage by pesticide application personnel. Results from a survey of over 200 respondents, representing workers in, and owners of, farms either within or outside a local farmer's association (FA), suggest that FA membership raises standards of behaviour both in terms of safe pesticide storage and use of PPE. Age of respondents had no apparent effect on the likelihood of PPE (gloves and masks) use. PPE use was, however, highest among respondents with more advanced educational backgrounds. Positive responses for glove and mask use, when applying pesticides, were higher for owners and workers in FA farms compared to non-FA farms. Lowest reported use of PPE was among workers in non-FA farms. Analysis of responses appears to indicate that behaviour patterns of workers in FA farms mirror that of the farm owners. This was not the case in non-FA farms. The results suggest that conformity to social norms, in this case acceptable work-environment behaviour, is a powerful driver behind raised usage levels of PPE in farms in Oman.

Occupational exposure to pesticides and resultant health problems among cotton farmers of Punjab, Pakistan

Occupational exposure to pesticides and resultant health problems were assessed among 318 randomly selected cotton farmers from the two districts of Punjab, Pakistan. Heavy dependence of farmers on pesticides for pest control was reported. A large part (23.3%) of the pesticides belonged to the category highly hazardous, whereas the largest part (54.7%) belonged to the category moderately hazardous. Some of them (8%) were reported to be used on vegetables. Common working practices of high exposure risk were: the confrontation of pesticide spills in the stage of spray solution preparation (76.4%), the use of low-technology and faulty sprayers (67.9%), and spraying under inappropriate weather (46.5%). A large proportion (34%) of the farmers reported multiple intoxication symptoms by pesticide use; the most common were irritation of skin and eyes, headache, and dizziness. Nevertheless, most farmers thought these symptoms were usual; only few reported visiting the doctor. Findings clearly indicated a high level of risk exposure to pesticides among farmers of the study area, calling upon immediate interventions toward increasing awareness about alternative pest control practices with less pesticide use.

Farmer and retailer knowledge and awareness of the risks from pesticide use: a case study in the Wei River catchment, China

Monitoring the educational level of farmers and retailers on pesticide use would be useful to assess the appropriateness of information for reducing or/and avoiding the risks from pesticides in rural regions. The levels of knowledge and awareness of the dangers to the environment and human health were investigated by questionnaires for farmers (209) and retailers (20) in two rural regions (Qianyang County (S1) and Chencang County (S2)) of the Wei River catchment in China where the modes of farming and the state of erosion are very different. The results showed that farmers learned the use and dangers of pesticides mainly by oral communication (p<0.01). Protective measures were inadequate; 65% (S1) and 55% (S2) of farmers never used any protective measures during spraying (p<0.05). Washing hands (>70%) was the most common mode of personal hygiene, relative to wearing masks, showering, and changing clothes, but no significant differences were observed between the selected regions. Most pesticide wastes were dumped directly onto the land or into water, suggesting that educational measures should be taken to address the potential risks from the residues in the wastes. Over 85% of farmers (S1 and S2) claimed to use illegal pesticides, but the reasons for their use varied (p<0.01). Retailers were well-informed and highly conscious of their responsibility for the safe use of pesticides, especially in S2 (p<0.01). A canonical correspondence analysis indicated that educational level and age differed between the two regions and contributed greatly to the risks from pesticide use (p<0.01). Educational programmes targeted to age groups, proper disposal of pesticide waste, and sufficient supervision from authorities should consequently be considered for improving the levels of knowledge and awareness of the dangers of pesticides to human health and environmental pollution in the Wei River catchment, China.

Mishandling and exposure of farm workers in Qatar to organophosphate pesticides

We used a combination of subjective (questionnaire) and objective (urinary metabolites) measurements to evaluate factors that can predict the exposure of farm workers in Qatar to organophosphate pesticides and to assess whether the levels of exposure are associated with any self-reported health outcomes. The results show that pesticides were being extensively mishandled in the farms. Very few (<2%) of the farm workers knew the names of the pesticide they were using, and about one-third of the participants did not know the amount of pesticides to be applied to the crops. Nearly all (96%) of the participants had participated in mixing pesticides together before use and few (29%) used protective clothing while engaged in this operation. A significant number of participants (18%) had no knowledge that pesticides are a health hazard. At least one dialkyllphosphate (DAP) metabolite was detected in every worker. The geometric mean (GM) concentration of the dimethylalkylphosphates (DMAP) was 108 nM (range, from below the limit of detection (LOD) to 351 nM), and the GM for the diethylalkylphosphates (DEAP) was 43 nM (range, LOD-180 nM). The GM for total concentration of the metabolites (DAP) of 146 nM (maximum value estimated to be 531 nM) is below the values that have been reported for farmers in some countries, but higher than the levels in the general populations of many countries. We explored the influence of metal exposure and found consistent and negative relationships between the DAP metabolites and the concentrations of most of the trace elements in the urine of the farm workers; the negative associations were statistically significant for Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, As, and Pb. We suspect that the negative associations are not source-dependent but may be reflective of antagonistic relationships in human metabolism of OPPs and trace metals; hence we recommend that metals should be included as co-factors in assessing the health effects of OPP exposure.

Pesticide knowledge, practice and attitude and how it affects the health of small-scale farmers in Uganda: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Over the past years there has been an increase in the use of pesticides in developing countries. This study describes pesticide use among small-scale farmers in Uganda and analyses predictors of pesticide poisoning (intoxication) symptoms.

METHOD

A cross-sectional study was conducted using a standardized questionnaire. Some 317 small-scale farmers in two districts in Uganda were interviewed about pesticide use, knowledge and attitude, symptoms of intoxication, personal protective equipment (PPE) and hygiene. The risk of reporting symptoms was analysed using logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

The most frequently used pesticides belonged to WHO class II. The farmers had poor knowledge about pesticide toxicity, and the majority did not use appropriate PPE nor good hygiene when handling pesticides. There was no significant association between the number of times of spraying with pesticides and self-reported symptoms of pesticide poisoning. The only significant association was between blowing and sucking the nozzle of the knapsack sprayer and self-reported symptoms of pesticide intoxication (OR: 2.13. 95% CI: 1.09 - 4.18).

CONCLUSION

Unlike the practice in several other developing countries, small-scale farmers in Uganda do not use the most hazardous pesticides (WHO class 1a and 1b). However use of WHO class II pesticides and those of lower toxicity is seen in combination with inadequate knowledge and practice among the farmers. This poses a danger of acute intoxications, chronic health problems and environmental pollution. Training of farmers in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) methods, use of proper hygiene and personal protective equipment when handling pesticides should be promoted.

Pesticide poisoning in Zhejiang, China: a retrospective analysis of adult cases registration by occupational disease surveillance and reporting systems from 2006 to 2010

OBJECTIVE

Despite the rapid industrialisation and urbanisation over the past 30 years, agriculture is one of the largest economic sectors in China and the unregulated use of pesticides result in extensive pesticide poisoning. The objective of this study was to analyse pesticide poisoning cases registration received by Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, China.

DESIGN

Register-based study.

SETTING

Cases registered regarding pesticide poisoning. Data were obtained from the Occupational Disease Surveillance and Reporting Systems in Zhejiang province from 2006 to 2010, which contains anonymous records representing general population of Zhejiang province, China.

PARTICIPANTS

All cases registered as pesticide poisoning were identified.

PRIMARY OUTCOME

Monthly and age-group pesticide poisoning death rates were calculated.

RESULTS

A total of 20 097 pesticide poisoning cases with 1413 deaths were recorded during the study period. There were 10 513 male pesticide poisoning cases with 782 deaths, and 9584 females with 631 deaths. Pesticide poisoning occurred mostly in non-occupational exposure (79.86%), in which the majority (85.77%) of the cases was of intentional pesticide poisoning. The occupational exposure was most common in men during the farming season. The death rate increased stepwise with age, and the pesticide suicide rate was higher in the older age group.

CONCLUSIONS

Pesticide poisoning remains a major health problem in China, and further recommendations to reduce the pesticide poisoning are required.

Pesticide risk perceptions and the differences between farmers and extensionists: towards a knowledge-in-context model

A growing body of literature analyzes farmer perceptions of pesticide risk, but much less attention has been given to differences in risk perception between farmers and technical experts. Furthermore, inconsistencies in knowledge have too easily been explained in terms of lack of knowledge rather than exploring the underlying reasons for particular forms of thinking about pesticide risks. By doing this, the division between expert and lay knowledge has been deepened rather than transcended.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to understand differences and similarities among the perceptions of pesticide risks of farmers, farm workers, and technical experts such as extensionists, by applying a social science approach towards knowledge and risk attitudes.

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews and field observations were conducted to smallholders, farm workers, extensionists, health professionals and scientists involved in the use and handling of pesticides. Subsequently, a survey was carried out to quantify the farmers and extensionists' acceptance or rejection of typical assertions expressed previously in the semi-structured interviews.

RESULTS

Smallholders showed to gain knowledge from their own experiences and to adapt pesticides practices, which is a potential basis for transforming notions of pesticide safety and risk reduction strategies. Though extensionists have received formal education, they sometimes develop ideas deviating from the technical perspective. The risk perception of the studied actors appeared to vary according to their role in the agricultural labor process; they varied much less than expected according to their schooling level.

CONCLUSIONS

Commitment to the technical perspective is not dramatically different for extensionists on the one hand and farmers as well as farm workers on the other hand. Ideas about a supposed lack of knowledge by farmers and the need of formal training are too much driven by a deficit model of knowledge. Further research on risk perceptions of pesticides and training of rural people will benefit from the development of a knowledge-in-context model.

Knowledge, attitude and practices of pesticide use and acetylcholinesterase depression among farm workers in Nepal

Assessing erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in farm workers across agricultural seasons can be used to monitor risks of pesticide exposure. We surveyed a total of 403 households in Nepal and adopted the Test-mate ChE Cholinesterase Test System to monitor AChE activity across season on the 127 individuals of the sampled households. The study aims to (i) document knowledge and practices of pesticide use among farmers and (ii) present the relationship between farmers' reported acute health symptoms and erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase depression. We found low levels of pesticide use hygiene and high levels of individuals' knowledge on the local environmental impacts of pesticide use. Safety measures taken against potential risks of pesticides exposure were inadequate. Exposure to organophosphates significantly reduced AChE activity across season, but was not sufficient enough to claim clinical symptoms whereas exposure to the pyrethroid insecticides and fungicides were sufficient enough to claim acute symptoms of poisoning.

Health effects of agrochemicals among farm workers in commercial farms of Kwekwe district, Zimbabwe

Introduction

Farm workers are at a very high risk of occupational diseases due to exposure to pesticides resulting from inadequate education, training and safety systems. The farm worker spends a lot of time exposed to these harmful agrochemicals. Numerous acute cases with symptoms typical of agrochemical exposure were reported from the commercial farms. We assessed the health effects of agrochemicals in farm workers in commercial farms of Kwekwe District (Zimbabwe), in 2006.

Methods

An analytical cross sectional study was conducted amongst a sample of 246 farm workers who handled agrochemicals when discharging their duties in the commercial farms. Plasma cholinesterase activity in blood specimens obtained from farm workers was measured using spectrophotometry to establish levels of poisoning by organophosphate and/or carbamates. Information on the knowledge, attitudes and practices of farm workers on agrochemicals use was collected using a pre-tested interviewer administered questionnaire. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to determine factors that were associated with abnormal cholinesterase activity.

Results

The prevalence of organophosphate poisoning, indicated by cholinesterase activity of 75% or less, was 24.1%. The median period of exposure to agrochemicals was 3 years (Q₁:=1 year, Q₃:=7 years). Ninety eight (41.5%) farm workers knew the triangle colour code for the most dangerous agrochemicals. Not being provided with personal protective equipment (OR 2.00; 95% CI: 1.07 – 3.68) and lack of knowledge of the triangle colour code for most dangerous agrochemicals (OR 2.02; 95% CI: 1.02 – 4.03) were significantly associated with abnormal cholinesterase activity.

Conclusion

There was organophosphate poisoning in the commercial farms. Factors that were significantly associated with the poisoning were lack of protective clothing and lack of knowledge of the triangle colour code for most dangerous agrochemicals. We recommended intensive health education and training of farm workers on the use of agrochemicals, provision of adequate and proper personal protective equipment as mitigation measures to this problem.

Work-related pesticide poisoning among farmers in two villages of Southern China: a cross-sectional survey

Background

Pesticide poisoning is an important health problem among Chinese farm workers, but there is a paucity of pesticide poisoning data from China. Using the WHO standard case definition of a possible acute pesticide poisoning, we investigated the prevalence and risk factors of acute work-related pesticide poisoning among farmers in Southern China.

Methods

A stratified sample of 910 pesticide applicators from two villages in southern China participated in face-to-face interviews. Respondents who self-reported having two or more of a list of sixty-six symptoms within 24 hours after pesticide application were categorized as having suffered acute pesticide poisoning. The association between the composite behavioral risk score and pesticide poisoning were assessed in a multivariate logistic model.

Results

A total of 80 (8.8%) pesticide applicators reported an acute work-related pesticide poisoning. The most frequent symptoms among applicators were dermal (11.6%) and nervous system (10.7%) symptoms. Poisoning was more common among women, farmers in poor areas, and applicators without safety training (all p < 0.001). After controlling for gender, age, education, geographic area and the behavioral risk score, farmers without safety training had an adjusted odds ratio of 3.22 (95% CI: 1.86-5.60). The likelihood of acute pesticide poisoning was also significantly associated with number of exposure risk behaviors. A significant "dose-response" relationship between composite behavioral risk scores calculated from 9 pesticides exposure risk behaviors and the log odds of pesticide poisoning prevalence was seen among these Chinese farmers (R² = 0.9246).

Conclusions

This study found that 8.8% of Chinese pesticide applicators suffered acute pesticide poisoning and suggests that pesticide safety training, safe application methods, and precautionary behavioral measures could be effective in reducing the risk of pesticide poisoning.

Pesticide exposure, safety issues, and risk assessment indicators

Pesticides are widely used in agricultural production to prevent or control pests, diseases, weeds, and other plant pathogens in an effort to reduce or eliminate yield losses and maintain high product quality. Although pesticides are developed through very strict regulation processes to function with reasonable certainty and minimal impact on human health and the environment, serious concerns have been raised about health risks resulting from occupational exposure and from residues in food and drinking water. Occupational exposure to pesticides often occurs in the case of agricultural workers in open fields and greenhouses, workers in the pesticide industry, and exterminators of house pests. Exposure of the general population to pesticides occurs primarily through eating food and drinking water contaminated with pesticide residues, whereas substantial exposure can also occur in or around the home. Regarding the adverse effects on the environment (water, soil and air contamination from leaching, runoff, and spray drift, as well as the detrimental effects on wildlife, fish, plants, and other non-target organisms), many of these effects depend on the toxicity of the pesticide, the measures taken during its application, the dosage applied, the adsorption on soil colloids, the weather conditions prevailing after application, and how long the pesticide persists in the environment. Therefore, the risk assessment of the impact of pesticides either on human health or on the environment is not an easy and particularly accurate process because of differences in the periods and levels of exposure, the types of pesticides used (regarding toxicity and persistence), and the environmental characteristics of the areas where pesticides are usually applied. Also, the number of the criteria used and the method of their implementation to assess the adverse effects of pesticides on human health could affect risk assessment and would possibly affect the characterization of the already approved pesticides and the approval of the new compounds in the near future. Thus, new tools or techniques with greater reliability than those already existing are needed to predict the potential hazards of pesticides and thus contribute to reduction of the adverse effects on human health and the environment. On the other hand, the implementation of alternative cropping systems that are less dependent on pesticides, the development of new pesticides with novel modes of action and improved safety profiles, and the improvement of the already used pesticide formulations towards safer formulations (e.g., microcapsule suspensions) could reduce the adverse effects of farming and particularly the toxic effects of pesticides. In addition, the use of appropriate and well-maintained spraying equipment along with taking all precautions that are required in all stages of pesticide handling could minimize human exposure to pesticides and their potential adverse effects on the environment.

Pesticide use and opportunities of exposure among farmers and their families: cross-sectional studies 1998-2006 from Hebron governorate, occupied Palestinian territory

BACKGROUND

Adverse health effects caused by pesticide exposure have been reported in occupied Palestinian territory and the world at large. The objective of this paper is to compare patterns of pesticide use in Beit-U'mmar village, West Bank, between 1998 and 2006.

METHODS

We studied two populations in Beit-U'mmar village, comprised of: 1) 61 male farmers and their wives in 1998 and 2) 250 male farmers in 2006. Both populations completed a structured interview, which included questions about socio-demographic factors, types of farming tasks, as well as compounds, quantities, and handling of pesticides. Using the 1998 population as a reference, we applied generalized linear regression models (GLM) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) in order to estimate prevalence differences (PD) between the two populations.

RESULTS

In 1998, farmers used 47 formulated pesticides on their crops. In 2006, 16 of these pesticides were still in use, including five internationally banned compounds. There were positive changes with less use of large quantities of pesticides (>40 units/year) (PD -51; CI -0.60, -0.43), in applying the recommended dosage of pesticides (PD +0.57; CI +0.48, +0.68) and complying with the safety period (PD +0.89; CI+0.83, +0.95). Changes also included farmers' habits while applying pesticides, such as less smoking (PD -0.20; CI-0.34, -0.07) and eating at the work place (PD -0.33; CI-0.47, -0.19). No significant changes were found from 1998 to 2006 regarding use of personal protective equipment, pesticide storage, farmers' habits after applying pesticides, and in using some highly hazardous pesticides.

CONCLUSIONS

The results were based on two cross-sectional surveys and should be interpreted with caution due to potential validity problems. The results of the study suggest some positive changes in the handling of pesticides amongst participants in 2006, which could be due to different policy interventions and regulations that were implemented after 1998. However, farm workers in Beit -U'mmar village are still at risk of health effects because of ongoing exposure to pesticides. To the best of our knowledge, no studies on long-term changes in pesticide use have been reported from developing countries.

Knowledge and practices of pesticide use among farm workers in the West Bank, Palestine: safety implications

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this study were to assess the knowledge and practices associated with pesticide use in an agricultural community in Palestine, and to determine the prevalence of self-reported health symptoms related to pesticide exposure.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional questionnaire study, agricultural farm workers in Nablus district, Palestine, were interviewed on their knowledge and practices of pesticide use. Comparisons of knowledge and practices of pesticide use between various groups were performed using the Mann-Whitney U-test or the Kruskal-Wallis rank test of variance. The program of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 15 was used for data analysis.

RESULTS

The questionnaire was completed by 381 farm workers. The mean age ± SD of the participants was 38.8 ± 11.8 years. The majority (97.9%) of the participants were male. The mean participant scores for knowledge and safety procedures were 2.8 ± 3.2 out of 8 and 9.8 ± 2.4 out of 15, respectively. There was a significant positive correlation (r = 0.323; P < 0.001) between the knowledge and safety procedure scores. Unsafe behaviors were identified as the storage of pesticide products at home, the preparation of pesticides in the kitchen, inadequate disposal of empty pesticide containers, eating and drinking during pesticide application, and using inadequate protective clothing. The most frequent self-reported toxicity symptoms associated with pesticide use were skin rash (37.5%), headache (37%), excessive sweating (24.9%), and diarrhea (21.3%). There was a strong significant negative correlation (r = -0.83; P < 0.001) between self-reported toxicity symptoms and scores for protective measures.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study indicate that most farm workers in this district need more educational programs regarding the safety and use of pesticides. Legislation promoting the use of safer pesticides is also needed.

Adverse health effects of pesticides in agrarian populations of developing countries

Developing countries use only 20% of the world's agrochemicals, yet they suffer 99% of deaths from pesticide poisoning. Pesticide poisoning is a significant problem in developing countries primarily because of unsafe pesticide application and handling practices. Safety is further exacerbated by the illiteracy and poverty that prevails in most farming communities of developing countries. Pesticides classified as being extremely or highly hazardous by FAO and WHO, including those banned by other countries, continue to be used in developing countries. Many farmers in developing countries continue to be exposed to pesticides from either storing them in or near their residences, or from inadequate or unsafe application or handling practices. Farming populations exposed to pesticides suffer from several health problems, primarily neurological abnormalities, respiratory ailments, and reproductive, endocrinological, and dermal problems. In developing countries, the scientific literature (including the Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, India) have taken the initiative to monitor health problems resulting from pesticide exposure in agrarian communities. The welfare fund for agricultural laborers could institute a special program for pesticide applicators in developing countries. The primary need, currently, in such countries is creation and implementation of sound national policies to effectively articulate appropriate guidelines for managing farm pest control activities. Such policies should be aimed at both limiting pesticide exposure and usage, but doing so without damaging the yields of food production. If such steps are taken, it is fully expected that the incidence of adverse health consequences for agrarian populations from pesticide toxicity will decrease, and the health of farmers improve.

Probabilistic assessment of acute health symptoms related to pesticide use under intensified Nepalese agriculture

Agriculture intensification has pushed farmers to use pesticides for maintaining agricultural productivity and to increase income. However, pesticide use has a significant negative impact on farmers' health. In Nepal, uses of pesticides have been already documented in agriculturally intensified areas, however, little is known on health impacts. Weekly interviews were conducted during 2005 to assess the emerging pesticide problems, estimate the magnitude of pesticide-related acute illness, and identify associated risk factors. The study showed that very few farmers have adopted safety gear during pesticide spraying. The safety measures regression shows that warm temperature and drinking habits significantly reduced adoption of safety gear, whereas, integrated pest management (IPM) training and farm experience increased its adoption. The dose-response analyses showed that use of insecticides or fungicides, spray duration and mixing pesticides significantly affect farmer's health, which could be reduced either by educating farmers, increasing the use of safety gear, or reducing mixtures applications.

Health costs from short-term exposure to pesticides in Nepal

Household surveys were undertaken every week for seven months in 2005 to understand acute health symptoms and to estimate health costs associated with pesticide exposure in rural Nepal. The cost-of-illness and avertive action approach was used to estimate costs of pesticide use. The probit regressions fit sickness and avertive actions with exposure to pesticides and other factors. Based on data from 291 households, the study finds that the magnitude of exposure to insecticides and fungicides significantly influenced the occurrence of acute symptoms. The predicted probability of falling sick from pesticide-related symptoms is significantly higher among individuals who apply pesticides compared to individuals in the same household who are not directly exposed. Further, the predicted annual cost of illness as a result of pesticide use is estimated to be Nepalese Rupees 144 per individual. This cost is nearly one-third of the total expenditure on health care services, but is small compared to the increase in farm production costs, thus when faced with a choice between the health care costs and increases in farm production costs, the individual opts for pesticides. However, the costs are nearly eight times higher compared to the population who were not directly exposed. This study suggests that there are acute health impacts of pesticide use; however, because of the low level of the health costs, farm workers may underestimate the effects of pesticides on the human being, and thus they may continue to use pesticides without any safety precautions.

End-users' knowledge, attitude, and behavior towards safe use of pesticides: a case study in the Guanting Reservoir area, China

Pesticides are widely used in China for crop protection. However, the use of some highly toxic and accumulative pesticides has led to serious pollution to the environment. The knowledge that end-users of pesticides have about hazards is important for the prevention of acute poisoning. Moreover, farmers, especially those who purchase and use pesticides, often make important and long-standing impacts on the local ecosystem and environment. In this study, a specially designed questionnaire was used to collect information on their knowledge, attitude, and behavior related to pesticides in the Guanting Reservoir area, north of China. Most pesticide end-users reported that they took incomplete preventive measures for lack of extensive pesticide knowledge and information. Pesticide information, instruction, and training among farmers should be promoted, and governmental intervention is needed to ensure proper management regarding public health risks and environmental hazards.