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Ouaissi A. Regulatory cells and immunosuppressive cytokines: parasite-derived factors induce immune polarization. J Biomed Biotechnol 2012; 2007:94971. [PMID: 17597838 PMCID: PMC1893014 DOI: 10.1155/2007/94971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2006] [Accepted: 03/19/2007] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasitic infections are prevalent in both tropical and subtropical areas. Most of the affected and/or exposed populations are living in developing countries where control measures are lacking or inadequately applied. Although significant progress has been made in our understanding of the immune response to parasites, no definitive step has yet been successfully done in terms of operational vaccines against parasitic diseases. Evidence accumulated during the past few years suggests that the pathology observed during parasitic infections is in part due to deregulation of normal components of the immune system, mainly cytokines, antibodies, and immune effector cell populations. A large number of studies that illustrate how parasites can modify the host immune system for their own benefit have been reported in both metazoan and protozoan parasites. The first line of defense against foreign organisms is barrier tissue such as skin, humoral factors, for instance the complement system and pentraxin, which upon activation of the complement cascade facilitate pathogen recognition by cells of innate immunity such as macrophages and DC. However, all the major groups of parasites studied have been shown to contain and/or to release factors, which interfere with both arms of the host immune system. Even some astonishing observations relate to the production by some parasites of orthologues of mammalian cytokines. Furthermore, chronic parasitic infections have led to the immunosuppressive environment that correlates with increased levels of myeloid and T suppressor cells that may limit the success of immunotherapeutic strategies based on vaccination. This minireview briefly analyzes some of the current data related to the regulatory cells and molecules derived from parasites that affect cellular function and contribute to the polarization of the immune response of the host. Special attention is given to some of the data from our laboratory illustrating the role of immunomodulatory factors released by protozoan parasites, in the induction and perpetuation of chronic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Ouaissi
- INSERM, IRD UR008 “Pathogénie des Trypanosomatidés”, Centre IRD de Montpellier, 911 Avenue Agropolis, BP 65401, 34394 Montpellier, France
- *Ali Ouaissi:
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Ngure R, Eckersall P, Burke J, Karori S, Mwangi W, Wachira F, Maathai R, Murray M. Endotoxin-like effects in acute phase response to Trypanosoma brucei brucei infection are not due to gastrointestinal leakage. Parasitol Int 2009; 58:325-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2009.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2009] [Revised: 06/18/2009] [Accepted: 06/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Ngure R, Burke J, Eckersall PD, Jennings FW, Mbai FN, Murray M. Secondary bacterial infection in plasma endotoxin levels and the acute-phase response of mice infected with Trypanosoma brucei brucei. Parasite Immunol 2009; 31:357-65. [PMID: 19527451 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2009.01114.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Murine Trypanosoma brucei brucei infection leads to elevated plasma endotoxin-like activity levels not related to parasitaemia levels accompanied by the development of acute-phase response and increased plasma levels of serum amyloid P (SAP) and haptoglobin (Hp). To determine the source of the endotoxin-like activity and role of secondary bacterial infection in the pathogenesis of trypanosomosis, infected mice were treated with the antibiotic ciprofloxacin. Plasma endotoxin-like activity levels, irrespective of treatment, were elevated three- to fourfold, beginning 7 days after infection. Plasma protein concentrations increased markedly following infection from 7 days after infection (DAI). Peak Hp and SAP concentrations in ciprofloxacin-treated and -untreated infected mice were attained 7 and 14 DAI, respectively. Thereafter, both protein levels gradually declined until the end of the experiment, but Hp levels for non-treated mice declined up to 21 DAI and thereafter significantly increased on 28 and 35 DAI. Whole-trypanosome lysate and the membrane-enriched fraction demonstrated endotoxin-like activity, with the former having higher levels. The results suggest that the endotoxin-like activity in trypanosome fractions and plasma of infected mice is due to the trypanosome. Further elevation of haptoglobin during the late stages of infection in non-treated mice suggests the involvement of secondary bacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Ngure
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Egerton University, Egerton Njoro, Kenya.
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Carlos IZ, Silva Monnazzi LG, Falcão DP, Machado de Medeiros BM. TNF-α, H2O2 and NO response of peritoneal macrophages to Yersinia enterocolitica O:3 derivatives. Microbes Infect 2004; 6:207-12. [PMID: 14998520 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2003.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2003] [Accepted: 10/13/2003] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the effect of Yersinia derivatives on nitric oxide (NO), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) production by murine peritoneal macrophages was investigated. Addition of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to the macrophage culture resulted in NO production that was dose dependent. On the other hand, bacterial cellular extract (CE) and Yersinia outer proteins (Yops) had no effect on NO production. The possible inhibitory effect of Yops on macrophage cultures stimulated with LPS was investigated. Yops partially inhibited NO production (67.4%) when compared with aminoguanidine. The effects of Yersinia derivatives on H2O2 production by macrophages were similar to those on NO production. LPS was the only derivative that stimulated H2O2 release in a dose-dependent manner. All Yersinia derivatives provoked the production of TNF-alpha, but LPS had the strongest effect, as observed for NO production. CE and Yops stimulated TNF-alpha production to a lesser extent than LPS. The results indicate the possibility that in vivo Yops may aid the evasion of the bacteria from the host defense mechanism by impairing the secretion of NO by macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iracilda Zeppone Carlos
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Araraquara, UNESP, Rua Expedicionários do Brasil, No. 1621, Araraquara, SP, CEP 14.801-902, Brazil.
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Crespo ADMC, Falcão DP, Ferreira de Araújo PM, Machado de Medeiros BM. Effects of Yersinia enterocolitica O:3 derivatives on B lymphocyte activation in vivo. Microbiol Immunol 2002; 46:95-100. [PMID: 11939584 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.2002.tb02664.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The potential sequelae of intestinal infection with Yersinia enterocolitica include reactive arthritis, erythema nodosum, Reiter's syndrome and other autoimmune diseases. The role of the immune response in the pathogenesis of these diseases has not been fully defined, but autoimmune manifestations may be a consequence of the increase in autoantibodies as a result of polyclonal B-cell activation induced by Yersinia. We investigated the effects of Y. enterocolitica O:3 derivatives on B lymphocyte activation in vivo. Groups of five specific pathogen free (SPF) Swiss mice were inoculated with bacterial cell extract, Yersinia outermembrane proteins (Yops) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) obtained from Y. enterocolitica O:3 and their immunoglobulin-secreting spleen cells were detected by isotype-specific protein A plaque assay. The presence of specific anti-Yersinia antibodies and autoantibodies was determined in mouse sera by ELISA. In all experiments a marked increase in the number of secretory cells of different isotypes was observed as early as the third day after inoculation. IgG and IgM anti-Yersinia antibodies were detected in the sera of all inoculated mice, and autoantibodies against myosin in the sera of those inoculated with bacterial cell extract. The sera from animals stimulated with LPS reacted with myelin, actin and laminin, while the sera from mice inoculated with Yops reacted with myelin, thyroglobulin and cardiolipin. These results suggest that SPF Swiss mice inoculated with any one of the Y. enterocolitica derivatives tested exhibited polyclonal activation of B lymphocytes as a result of stimulation by various bacterial components and not only LPS stimulation.
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Ouaissi A, Guilvard E, Delneste Y, Caron G, Magistrelli G, Herbault N, Thieblemont N, Jeannin P. The Trypanosoma cruzi Tc52-released protein induces human dendritic cell maturation, signals via Toll-like receptor 2, and confers protection against lethal infection. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 168:6366-74. [PMID: 12055254 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.168.12.6366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The intracellular protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiological agent of Chagas disease. We have recently identified a T. cruzi-released protein related to thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase family, called Tc52, which is crucial for parasite survival and virulence. In vitro, Tc52 in combination with IFN-gamma activates human macrophages. In vivo, active immunization with Tc52 relieves the immunosuppression associated to acute infection and elicits a specific immune response. As dendritic cells (DC) have a central role in the initiation of immune responses, we investigated whether Tc52 may modulate DC activity. We show that Tc52 induces human DC maturation. Tc52-treated immature DC acquire CD83 and CD86 expression, produce inflammatory chemokines (IL-8, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and macrophage-inflammatory protein-1 alpha), and present potent costimulatory properties. Tc52 binds to DC by a mechanism with the characteristics of a saturable receptor system and signals via Toll-like receptor 2. While Tc52-mediated signaling involves its reduced glutathione-binding site, another portion of the molecule is involved in Tc52 binding to DC. Finally, we report that immunization with Tc52 protects mice in vivo against lethal infection with T. cruzi. Together these data evidence complex molecular interactions between the T. cruzi-derived molecule, Tc52, and DC, and suggest that Tc52 and related class of proteins might represent a new type of pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Moreover, the immune protection data suggest that Tc52 is among candidate molecules that may be used to design an optimal multicomponent vaccine to control T. cruzi infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Ouaissi
- Institut de Recherche pour le Développement UR 008, Montpellier, France.
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Roggero E, Perez A, Tamae-Kakazu M, Piazzon I, Nepomnaschy I, Wietzerbin J, Serra E, Revelli S, Bottasso O. Differential susceptibility to acute Trypanosoma cruzi infection in BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice is not associated with a distinct parasite load but cytokine abnormalities. Clin Exp Immunol 2002; 128:421-8. [PMID: 12067296 PMCID: PMC1906265 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.2002.01874.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Inoculation of Trypanosoma cruzi, Tulahuén strain, into C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice led to an acute infection characterized by marked parasitaemia, myocardial inflammation and thymocyte depletion. While C57BL/6 mice showed a progressive and lethal disease, BALB/c mice partly recovered. To characterize these murine models more effectively, we studied the parasite burden, serum levels of major infection outcome-related cytokines, the in vitro features of T. cruzi infection in peritoneal macrophages and the immunophenotype of thymic cells. The greater disease severity of T. cruzi-infected C57BL/6 mice was not linked to an increased parasite load, as parasitaemia, myocardial parasite nests and amastigote counts in peritoneal macrophages were not different from those in BALB/c mice. Cortical thymocyte loss was accompanied by the presence of apoptotic bodies and fragmented nuclear DNA, whereas fluorocytometric analysis at 17 days postinfection (p.i.) revealed a more pronounced loss of CD4+ CD8+ cells in C57BL/6 mice. This group displayed higher levels of TNF-alpha on days 14 and 21 p.i., in the presence of lower IL-1beta and IL-10 concentrations by days 14 and 21, and days 7 and 14 p.i., respectively. Day-21 evaluation showed higher concentrations of nitrate and TNF-alpha soluble receptors in C57BL/6 mice with no differences in IFN-gamma levels, with respect to the BALB/c group. Increased morbidity of C57BL/6 T. cruzi-infected mice does not seem to result from an aggravated infection but from an unbalanced relationship between pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Roggero
- Instituto de Inmunologia, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas de Rosario, Argentina
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Montes CL, Zuñiga EI, Vazquez J, Arce C, Gruppi A. Trypanosoma cruzi mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase triggers polyclonal B-cell activation. Clin Exp Immunol 2002; 127:27-36. [PMID: 11882029 PMCID: PMC1906289 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.2002.01746.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been proposed that Trypanosoma cruzi, the aetiologic agent of Chagas' disease, produces mitogenic substances responsible for the polyclonal B-cell activation observed during the acute phase of the infection. Isolation and characterization of the molecules involved in the induction of polyclonal activation observed during infectious diseases have posed a great challenge for the immunologist over the last decade. In this work we report that a 33 kD protein obtained from an alkaline fraction of T. cruzi epimastigotes (FI) stimulates proliferation and promotes differentiation into antibody-secreting cells of normal murine B cells in a T-cell independent manner. By flow cytometry we also found that the 33 kDa protein induces an increase in the expression of MHC class II and B7.2 but not B7.1 molecules on the B-cell surface. Sequencing by mass spectrometry identified the T. cruzi 33 kD protein as hypothetical oxidoreductase, a member of the aldo/ketoreductase family. In this report we demonstrate that this protein is also present in the infective bloodstream trypomastigote form of the parasite and was identified as T. cruzi mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase (mMDH) by enzyme activity and by Western blotting using a specific mMDH polyclonal antiserum. The biologic relevance of mMDH-induced polyclonal activation concerning T. cruzi infection is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Montes
- Inmunología, Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
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Isasi SC, Sibona GJ, Condat CA. A simple model for the interaction between T. cruzi and its antibodies during Chagas infection. J Theor Biol 2001; 208:1-13. [PMID: 11162048 DOI: 10.1006/jtbi.2000.2191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of the acute phase of the Chagas infection is analysed from the viewpoint of the dynamic competition between parasite and antibody populations. A simple model for the growth and annihilation of these populations is shown to provide a suitable description of the experimental data. We also find that it is possible to classify antibody response to Trypanosoma cruzi, into three main cases, defined by antibody efficiency, initial number and creation rate. The model clearly indicates the most relevant parameters determining the evolution of the Chagas infection, yielding a simple asymptotic criterion for the host survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Isasi
- Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, 5000-Córdoba, Argentina
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Ouaissi A, Cordeiro Da Silva A, Guevara AG, Borges M, Guilvard E. Trypanosoma cruzi-Induced Host Immune System Dysfunction: A Rationale for Parasite Immunosuppressive Factor(s) Encoding Gene Targeting. J Biomed Biotechnol 2001; 1:11-17. [PMID: 12488621 PMCID: PMC79673 DOI: 10.1155/s1110724301000055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
An intense suppression of T cell proliferation to mitogens and to antigens is observed in a large number of parasitic infections. The impairment of T cell proliferation also occurred during the acute phase of Chagas' disease, caused by the intracellular protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. A wealth of evidence has accumulated that illustrates the ability of T. cruzi released molecules to influence directly a variety of diverse immunological functions. In this paper, we review the data concerning the immunoregulatory effects of T. cruzi Tc24 (a B cell activator antigen) and Tc52 (an immunosuppressive protein) released molecules on the host immune system. The gene targeting approach developed to further explore the biological function(s) of Tc52 molecule, revealed interesting unexpected functional properties. Indeed, in addition to its immunusuppressive activity a direct or indirect involvement of Tc52 gene product alone or in combination with other cellular components in T. cruzi differentiation control mechanisms have been evidenced. Moreover, targeted Tc52 replacement allowed the obtention of parasite mutants exhibiting low virulence in vitro and in vivo. Thus, the generation of a complete deficiency state of virulence factors by gene targeting should provide a means to assess the importance of these factors in the pathophysiological processes and disease progression. It is hoped that such approaches might allow rational design of tools to control T. cruzi infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Ouaissi
- CJF INSERM n 96-04, Centre IRD de Montpellier, 911 Av. Agropolis, BP 5945, 34032 Montpellier cédex 1, France
| | | | - Angel Gustavo Guevara
- Laboratory of Clinical Investigations, Vozandes Community Services, Hospital Vozandes, Villalengua 267 y 10 de Agosto, Casilla 17-17-691, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Margarida Borges
- CJF INSERM n 96-04, Centre IRD de Montpellier, 911 Av. Agropolis, BP 5945, 34032 Montpellier cédex 1, France
| | - Eliane Guilvard
- CJF INSERM n 96-04, Centre IRD de Montpellier, 911 Av. Agropolis, BP 5945, 34032 Montpellier cédex 1, France
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Sandrin TR, Chech AM, Maier RM. A rhamnolipid biosurfactant reduces cadmium toxicity during naphthalene biodegradation. Appl Environ Microbiol 2000; 66:4585-8. [PMID: 11010924 PMCID: PMC92350 DOI: 10.1128/aem.66.10.4585-4588.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A model cocontaminated system was developed to determine whether a metal-complexing biosurfactant, rhamnolipid, could reduce metal toxicity to allow enhanced organic biodegradation by a Burkholderia sp. isolated from soil. Rhamnolipid eliminated cadmium toxicity when added at a 10-fold greater concentration than cadmium (890 microM), reduced toxicity when added at an equimolar concentration (89 microM), and had no effect at a 10-fold smaller concentration (8.9 microM). The mechanism by which rhamnolipid reduces metal toxicity may involve a combination of rhamnolipid complexation of cadmium and rhamnolipid interaction with the cell surface to alter cadmium uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- T R Sandrin
- Department of Soil, Water, and Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
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Zuñiga E, Motran C, Montes CL, Diaz FL, Bocco JL, Gruppi A. Trypanosoma cruzi-induced immunosuppression: B cells undergo spontaneous apoptosis and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) arrests their proliferation during acute infection. Clin Exp Immunol 2000; 119:507-15. [PMID: 10691924 PMCID: PMC1905583 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.2000.01150.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute infection with Trypanosoma cruzi is characterized by multiple manifestations of immunosuppression of both cellular and humoral responses. B cells isolated at the acute stage of infection have shown marked impairment in their response to polyclonal activators in vitro. The present work aims at studying the B cell compartment in the context of acute T. cruzi infection to provide evidence for B cell activation, spontaneous apoptosis and arrest of the cell cycle upon mitogenic stimulation as a mechanism underlying B cell hyporesponse. We found that B cells from acutely infected mice, which fail to respond to the mitogen LPS, showed spontaneous proliferation and production of IgM, indicating a high level of B cell activation. Furthermore, these activated B cells also exhibited an increase in Fas expression and apoptosis in cultures without an exogenous stimulus. On the other hand, B cells from early acute and chronic infected mice did not present activation or apoptosis, and were able to respond properly to the mitogen. Upon in vitro stimulation with LPS, B cells from hyporesponder mice failed to progress through the cell cycle (G0/G1 arrest), nor did they increase the levels of apoptosis. These results indicate that B cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest could be the mechanisms that control intense B cell expansion, but at the same time could be delaying the emergence of a specific immune response against the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Zuñiga
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ala 1 Subsuelo, Pabellón Argentina, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, Argentina
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Montes CL, Zuñiga E, Minoprio P, Vottero-Cima E, Gruppi A. A Trypanosoma cruzi alkaline antigen induces polyclonal B-cell activation of normal murine spleen cells by T-cell-independent, BCR-directed stimulation. Scand J Immunol 1999; 50:159-66. [PMID: 10447920 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3083.1999.00577.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We have previously reported that a cytosolic alkaline fraction (FI) obtained from epimastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi promotes the activation, proliferation and differentiation of normal murine B cells into antibody-secreting plasmocytes. Neither the mechanism nor the cells involved in the FI-induced polyclonal B-cell activation were established. In this work we report that accessory cells are required for FI-induced polyclonal B-cell activation as no proliferative responses were obtained following treatment of normal spleen mononuclear cells (NSMC) with L-leucine methyl ester. Furthermore, FI did not induce the expression of CD25 on T cells and it promoted the proliferation of a T-cell-depleted population, indicating that it acts in a T-independent manner. We observed that NSMC were stimulated in vitro by FI-released cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-4, IL-6 and IL-10, which are involved in B-cell proliferation and differentiation. Interestingly, while significant amounts of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) were found in culture supernatants we did not observe detectable levels of IL-2. Additionally, we found that B-cell receptor (BCR) and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II antigens were involved in the proliferative response induced by FI because antibodies directed against cell-surface immunoglobulin M (IgM), CD45 and MHC class II molecules inhibited the FI-induced B-cell proliferation. CD40 ligand (CD40L) did not participate in such a phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Montes
- Inmunología, Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba Argentina
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Da Silva AC, Espinoza AG, Taibi A, Ouaissi A, Minoprio P. A 24,000 MW Trypanosoma cruzi antigen is a B-cell activator. Immunol Suppl 1998; 94:189-96. [PMID: 9741340 PMCID: PMC1364204 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.1998.00498.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas' disease, is a protozoan parasite that infects humans and other mammals in Central and Latin America. Several alterations of the immune response after infection have been described, such as severe immunosuppression of both cellular and humoral responses and massive polyclonal B- and T-cell activation, including the expansion of self-reactive clones. We have investigated the effects of the intraperitoneal injection of a recombinant 24,000 MW T. cruzi-specific antigen (rTc24) on the immune response of normal and deficient strains of mice. We analysed the in vivo and ex vivo levels of lymphocyte activation and the proliferative responses to rTc24 by determining the expression of CD69 activation marker and the levels of thymidine incorporation by spleen cells. The numbers of antibody-producing cells were determined by ELISPOT and the levels of immunoglobulin in the sera by isotype-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. We observed an increased [3H]thymidine ([3H]TdR) incorporation by spleen cells after rTc24 stimulation in vivo and in vitro. This proliferative activity induced by rTc24 was independent of the mouse strain used in the experiments (including C3H/HeJ mice) and ruled out the possibility that rTc24 preparations were contaminated by lipopolysaccharide. The injection of rTc24 protein induced preferentially the activation of B cells, as determined by the increased expression of CD69 molecules on IgM+ spleen cells. Considerable increases of IgM-secreting B cells were determined in both athymic and euthymic BALB/c mice. Mice that are deficient in B cells (BALB.Xid) responded to rTc24 but to a lesser extent. These increases in IgM B-cell numbers were accompanied by elevated levels of IgM immunoglobulins in the sera of injected animals. Our results suggest a role for rTc24 in B-cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Da Silva
- Department of Immunology, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France
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Truyens C, Angelo-Barrios A, Torrico F, Van Damme J, Heremans H, Carlier Y. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) production in mice infected with Trypanosoma cruzi: effect of its paradoxical increase by anti-IL-6 monoclonal antibody treatment on infection and acute-phase and humoral immune responses. Infect Immun 1994; 62:692-6. [PMID: 8300226 PMCID: PMC186159 DOI: 10.1128/iai.62.2.692-696.1994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi infection of mice triggered endogenous production of interleukin-6 (IL-6) during the ascending phase of parasitemia. Injections of anti-IL-6 monoclonal antibody in infected mice at the time of the serum IL-6 peak paradoxically increased IL-6 levels to 60- to 80-fold those in infected mice receiving unrelated immunoglobulins. This early and transient increase in circulating IL-6 levels modified neither the immunoglobulin nor T. cruzi-specific antibody levels of immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1), IgG2a, IgG3, IgM, IgA, and IgE isotypes or the final outcome of infection nor the blood or tissular parasite levels. However, it tended to delay mortality of mice and to increase the levels of the acute-phase protein serum amyloid P component.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Truyens
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brussels, Belgium
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Abstract
The study of endotoxins is complicated by their heterogenous nature, their multiple effects and the complex methodologies required for their identification. In this brief review, Vic Pentreath summarizes how the substances have been implicated in the pathogenesis of several diseases caused by parasitic protozoa, and how the parasites (eg. Plasmodium falciparum and Trypanosoma cruzi) may themselves contain endotoxin-like materials. Recent studies have shown that, during T. b. brucei infection in mice, serum endotoxin levels become markedly elevated and that endotoxin-like substances are also present in the purified parasite extracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- V W Pentreath
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Salford, Salford, UK M5 4WT
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Caraujo-Jorge T, el Bouhdidi A, Rivera MT, Daëron M, Carlier Y, Jorge TA [corrected to Caraujo-Jorge T]. Trypanosoma cruzi infection in mice enhances the membrane expression of low-affinity Fc receptors for IgG and the release of their soluble forms. Parasite Immunol 1993; 15:539-46. [PMID: 7877851 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.1993.tb00642.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The membrane expression of low-affinity Fc receptors for IgG (Fc gamma RII/III) on cells and the number of Fc gamma RII/III(+) cells were studied by flow cytometry, using the 2.4G2 MoAb, in mice infected by Trypanosoma cruzi. Cells from spleen, mesenteric lymph nodes and peritoneum were collected on days 10, 20, 30 and 40 post infection (p.i.). The in vivo serum level of soluble Fc gamma RII/III, as well as its in vitro release by cells from infected mice were studied. Parasitaemia and IgG1, IgG2a and IgG2b T. cruzi-specific antibody titres were also recorded. Both the expression of Fc gamma R on cell membrane and the absolute number of Fc gamma R(+) cells increased in spleen and in mesenteric lymph nodes, but not in peritoneum. The modifications in spleen occurred in the early and late parasitaemic phase of infection, i.e., before and after detection of T. cruzi-specific antibodies (from day 10 to 40 p.i.). In mesenteric lymph nodes, the variations were observed only in the early acute infection, when antibodies were not yet detectable at significant levels (on days 10 and 20 p.i.). Higher levels of soluble Fc gamma R were detected in sera and in culture supernatants of spleen and lymph node cells from day 20 to 40 p.i. These results show that T. cruzi infection in mice upregulates the expression and the release of Fc gamma RII/III, in the acute phase of infection, before as well as after the rise of antibody response.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Caraujo-Jorge
- Departamento de Ultraestrutura e Biologia Celular, Fondação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
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19
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Sato MN, Yamashiro-Kanashiro EH, Tanji MM, Kaneno R, Higuchi ML, Duarte AJ. CD8+ cells and natural cytotoxic activity among spleen, blood, and heart lymphocytes during the acute phase of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in rats. Infect Immun 1992; 60:1024-30. [PMID: 1541517 PMCID: PMC257589 DOI: 10.1128/iai.60.3.1024-1030.1992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The infection developed by Wistar Furth rats inoculated with the Y strain of Trypanosoma cruzi was the experimental model used in our study. The results showed that this infection altered considerably the CD4/CD8 lymphocyte subset ratio and the natural cytotoxic activity of mononuclear cells in the spleen, blood, and myocardial tissue. Concomitantly, an expansion of the number of cells expressing major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II antigens was observed, as well as spontaneous development of high levels of blast cells, mainly in the spleen. The inflammatory infiltration of the myocardium, made up essentially of CD8+ cells (cytotoxic/suppressor T cells, natural killer cells), was initially found at 9 days postinfection, spread continuously, and was observed until the death of the animals at about 18 days postinfection. T. cruzi infection also enhanced the natural killer activity of mononuclear cells in the blood, spleen, and myocardium. Sorting these cells by affinity columns showed that the natural killer function was performed exclusively by the CD8+ population, which did not express MHC class II antigens. It was shown that the polyclonal T-lymphocyte activation induced by T. cruzi infection results in a wide distribution of CD8+ cells with enhanced natural cytotoxic activity in the spleen, blood, and cardiac tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- M N Sato
- Departamento de Clínica Médica, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil
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20
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Giovanni De Simone S, Pinho RT, Vanni CM, Pontes de Carvalho LC. Isolation and immunological analysis of Trypanosoma cruzi glycolipids. Acta Trop 1991; 48:233-41. [PMID: 1704684 DOI: 10.1016/0001-706x(91)90051-k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
A water-soluble glycolipidic fraction from Trypanosoma cruzi was isolated using a mixture of hexane and isopropanol. Analysis by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, after staining by silver and Sudan Black B, showed that the fraction contained one band with a relatively high mobility. Its reactivity and specificity with human chagasic sera and T. cruzi infected mouse sera or with sera from patients with several other pathologies was determined by an immunoradiometric assay. The glycolipid-based radioimmunoassay for the detection of T. cruzi antigens provided a sensitive measure of its activity. However, cross-reactivity with several sera from patients with visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis was detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Giovanni De Simone
- Departamento de Bioquimica e Biologia Molecular, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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21
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Spinella S, Milon G, Hontebeyrie-Joskowicz M. A CD4+ TH2 cell line isolated from mice chronically infected with Trypanosoma cruzi induces IgG2 polyclonal response in vivo. Eur J Immunol 1990; 20:1045-51. [PMID: 1972676 DOI: 10.1002/eji.1830200515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In our study we describe further characteristics of a CD4+ T cell line (G-05) isolated from lymph nodes of C3H/HeJ mice chronically infected with Trypanosoma cruzi. This T cell line secreted lymphokines such as interleukin (IL) 4 and IL 5 and could be defined as a TH2 type of helper T cells. By passive transfer into naive mice, the G-05 line was able to induce a polyclonal B cell activation in the spleen. This splenic B cell activation was quite similar to that seen in chronically T. cruzi-infected animals, where the isotypic pattern presents a large increase of IgG2a and IgG2b isotypes. Moreover, it was possible to reproduce this kind of polyclonal B cell activation in vivo, with the supernatant of G-05 T cells cultured in the presence of T. cruzi extract, accessory cells and exogenous IL 2. Analysis of this supernatant showed the presence of large amounts of IL 4, IL 5, IL 3 and IL 6 but not of interferon-gamma, and residual IL 2 activity was not significant. These results suggest that the G-05 T cells considered as TH2 cells on the basis of their lymphokine production are involved in the development of the in vivo polyclonal B cell activation in T. cruzi infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Spinella
- Unité d'Immunoparasitologie, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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22
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Lopes LM, Pereira MA, Gerken SE, Vaz N. Polyclonal activation of B lymphocytes during experimental infection with Schistosoma mansoni. Parasitology 1990; 100 Pt 1:83-91. [PMID: 2107509 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182000060145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
A significant polyclonal activation of B lymphocytes was observed during experimental infection of C57BL/10J mice with Schistosoma mansoni. The isotypic pattern of this expansion, assessed by the Protein-A plaque-forming cell method, was compared with and found to differ from those occurring after infection by Trypanosoma cruzi or injection of bacterial LPS. In the infection of S. mansoni an early expansion of most immunoglobulin isotypes occurs together with a late, sustained expansion of IgG1-secreting cells. High levels of polyclonal B cell activation were observed after adoptive transfer of spleen cells from infected mice to isogenic recipients pre-treated with hydroxyurea.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Lopes
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brasil
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23
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Minoprio P, Itohara S, Heusser C, Tonegawa S, Coutinho A. Immunobiology of murine T. cruzi infection: the predominance of parasite-nonspecific responses and the activation of TCRI T cells. Immunol Rev 1989; 112:183-207. [PMID: 2514135 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.1989.tb00558.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- P Minoprio
- Institut Pasteur, CNRS URA 361 and 359, Paris, France
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24
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Carlier Y, Rivera MT, Truyens C, Goldman M, Lambert P, Flament J, Bauwens D, Vray B. Pregnancy and humoral immune response in mice chronically infected by Trypanosoma cruzi. Infect Immun 1987; 55:2496-501. [PMID: 3115899 PMCID: PMC260736 DOI: 10.1128/iai.55.10.2496-2501.1987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The effect of pregnancy on the humoral immune response induced by Trypanosoma cruzi was studied in groups of chronically infected and pregnant mice (IP) or chronically infected and nonpregnant mice (INP) of strain BALB/c. Groups of noninfected and nonpregnant mice (NINP) or noninfected and pregnant mice (NIP) served as controls. The pregnant mice were killed on day 17 of pregnancy. Anti-T. cruzi immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgM antibodies, detected by immunofluorescence or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or both, underwent a pregnancy-associated decrease of 20 to 40%, whereas complement-mediated lytic antibodies were unaffected by pregnancy. Immunoblotting analysis indicated identical specificities of the anti-T. cruzi antibodies in IP and INP groups. The levels of all the immunoglobulin isotypes (particularly IgG2a and IgG3), circulating immune complexes, rheumatoid-like factor, and anti-DNA antibodies were considerably increased during chronic infection (NINP versus INP), which could be related to the high degree of polyclonal B-cell activation occurring in T. cruzi infection. However, pregnancy significantly decreased (by 20 to 60%) such parameters. IgG levels were particularly affected (by 40 to 60%), and the decreases could be ordered as follows: IgG3 greater than IgG2a greater than IgG1 greater than IgG2b for IP versus INP. Comparisons between the noninfected groups indicated differences only in IgG levels. These results indicate the following. (i) The specific humoral anti-T. cruzi immune response is weakly affected by pregnancy, which is not sufficient to modify the course of the mother's infection. (ii) Pregnancy does not modify the expression of the anti-T. cruzi antibody repertory. (iii) Pregnancy reduces the polyclonal B-cell activation, particularly the levels of the IgG isotypes undergoing the greatest activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Carlier
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, Faculté de Médecine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
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25
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Luthman K, Claesson A, Jansson AM, Pring BG. Synthesis of analogues of 3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic acid (KDO) as potential inhibitors of CMP-KDO synthetase. Carbohydr Res 1987; 166:233-51. [PMID: 2824049 DOI: 10.1016/0008-6215(87)80060-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
A series of derivatives of the 2-deoxy analogue of beta-KDO (2,6-anhydro-3-deoxy-D-glycero-D-talo-octonic acid; ammonium salt, 2) has been synthesised as potential inhibitors of CMP-KDO synthetase, starting from methyl 2,6-anhydro-3-deoxy-4,5:7,8-di-O-isopropylidene-D-glycero-D-talo- octonate and replacing the CO2Me group attached to C-2 variously by CONH2, CONHOH, CH2OH, CH2PO(OH)(O-NH4+), COCH2PO(OH)(O-H3N+pheny), CH2CO2-NH4+, CON-HCH2CO2-NH4+, CONHBn, CONHHexyl, CO2Bn, and CO2Hexyl. Of these derivatives, the hydroxamic acid (CONHOH) was the best inhibitor of CMP-KDO synthetase, but was less potent than 2.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Luthman
- Department of Organic Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Uppsala, Sweden
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26
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Masood K, Sircar KP, Srivastava VM. Purification and characterization of a glycoprotein from the surface of Ascaridia galli. J Helminthol 1987; 61:219-24. [PMID: 3668211 DOI: 10.1017/s0022149x0001004x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Employing papain as the enzyme and agarose bound Ricinus communis agglutinin as the affinity gel, a glycoprotein has been isolated and purified from the surface of Ascaridia galli. The glycoprotein shows an apparent molecular weight of 68 kilo daltons and contains fucose, galactose, rhamnose and glucosamine as sugar moieties. Only 2% of its entire molecule has been found to possess alpha-helical configuration.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Masood
- Division of Biochemistry, Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India
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27
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Minoprio PM, Coutinho A, Joskowicz M, D'Imperio Lima MR, Eisen H. Polyclonal lymphocyte responses to murine Trypanosoma cruzi infection. II. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Scand J Immunol 1986; 24:669-79. [PMID: 3099380 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.1986.tb02186.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Intraperitoneal infection of young adult C57BL/6 males with 10(5) blood or cloned culture forms of Trypanosoma cruzi (CL strain) induced the appearance in spleen, blood, and lymph nodes of cytotoxic effector cells detectable in a lectin-dependent 51Cr-release assay. The effector cells were conventional cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), since they were Thy 1+ and Lyt 2+, and the lysis of tumour target cells was strictly dependent on the presence of lectin. CTL activity is already detectable in spleen 2 days after infection, reaches a peak at 2 weeks, and returns to normal levels during the chronic phase (1 month onwards). Increased levels of CTL activity were also detected in lymph nodes with similar kinetics, even in animals that were splenectomized prior to infection. In contrast to spleen, significant levels of CTL activity persisted in lymph nodes in the chronic phases. This functional variable correlates with the appearance of high numbers of large Lyt 2+ lymphocytes in the same organs (50 to 100-fold higher than in control, uninfected mice). Very similar responses are detected in a T. cruzi sensitive mouse strain (C3H/HeJ). It appears, therefore, that T. cruzi infection results in a large polyclonal activation of Lyt 2+ lymphocytes, some of which differentiate to effector, cytolytic functions.
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28
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Bøgh HO, Christensen JP, Andreassen J. Complement-mediated lysis in vitro of newly excysted tapeworms: Hymenolepis diminuta, Hymenolepis microstoma, Hymenolepis nana and Hymenolepis citelli. Int J Parasitol 1986; 16:157-61. [PMID: 3721705 DOI: 10.1016/0020-7519(86)90100-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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29
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D'Imperio Lima MR, Joskowicz M, Coutinho A, Kipnis T, Eisen H. Very large and isotypically atypical polyclonal plaque-forming cell responses in mice infected with Trypanosoma cruzi. Eur J Immunol 1985; 15:201-3. [PMID: 3918873 DOI: 10.1002/eji.1830150219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Normal C3H/HeJ mice, acutely infected with T. cruzi, develop large numbers of splenic Ig-secreting plaque-forming cells (PFC). IgG2a, IgG2b and IgG1 PFC account for over 90% of all PFC, while the numbers of IgG3- and IgA-secreting PFC are lower than in normal animals. These effects appear to be due to both T helper-dependent regulation and to a mitogenic activity associated with the parasites themselves.
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30
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Ferrante A, Carter RF, Ferluga J, Allison AC. Lipopolysaccharide hyperreactivity of animals infected with Trypanosoma lewisi or Trypanosoma musculi. Infect Immun 1984; 46:501-6. [PMID: 6500700 PMCID: PMC261562 DOI: 10.1128/iai.46.2.501-506.1984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Rats and mice infected with Trypanosoma lewisi and Trypanosoma musculi, respectively, showed hyperreactivity to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from gram-negative bacteria. Fatal shock could be precipitated with a dose of LPS 100 to 1,000 times less in infected compared with noninfected animals. In trypanosome-infected rats and mice, extensive liver damage was evident after LPS challenge. These animals showed a pronounced hypoglycemia, marked elevation of blood aspartate transaminase level, and diffuse severe degeneration and total depletion of glycogen in hepatocytes. Only minor changes were observed in noninfected animals given the same dose of LPS. No mononuclear phagocytic cell infiltration was observed in the liver of infected animals. The most striking change was the great increase in size and the probable increase in phagocytic activity and number of sinusoidal Kupffer cells. We suggest that elevated Kupffer cell activity in trypanosome-infected animals may play a role in LPS-induced hepatotoxicity.
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31
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Crocker PR, Blackwell JM, Bradley DJ. Expression of the natural resistance gene Lsh in resident liver macrophages. Infect Immun 1984; 43:1033-40. [PMID: 6698599 PMCID: PMC264289 DOI: 10.1128/iai.43.3.1033-1040.1984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Innate resistance and susceptibility to Leishmania donovani infection in mice is controlled by a single gene (Lsh) thought to be identical to the genes Ity and Bcg which control the early response to Salmonella typhimurium and Mycobacterium bovis infections, respectively. In the present study, three new aspects of Lsh gene activity were demonstrated. First, it was shown that liver macrophages continue to express Lsh gene activity in vitro after their extraction from mice infected in vivo, although 2 days of infection were required before the resistant phenotype was expressed. Second, detailed examination of early growth of the parasite and tritiated thymidine labeling of the parasites indicated that this delay in expression of the resistant phenotype also occurred in vivo. Third, the expression of resistance was unaltered by the effects of lethal irradiation but could be selectively enhanced by prior treatment with suitable doses of S. typhimurium lipopolysaccharide or L. donovani membranes. These results suggest that the resistance mechanism may be expressed by resident liver macrophages after their interaction with parasite-derived material. The relevance of these findings to the other intramacrophage pathogens is discussed.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Membrane/physiology
- Cells, Cultured
- Crosses, Genetic
- Immunity, Innate/drug effects
- Immunity, Innate/radiation effects
- Leishmania/growth & development
- Leishmania/physiology
- Leishmania/radiation effects
- Leishmaniasis, Visceral/drug therapy
- Leishmaniasis, Visceral/genetics
- Leishmaniasis, Visceral/parasitology
- Lipopolysaccharides/administration & dosage
- Liver Diseases, Parasitic/drug therapy
- Liver Diseases, Parasitic/genetics
- Liver Diseases, Parasitic/parasitology
- Macrophages/immunology
- Macrophages/parasitology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred CBA
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