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Martini M, Riccardi N, Simonetti O, Orsini D, Samassa F, Parodi A. "The blinding disease". The history of trachoma in Italians between the 19th and 20th centuries: colonial or national blindness? Pathog Glob Health 2024:1-6. [PMID: 38644632 DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2024.2342623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Trachoma is one of the oldest known causes of blindness in humans and it is caused by the intracellular Gram-negative bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis serovars A, B, Ba and C. Its transmission has historically been related to poorness, overcrowded housing and scarce hygiene. We have traced the history of trachoma in Italy in the 19th and 20th centuries, among people living in Italy, those who immigrated to America and the population in the colonies, with a focus on Libya (1912-1943). Trachoma knowledge and perception in Italy and in its colonies was ambiguous during the 19th and 20th centuries. Trachoma was responsible for a great morbidity on both sides of the Mediterranean, in Italy as well as in Libya. Trachoma is still one of the leading infectious causes of preventable blindness worldwide and it was widespread in Italy and the Italian colonies in the first half of the last century.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariano Martini
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Genoa, Genova, Italy
- UNESCO Chair "Anthropology of Health - Biosphere and Healing System", University of Genoa, Genova, Italy
- Interuniversity Research Center on Influenza and Other Transmissible Infections (CIRI-IT), Genoa, Italy
| | - Niccolò Riccardi
- Infectious Diseases Clinic, Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Pisana, Pisa, Italy
| | - Omar Simonetti
- Infectious Diseases Unit, University Hospital of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Davide Orsini
- University Museum System of Siena (SIMUS), History of Medicine, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Francesco Samassa
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ospedale dell'Angelo di Mestre - AULSS3 - Serenissima, Mestre, Italy
| | - Alessandra Parodi
- Institut für Geschichte und Ethik der Medizin, Ruprecht-Karls - Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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Ageed A, Khan M. Eliminating Trachoma in Africa: The Importance of Environmental Interventions. Cureus 2024; 16:e52358. [PMID: 38234389 PMCID: PMC10792353 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.52358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Subsequent to the failure of the World Health Organisation (WHO) of achieving their target to eliminate trachoma by the year 2020, the most effective strategy in eliminating trachoma must be re-examined to accomplish the new target of eradication by the year 2030. Whilst antibiotic therapy is a core foundation of this elimination strategy, another important factor is the state of the environmental conditions in trachoma endemic countries. This manuscript aimed to identify the impact of environmental improvement strategies on the prevalence of trachoma and the significance of environmental improvement alongside the use of antibiotic treatment to achieve trachoma elimination. Two independent literature searches were conducted up until the 5th of July 2021. Two main databases were used to carry out these literature searches, namely, Ovid EMBASE and Ovid MEDLINE. All of the relevant references were found using MeSH and free text terms. Key terms used were 'trachoma', 'water', 'sanitation', 'hygiene' and 'environmental Improvement'. The exclusion criteria included non-African-based studies, review papers, protocols and case reports. A total of 17 studies were included for this review. Living within a close range of a water source was significantly associated with reduced risk of trachoma infection. Water obtained from piped water sources was associated with the lowest rates of active trachoma. Studies on facial cleanliness evidenced a strong association with reduced prevalence of trachoma. Whilst the provision of latrine facilities found was significantly associated with reduced prevalence of trachoma, there was no significant difference between the use of private latrine facilities over communal latrine facilities. The use of repeated scheduled antibiotic treatments over single-use antibiotic distribution had a greater impact both short term and long term on the prevalence rates of trachoma. Nonetheless, prevalence rates increased again following the commencement of treatment. Mass antibiotic treatment has been proven to have a greater impact on lowering the prevalence of trachoma initially, but this impact is not sustainable due to the rise in prevalence rates following the completion of treatment. A holistic approach, therefore, must be implemented with evidence showing that an emphasis on longer-term environmental methods should be implemented to compliment antibiotic distribution. Prioritisation of specific interventional measures should be tailored according to local epidemiology; nonetheless, these measures form the backbone of a trachoma elimination strategy to eliminate trachoma by the year 2030.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Ageed
- Hospital Medicine, University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust, Leicester, GBR
| | - Maaz Khan
- Medical Education, Royal Surrey County Hospital, Guildford, GBR
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Salam AS, Qayumi R, Majeed Siddiqi A, Naseem M, Mansoor M, Butcher R, Bakhtiari A, Renneker K, Willis R, Jimenez C, Dejene M, Safi N, Heggen A, Solomon AW, Harding-Esch EM, Alizoi N. Prevalence of Trachoma in 72 Districts of Afghanistan in 2018-2019: Results of 35 Population-based Prevalence Surveys. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 2023; 30:608-618. [PMID: 35272540 PMCID: PMC10581673 DOI: 10.1080/09286586.2021.2015784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To determine where interventions are needed to eliminate trachoma as a public health problem, prevalence data are needed. We aimed to generate baseline population-based data on trachoma prevalence in suspected-endemic areas of Afghanistan. METHODS Cross-sectional population-based prevalence surveys designed according to World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations were conducted in 35 evaluation units (EUs) covering 72 districts. In selected households, all resident individuals aged ≥1 year were examined for trachomatous inflammation-follicular (TF) and trachomatous trichiasis (TT) according to the WHO simplified trachoma grading system. Water, sanitation and hygiene access was assessed in households of survey participants. RESULTS 104,104 people aged ≥1 year were examined, including 43,774 children aged 1-9 years and 46,439 people aged ≥15 years. The age-adjusted prevalence of TF in 1-9-year-olds was ≥5% in 3 EUs, with the highest EU TF prevalence being 7.8%. The age- and gender-adjusted prevalence of TT unknown to the health system in ≥15-year-olds was <0.2% in all EUs. The majority of households had access to an improved water source within 30 minutes of the house. However, only a minority of households had an improved latrine and/or a handwash station. CONCLUSIONS Trachoma is not a public health problem in the majority of EUs surveyed. However, antibiotic mass drug administration, promotion of facial cleanliness and environmental improvement (the A, F and E components of the SAFE strategy) are needed for trachoma elimination purposes in three of the EUs surveyed in Afghanistan.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Robert Butcher
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Naimullah Safi
- Afghanistan Country Office, World Health Organization, Kabul, Afghanistan
| | | | - Anthony W. Solomon
- Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Emma M. Harding-Esch
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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Selby R, Jeyam A, Tate A, Kebede F, Downs P. Potential mitigating role of ivermectin on the spread of Chlamydia trachomatis by Musca sorbens. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011662. [PMID: 37883529 PMCID: PMC10602231 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Trachoma is the world's most frequent cause of blindness from an infectious agent. The disease caused by infection is associated with lack of access to sanitation and low hygiene standards. Trachoma is controlled through the Surgery, Antibiotics, Facial cleanliness, and Environmental improvement (SAFE) strategy, which delivers azithromycin (AZM) mass drug administration (MDA) in endemic areas. The putative vector Musca sorbens principally reproduce in human faecal matter left in the environment due to open defecation. Ivermectin (IVM) is on the WHO's essential medicines list and is administered as preventative chemotherapy against two neglected tropical diseases (NTDs)-onchocerciasis, as an annual or bi-annual treatment, and lymphatic filariasis, as an annual treatment in combination with albendazole. Ivermectin has a known inhibitive effect on insects that reproduce in dung. To assess if IVM could be a viable vector control tool against M. sorbens, this study evaluates existing data from trachoma, onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis mass drug administration (MDA) operations in Ethiopia. Persistent and recrudescent trachoma in evaluation units (EUs) were examined for whether AZM MDA in EUs was accompanied by IVM MDA, and whether co-administration was associated with greater likelihood of trachoma control. Results show an association suggesting that EUs that received both IVM and AZM MDA benefit from improved control of trachoma in persistent or recrudescent areas, when compared to EUs that received AZM MDA. This initial investigation supports the potential for ivermectin's use to support SAFE. Findings warrant further work to validate ivermectin's impact on M. sorbens reproduction through controlled lab and field-based studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Selby
- Sightsavers international, 35 Perrymount Road, Haywards Heath, West Sussex, United Kingdom
| | - Anita Jeyam
- Sightsavers international, 35 Perrymount Road, Haywards Heath, West Sussex, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Tate
- Sightsavers international, 35 Perrymount Road, Haywards Heath, West Sussex, United Kingdom
| | | | - Philip Downs
- Sightsavers international, 35 Perrymount Road, Haywards Heath, West Sussex, United Kingdom
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Bah MM, Sakho F, Goepogui A, Nieba LC, Cisse A, Courtright P, Harte AJ, Burgert-Brucker C, Jimenez C, Lama PL, Sagno M, Bakhtiari A, Boyd S, Solomon AW, Kelly M, James F, Tenkiano MS, Harding-Esch EM, Dicko BM. The Prevalence of Trachomatous Trichiasis in People Aged 15 Years and Over in Six Evaluation Units of Gaoual, Labé, Dalaba and Beyla Districts, Guinea. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 2023:1-8. [PMID: 37377215 PMCID: PMC10581669 DOI: 10.1080/09286586.2023.2192269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 02/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Trachoma is a public health problem in 42 countries. Inflammation associated with repeated ocular infection with Chlamydia trachomatis can cause the eyelid to scar and turn inwards, resulting in the eyelashes rubbing against the eyeball, known as trachomatous trichiasis (TT). In Guinea, baseline surveys conducted in 2013 reported inflammatory trachoma prevalences below the World Health Organization (WHO) threshold for elimination, but TT prevalences above threshold. Given this epidemiological context and time since baseline survey, TT-only surveys were conducted in selected districts to determine current TT prevalence. The results of this study provide critical data for assessing Guinea's achievement of trachoma elimination targets. METHODS Four health districts, consisting of six evaluation units (EU), were surveyed. In each EU, field teams visited 29 clusters with a minimum 30 households included in each. Participants aged≥15 years were examined by certified graders trained to identify TT and determine whether management had been offered. RESULTS A total of 22,476 people were examined, with 48 TT cases across the six EUs identified. Five of six EUs had an age-and-gender adjusted TT-prevalence unknown to the health system less than 0.2%, whereas one EU, Beyla 2, had an adjusted TT prevalence of 0.24%. CONCLUSION These TT-only surveys, along with findings from other trachoma interventions, suggest that Guinea is close to achieving elimination of trachoma as a public health problem. This study demonstrates the value of undertaking TT-only surveys in settings where baseline surveys indicated active trachoma prevalences below WHO elimination threshold, but TT prevalences above it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Midiaou M. Bah
- Neglected Tropical Diseases, Sightsavers, Conakry, Guinea
| | - Fatoumata Sakho
- Ministère de la Santé, National Programme for the Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Conakry, Guinea
| | - André Goepogui
- Ministère de la Santé, National Programme for the Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Conakry, Guinea
| | - Luc C. Nieba
- Ministère de la Santé, National Programme for the Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Conakry, Guinea
| | | | - Paul Courtright
- Kilimanjaro Centre for Community Ophthalmology, Division of Ophthalmology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Anna J. Harte
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Clara Burgert-Brucker
- Neglected Tropical Diseases, RTI International, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | | | - Pierre L. Lama
- Ministère de la Santé, National Programme for the Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Conakry, Guinea
| | - Michel Sagno
- Ministère de la Santé, National Programme for the Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Conakry, Guinea
| | - Ana Bakhtiari
- International Trachoma Initiative, Task Force for Global Health, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Sarah Boyd
- International Trachoma Initiative, Task Force for Global Health, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Anthony W. Solomon
- Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Michaela Kelly
- Neglected Tropical Diseases, Sightsavers, Haywards Heath, UK
| | - Fiona James
- Neglected Tropical Diseases, Sightsavers, Haywards Heath, UK
| | | | - Emma M. Harding-Esch
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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Quesada-Cubo V, Damián-González DC, Prado-Velasco FG, Fernández-Santos NA, Sánchez-Tejeda G, Correa-Morales F, Domínguez-Zárate H, García-Orozco A, Saboyá-Díaz MI, Sánchez-Martín MJ. The elimination of trachoma as a public health problem in Mexico: From national health priority to national success story. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010660. [PMID: 36037211 PMCID: PMC9462675 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Mexico was the first country in the Americas and the third in the world to eliminate trachoma as a public health problem, as validated by the WHO in 2017. Objective To describe the critical elements that favored the elimination of trachoma as a public health problem in Mexico and the public health impact of this success. Methodology A revision and compilation of data and information contained in the dossier presented by the country to PAHO/WHO to obtain the validation of trachoma elimination as a public health problem was conducted by a group of delegates from the national and local trachoma prevention and control program. Data from the national and local surveillance systems and reports of actions conducted after achieving the elimination goal were also included. Critical elements that favored the achievement of the elimination goal from 1896 to 2019 were extracted. Results Mexico reached the elimination of trachoma in 2016 obtaining the validation in 2017. 264 communities were no longer endemic and 151,744 people were no longer at risk of visual impairment or possible blindness due to trachoma. The key to the success of this elimination process was primarily the local leadership of health authorities with sustained funding for brigades, increased access to potable water and sanitation, and key alliances with indigenous authorities, health authorities, and government institutions that contributed to the achievement of the goal. The SAFE strategy started implementation in Mexico in 2004 as a comprehensive package of interventions. SAFE stands for surgery, antibiotics, facial cleanliness, and improvement of the environmental conditions. These actions impacted drastically on the number of new cases trachmatous trichiasis (TT) and trachomatous inflammation-follicular (TF), which decreased from 1,794 in 2004 to zero in 2016. Conclusions The elimination of trachoma as a public health problem in Mexico is a true success story that may serve as a model example for the elimination of other neglected infectious diseases in the Americas. Trachoma is an eye disease caused by an infection with Chlamydia trachomatis. It is the principal infectious cause of irreversible blindness worldwide and is one of the 20 neglected tropical diseases which is present in 1,338 districts worldwide with an estimated 154.5 million people living in endemic areas. Globally, the disease was earmarked for elimination as a public health problem by the year 2020 and later extended to the year 2030. The WHO elimination strategy SAFE includes Surgery, Antibiotics, Facial cleanliness, and Environmental improvement. This paper describes the SAFE activities implemented and actions taken for Mexico to achieve the elimination of trachoma as a public health problem. From the compilation of national and local data and information, it was possible to identify that local and federal political commitment and leadership, effective coordination across health institutions and critical sectors such as water and sanitation agencies, and consistent communication and health promotion activities that supported the implementation of SAFE strategies were determinant in driving trachoma elimination. The model of coordinated work and collaboration serves as a model example for the elimination of trachoma and other Neglected Infectious Diseases in Latin America.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Nadia Angélica Fernández-Santos
- Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Reynosa, Mexico
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Gustavo Sánchez-Tejeda
- Vector-Borne Diseases Program, National Center for Disease Control and Preventive Programs (CENAPRECE), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Fabián Correa-Morales
- Vector-Borne Diseases Program, National Center for Disease Control and Preventive Programs (CENAPRECE), Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | | | - Martha Idalí Saboyá-Díaz
- Department of Communicable Diseases and Environmental Determinants of Health, Pan American Health Organization, Washington, D.C., United States of America
| | - María Jesús Sánchez-Martín
- Department of Communicable Diseases and Health Determinants, Pan American Health Organization, Mexico City, Mexico
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Robinson A, Gomes LRDO, Abdurahman OS, Alemayehu W, Shuka G, Melese E, Guye M, Legesse D, Elias E, Temam K, Koro KH, Adugna D, Seife F, Aga MA, Sarah V, Lambert SM, Walker SL, Habtamu E, Solomon AW, Last A, Macleod D, Burton MJ, Logan JG. Evaluation of the efficacy of insecticide-treated scarves to protect children from the trachoma vector Musca sorbens (Diptera: Muscidae): A phase II randomised controlled trial in Oromia, Ethiopia. EClinicalMedicine 2022; 49:101487. [PMID: 35747196 PMCID: PMC9189873 DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The eye-seeking fly Musca sorbens can act as a vector for ocular Chlamydia trachomatis, causing trachoma, yet there has been very little research on control measures. We investigated whether insect repellent products, specifically insecticide-treated clothing, could provide personal protection to the user from eye-seeking flies. Methods We first conducted a series of phase I laboratory studies to inform our choice of field intervention. We then conducted a phase II randomised controlled trial testing the efficacy of permethrin-treated scarves (PTS) in reducing fly-face contact in Oromia, Ethiopia. Children aged 4-10 years in full health and with no known adverse reactions to permethrin or other insecticides were allocated to either arm using restricted randomisation. Intervention arm children wore Insect Shield® versatile wraps (as PTS) for 28 days. The primary outcomes, fly-eye, -nose and -mouth contact, were assessed on the first day (0/30/60/180 minutes), on day 7 and on day 28. All participants present per timepoint were included in analyses. This trial was registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03813069). Findings Participants were recruited to the field trial between 29/10/2019 and 01/11/2019, 58 were randomised to test or control arm. More fly (-eye, -nose and -mouth) contacts were observed in the PTS arm at baseline. After adjusting for baseline contact rates, across all timepoints there was a 35% decrease in fly-eye contacts in the PTS relative to control arm (rate ratio [RR] 0.65, 95% CI 0.52-0.83). Similar cross-timepoint reductions were seen for fly-nose and fly-mouth contacts (RR 0.69, 95% CI 0.51-0.92 and RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.62-1.01, respectively). All children were included on day 0. Two in the control arm were absent on day 7, one left the study and four were excluded from analysis at day 28. No adverse events occurred in the trial. Interpretation Musca sorbens flies are sufficiently repelled by PTS to reduce fly-eye contacts for the wearer, thus possibly reducing the risk of trachoma transmission. Permethrin-treated scarves may therefore an alternative to insecticide space spraying for protection from these flies. Funding Wellcome Trust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ailie Robinson
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Laura Reis de Oliveira Gomes
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Oumer Shafi Abdurahman
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- International Centre for Eye Health, Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Wondu Alemayehu
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Gemeda Shuka
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Ewunetu Melese
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Meseret Guye
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Demitu Legesse
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Eden Elias
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Kedir Temam
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Korso Hirpo Koro
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Dereje Adugna
- Oromia Regional Health Bureau, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Fikre Seife
- The Ethiopian Federal Ministry of Health, Disease Prevention and Control Directorate, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | | | - Virginia Sarah
- Global Partnerships Executive, The Fred Hollows Foundation, 12-15 Crawford Mews, York Street, London W1H1LX
| | - Saba M. Lambert
- Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Stephen L. Walker
- Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Esmael Habtamu
- International Centre for Eye Health, Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Anthony W. Solomon
- Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, World Health Organization, Avenue Appia 20, 1202 Genève, Switzerland
| | - Anna Last
- Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - David Macleod
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Matthew J. Burton
- International Centre for Eye Health, Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
- National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre for Ophthalmology, Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust and UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London, UK
| | - James G. Logan
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
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Abstract
Trachoma is a neglected tropical disease caused by infection with conjunctival strains of Chlamydia trachomatis. It can result in blindness. Pathophysiologically, trachoma is a disease complex composed of two linked chronic processes: a recurrent, generally subclinical infectious-inflammatory disease that mostly affects children, and a non-communicable, cicatricial and, owing to trichiasis, eventually blinding disease that supervenes in some individuals later in life. At least 150 infection episodes over an individual's lifetime are needed to precipitate trichiasis; thus, opportunity exists for a just global health system to intervene to prevent trachomatous blindness. Trachoma is found at highest prevalence in the poorest communities of low-income countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa; in June 2021, 1.8 million people worldwide were going blind from the disease. Blindness attributable to trachoma can appear in communities many years after conjunctival C. trachomatis transmission has waned or ceased; therefore, the two linked disease processes require distinct clinical and public health responses. Surgery is offered to individuals with trichiasis and antibiotic mass drug administration and interventions to stimulate facial cleanliness and environmental improvement are designed to reduce infection prevalence and transmission. Together, these interventions comprise the SAFE strategy, which is achieving considerable success. Although much work remains, a continuing public health problem from trachoma in the year 2030 will be difficult for the world to excuse.
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Dynamics of Trachoma Epidemic in Human Contact Network with Seasonally Varying Infectious Medium. PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INDIA SECTION A-PHYSICAL SCIENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s40010-021-00754-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Chen X, Munoz B, Wolle MA, Woods G, Odonkor M, Naufal F, Mkocha H, West SK. Environmental factors and hygiene behaviors associated with facial cleanliness and trachoma in Kongwa, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009902. [PMID: 34710082 PMCID: PMC8577779 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Having a clean face is protective against trachoma. In the past, long distances to water were associated with unclean faces and increased trachoma. Other environmental factors have not been extensively explored. We need improved clarity on the environmental factors associated with facial cleanliness and trachoma prevalence, especially when the disease burden is low. Methodology/Principle findings A cross-sectional survey focusing on household environments was conducted in all 92 villages in Kongwa, Tanzania, in a random selection of 1798 households. Children aged 0–5 years in these households were examined for facial cleanliness. In each of the 50 randomly-selected villages, 50 children aged 1–9 years were randomly selected and examined for trachoma. In a multivariate model adjusting for child age, we found that children were more likely to have clean faces if the house had a clean yard (OR 1.62, 95% CI 1.37–1.91), an improved latrine (OR 1.11, 95% CI 1.01–1.22), and greater water storage capacity (OR 1.02, 95% CI 1.00–1.04), and if there were clothes washed and drying around the house (OR 1.30, 95% CI 1.09–1.54). However, measures of crowding, wealth, time spent on obtaining water, or the availability of piped water was not associated with clean faces. Using a cleanliness index (clean yard, improved latrine, washing clothes, ≥1 child in the household having a clean face), the community prevalence of trachoma decreased with an increase in the average value of the index (OR 2.28, 95% CI 1.17–4.80). Conclusions/Significance Access to water is no longer a significant limiting factor in children’s facial cleanliness in Kongwa. Instead, water storage capacity and the way that water is utilized are more important in facial cleanliness. A household cleanliness index with a holistic measure of household environment is associated with reduced community prevalence of trachoma. Trachoma, a leading cause of blindness, is caused by repeated infection that is spread from person to person via contaminated ocular and nasal discharge. Having a clean face is protective against trachoma. In the past, long distances to water were associated with unclean faces. Other environmental elements have not been extensively explored. We need improved clarity on the environmental factors affecting facial cleanliness and trachoma prevalence, especially when the disease burden is low but still above 5%. We conducted a household survey in every village in Kongwa district, Tanzania, and found that access to water has significantly improved and is no longer a limiting factor in children’s facial cleanliness. When households have more storage capacity for water used for washing, wash their clothes frequently and clean their yards, young children in the households are more likely to have clean faces. We then created a household cleanliness index that comprises a clean yard, washed clothes, an improved latrine and at least one child in the household having a clean face. We found that an increased average index score in the community is associated with a decreased prevalence of trachoma, suggesting that a multi-pronged approach to improve household cleanliness is valuable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Chen
- Dana Center for Preventive Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Beatriz Munoz
- Dana Center for Preventive Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Meraf A. Wolle
- Dana Center for Preventive Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Geordie Woods
- Sightsavers, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Michelle Odonkor
- Dana Center for Preventive Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Fahd Naufal
- Dana Center for Preventive Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Harran Mkocha
- Kongwa Trachoma Project, Kongwa, United Republic of Tanzania
| | - Sheila K. West
- Dana Center for Preventive Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
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11
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Brewer N, McKenzie MS, Melkonjan N, Zaky M, Vik R, Stoffolano JG, Webley WC. Persistence and Significance of Chlamydia trachomatis in the Housefly, Musca domestica L. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2021; 21:854-863. [PMID: 34520263 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2021.0021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Trachoma is the leading cause of infectious blindness worldwide. Ocular infection by the obligate intracellular pathogen, Chlamydia trachomatis, causes the eyelashes to turn in and scratch the cornea, leading to blindness if left untreated. The disease is most prevalent in poor, rural communities that lack the infrastructure for basic hygiene, clean water, and proper sanitation. Infection is often spread through infected clothes, contaminated hands, and face seeking flies. The goal of this research was to understand the biological role of Musca domestica flies in the transmission of C. trachomatis. PCR, tissue culture, and immunofluorescence microscopy were used to determine the presence, viability, and the anatomical location of C. trachomatis within the digestive tract of M. domestica. Flies were fed with C. trachomatis and then harvested at various time intervals after feeding. The data confirmed the presence of C. trachomatis DNA and viable elementary bodies (EBs) in fly crops, up to 24 h postfeeding. C. trachomatis DNA was also isolated from the upper portions of the alimentary tract of flies up to 48 h postfeeding. In addition, DNA was isolated from the regurgitation material from fly crops up to 12 h postfeeding. The viability of isolated C. trachomatis EBs was repeatedly confirmed between 12 and 48 h and up to 7 days in ex vivo crops stored at room temperature. Our data suggest that eye-seeking flies such as M. domestica can ingest C. trachomatis during regular feeding. Because M. sorbens does not occur in continental United States, we did not use it in any of our studies. These data also confirm, for the first time, that ingested chlamydia remains viable inside the flies for 24-48 h postfeeding. We further show that these flies can regurgitate and transmit the trachoma agent at their next feeding. We believe that these findings reveal an opportunity for efficient intervention strategies through fly vector control, especially as we near new target date for global elimination of trachoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Brewer
- Microbiology Department, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Marcus S McKenzie
- Microbiology Department, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nsan Melkonjan
- Microbiology Department, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Mina Zaky
- Microbiology Department, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - RoseAnn Vik
- Microbiology Department, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - John G Stoffolano
- Stockbridge School of Agriculture, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
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12
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Meneghim RLFDS, Madeira NG, Ribolla PEM, Padovani CR, Schellini SA. Flies as possible vectors of inflammatory trachoma transmission in a Brazilian municipality. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2021; 63:e66. [PMID: 34495263 PMCID: PMC8428871 DOI: 10.1590/s1678-9946202163066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Trachoma is a keratoconjunctivitis caused by Chlamydia
trachomatis, considered an important leading cause of preventable
blindness in the world. This study aimed at verifying if flies can be the
vectors for trachoma in our municipality. Flies were assessed in the households
of children diagnosed with inflammatory trachoma at the municipality of
Botucatu, Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Fly traps were placed in the backyard of the
houses during 24 h, in each of the four weather seasons, over a period of one
year. The collected dipterans were taxonomically classified and the presence of
Chlamydia trachomatis in the flies was evidenced by using
the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). During the studied period, 2,188 flies were
collected, mainly during the summer and the spring. The most common identified
fly was Musca domestica. All fly samples were negative for
Chlamydia trachomatis but several other different bacteria
were identified in these flies. The authors concluded that flies are probably
not the vectors for trachoma in the studied area. Further studies should be
conducted to evaluate other possible factors responsible for the maintenance of
the disease in our environment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Newton Goulart Madeira
- Universidade Estadual Paulista, Instituto de Biociências, Departamento de Parasitologia, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Paulo Eduardo Martins Ribolla
- Universidade Estadual Paulista, Instituto de Biociências, Departamento de Parasitologia, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Carlos Roberto Padovani
- Universidade Estadual Paulista, Instituto de Biociências, Departamento de Bioestatística, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Silvana Artioli Schellini
- Universidade Estadual Paulista, Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento de Especialidades Cirúrgicas e Anestesiologia, Divisão de Oftalmologia, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
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13
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Robinson A, Bickford-Smith J, Abdurahman Shafi O, Abraham Aga M, Shuka G, Debela D, Hordofa G, Alemayehu W, Sarah V, Last A, MacLeod D, Burton MJ, Logan JG. Towards an odour-baited trap to control Musca sorbens, the putative vector of trachoma. Sci Rep 2021; 11:14209. [PMID: 34244535 PMCID: PMC8271020 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91609-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Musca sorbens is a synanthropic filth fly that aggressively attacks people to feed from mucous membranes of the eyes, nose or mouth, from open sores, or from sweat. It has long been suspected that this fly contributes to the transmission of eye infections, particularly trachoma, and recent work has added to the evidence base that M. sorbens is a trachoma vector in Ethiopia. There are few options to control M. sorbens, largely due to a lack of evidence. Space spraying with insecticides is effective, but an environmentally sound and long-term sustainable solution would be better, for example, mass trapping. We tested commercially available and homemade trap types in a pilot (laboratory) study and three field studies. A homemade design, built from a bucket and two empty water bottles, baited with a commercially available lure, The Buzz, was found to be most effective. This trap caught 3848 M. sorbens over 26 trap 'events' (3- or 4-day periods); mean/median per 24 h 43.6 (standard deviation 137.10)/2.25 (IQR 0.25-12.67). The Buzz lure is cheap and effective for 4 weeks, and trap components cheap and locally available. Further studies are needed to understand the impact of this trap on local fly populations and the local transmission of trachoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ailie Robinson
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK.
| | - Jack Bickford-Smith
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Oumer Abdurahman Shafi
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | | | - Gemeda Shuka
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Dereje Debela
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Population Service International, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Gebreyes Hordofa
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Netherlands Development Organization, The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Wondu Alemayehu
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, P.O. Box 6307, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Virginia Sarah
- Global Partnerships Executive, The Fred Hollows Foundation, 12-15 Crawford Mews, York Street, London, W1H1LX, UK
| | - Anna Last
- Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - David MacLeod
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Matthew J Burton
- Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - James G Logan
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
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14
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Facial cleanliness indicators by time of day: results of a cross-sectional trachoma prevalence survey in Senegal. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:556. [PMID: 33203456 PMCID: PMC7672817 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04410-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The World Health Organization-recommended strategy for trachoma elimination as a public health problem is known by the acronym "SAFE", where "F" stands for facial cleanliness to reduce transmission of ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Accurately and reliably measuring facial cleanliness is problematic. Various indicators for measuring an unclean face exist, however, the accuracy and reliability of these indicators is questionable and their relationship to face washing practices is poorly described. METHODS Clean face indicator (ocular or nasal discharge, flies on the face, and dirt on the face), trachoma clinical sign, and ocular C. trachomatis infection data were collected for 1613 children aged 0-9 years in 12 Senegalese villages as part of a cross-sectional trachoma prevalence study. Time of examination was recorded to the nearest half hour. A risk factor questionnaire containing Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) questions was administered to heads of compounds (households that shared a common doorway) and households (those who shared a common cooking pot). RESULTS WASH access and use were high, with 1457/1613 (90.3%) children living in households with access to a primary water source within 30 min. Despite it being reported that 1610/1613 (99.8%) children had their face washed at awakening, > 75% (37/47) of children had at least one unclean face indicator at the first examination time-slot of the day. The proportion of children with facial cleanliness indicators differed depending on the time the child was examined. Dirt on the face was more common, and ocular discharge less common, in children examined after 11:00 h than in children examined at 10:30 h and 11:00 h. CONCLUSIONS Given the high reported WASH access and use, the proportion of children with an unclean face indicator should have been low at the beginning of the day. This was not observed, explained either by: the facial indicators not being reliable measures of face washing; eye discharge, nose discharge or dirt rapidly re-accumulated after face washing in children in this population at the time of fieldwork; and/or responder bias to the risk factor questionnaire. A high proportion of children had unclean face indicators throughout the day, with certain indicators varying by time of day. A reliable, standardised, practical measure of face washing is needed, that reflects hygiene behaviour rather than environmental or cultural factors.
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15
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Kassaw MW, Abebe AM, Tegegne KD, Getu MA, Bihonegn WT. Prevalence and associations of active trachoma among rural preschool children in Wadla district, northern Ethiopia. BMC Ophthalmol 2020; 20:346. [PMID: 32842993 PMCID: PMC7449018 DOI: 10.1186/s12886-020-01585-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trachoma is a neglected eye disease and an important cause of preventable corneal blindness. In endemic areas, initial infection can occur in early childhood and following a recurrent episodes, it progresses to scarring and visual impairment. Trachoma disappeared from high income countries through enhancements of hygiene and sanitation but the disease is still a challenge in developing countries. In Ethiopia, data indicate that Amhara is the region with the highest prevalence of active trachoma. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence and associations of active trachoma among rural preschool children in Wadla district, Amhara region, Ethiopia. METHODS In this study, 596 children were screened for signs of active trachoma by using cluster-sampling technique. Following pre-testing of the survey instrument in a different district, questions about socio-demographic status were delivered for heads of households. Integrated eye care workers, previously trained to undertake trachoma screening for one month, performed eye examination. The logistic regression model was used to look for associations of active trachoma. RESULTS The prevalence of active trachoma among rural preschool children in Wadla district was 22%. Low economic status (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]3.8 (95%CI 1.3-11.4), being 37-48 months old (4.2;1.5-12.0), living in a house with thatched roof (4.4;1.4-13.6), presence of flies in a home (4.6;2.1-9.9), once-weekly face-washing frequency (8.6;2.5-29.3), having a face that had not been washed for longer than a week (10.6;2.9-37.7), and not using soap (4.5;1.8-11.3) had association to active trachoma. CONCLUSION The prevalence of active trachoma among rural pre-school children in Wadla district was high. This indicates that Trachoma is still a public health problem in the district. This high prevalence calls for further interventions to prevent future trachomatis blindness.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ayele Mamo Abebe
- Department of nursing, Debre Berhan University, Debre Berhan, Ethiopia
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16
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Potential of Black Soldier Fly Production for Pacific Small Island Developing States. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10061038. [PMID: 32560146 PMCID: PMC7341329 DOI: 10.3390/ani10061038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Organic waste such as food waste and livestock manure is a serious concern in the Pacific Islands, where landfills are overflowing and illegal dumping of waste threatens the fragile ecosystems. Organic waste also attracts filth flies, some of which are vectors for pathogens that cause human disease. The black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, has tremendous potential for the Pacific Islands. Capable of digesting almost any organic matter and converting it into insect biomass, black soldier flies are already being used around the world to process organic waste into larvae. The system can be adapted to large-scale municipal composting as well as small sizes for individual livestock farms or even urban households. The larvae can be fed live to fish or poultry, processed into feed comparable to fishmeal or soy meal, or even used to generate biofuel. Thus, the fly not only eliminates waste, but also can improve the sustainability of livestock production. The Pacific Small Island Developing States stand to benefit immensely from black soldier fly bioconversion facilities, used primarily as a means to compost organic waste; however, several knowledge gaps must first be addressed. We reviewed the state of black soldier flies in the Pacific and identified where their use shows the most promise. Research priorities for the field include fly surveys and bioconversion assays using Pacific crop waste.
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17
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Last A, Versteeg B, Shafi Abdurahman O, Robinson A, Dumessa G, Abraham Aga M, Shumi Bejiga G, Negussu N, Greenland K, Czerniewska A, Thomson N, Cairncross S, Sarah V, Macleod D, Solomon AW, Logan J, Burton MJ. Detecting extra-ocular Chlamydia trachomatis in a trachoma-endemic community in Ethiopia: Identifying potential routes of transmission. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008120. [PMID: 32130213 PMCID: PMC7075638 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trachoma elimination efforts are hampered by limited understanding of Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) transmission routes. Here we aimed to detect Ct DNA at non-ocular sites and on eye-seeking flies. METHODS A population-based household survey was conducted in Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Ocular and non-ocular (faces, hands, clothing, water containers and sleeping surfaces) swabs were collected from all individuals. Flies were caught from faces of children. Flies, ocular swabs and non-ocular swabs were tested for Ct by quantitative PCR. RESULTS In total, 1220 individuals in 247 households were assessed. Active trachoma (trachomatous inflammation-follicular) and ocular Ct were detected in 10% and 2% of all-ages, and 21% and 3% of 1-9-year-olds, respectively. Ct was detected in 12% (95% CI:8-15%) of tested non-ocular swabs from ocular-positive households, but in none of the non-ocular swabs from ocular-negative households. Ct was detected on 24% (95% CI:18-32%) of flies from ocular-positive households and 3% (95% CI:1-6%) of flies from ocular-negative households. CONCLUSION Ct DNA was detected on hands, faces and clothing of individuals living in ocular-positive households suggesting that this might be a route of transmission within Ct infected households. In addition, we detected Ct on flies from ocular-positive households and occasionally in ocular-negative households suggesting that flies might be a vector for transmission within and between Ct infected and uninfected households. These potential transmission routes may need to be simultaneously addressed to suppress transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Last
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Bart Versteeg
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Oumer Shafi Abdurahman
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- The Fred Hollows Foundation, Ethiopia
| | - Ailie Robinson
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | - Katie Greenland
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alexandra Czerniewska
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas Thomson
- Department of Pathogen Molecular Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- Parasites and microbes, Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, United Kingdom
| | - Sandy Cairncross
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - David Macleod
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anthony W. Solomon
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - James Logan
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew J. Burton
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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18
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Robinson A, Bristow J, Holl MV, Makalo P, Alemayehu W, Bailey RL, Macleod D, Birkett MA, Caulfield JC, Sarah V, Pickett JA, Dewhirst S, Chen-Hussey V, Woodcock CM, D’Alessandro U, Last A, Burton MJ, Lindsay SW, Logan JG. Responses of the putative trachoma vector, Musca sorbens, to volatile semiochemicals from human faeces. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0007719. [PMID: 32126087 PMCID: PMC7069642 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The putative vector of trachoma, Musca sorbens, prefers to lay its eggs on human faeces on the ground. This study sought to determine whether M. sorbens females were attracted to volatile odours from human faeces in preference to odours from the faeces of other animals, and to determine whether specific volatile semiochemicals mediate selection of the faeces. Traps baited with the faeces of humans and local domestic animals were used to catch flies at two trachoma-endemic locations in The Gambia and one in Ethiopia. At all locations, traps baited with faeces caught more female M. sorbens than control traps baited with soil, and human faeces was the most successful bait compared with soil (mean rate ratios 44.40, 61.40, 10.50 [P<0.001]; 8.17 for child faeces [P = 0.004]). Odours from human faeces were sampled by air entrainment, then extracts of the volatiles were tested by coupled gas chromatography-electroantennography with laboratory-reared female M. sorbens. Twelve compounds were electrophysiologically active and tentatively identified by coupled mass spectrometry-gas chromatography, these included cresol, indole, 2-methylpropanoic acid, butanoic acid, pentanoic acid and hexanoic acid. It is possible that some of these volatiles govern the strong attraction of M. sorbens flies to human faeces. If so, a synthetic blend of these chemicals, at the correct ratios, may prove to be a highly attractive lure. This could be used in odour-baited traps for monitoring or control of this species in trachoma-endemic regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ailie Robinson
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, United Kingdom
| | - Julie Bristow
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, United Kingdom
- Biological Chemistry and Crop Protection, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew V. Holl
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, United Kingdom
| | - Pateh Makalo
- Medical Research Council Unit, The Gambia, The Gambia
| | | | - Robin L. Bailey
- Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - David Macleod
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael A. Birkett
- Biological Chemistry and Crop Protection, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - John C. Caulfield
- Biological Chemistry and Crop Protection, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Virginia Sarah
- Global Partnerships Executive, The Fred Hollows Foundation, Crawford Mews, London, United Kingdom
| | - John A. Pickett
- Biological Chemistry and Crop Protection, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Dewhirst
- ARCTEC, Chariot Innovations Ltd, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Vanessa Chen-Hussey
- ARCTEC, Chariot Innovations Ltd, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christine M. Woodcock
- Biological Chemistry and Crop Protection, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | | | - Anna Last
- Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew J. Burton
- Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Steve W. Lindsay
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, Durham, County Durham, United Kingdom
| | - James G. Logan
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, United Kingdom
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19
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A cluster of Chlamydia serpentis cases in captive snakes. Vet Microbiol 2019; 240:108499. [PMID: 31902484 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.108499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Following the occurrence of sudden death cases in a zoo reptile collection, histological analyses conducted on tissues from two common adders suggested an infection due to Chlamydia. The survey was extended to 22 individual snakes from the same collection and a PCR analysis targeting a conserved gene in Chlamydiaceae revealed bacterial shedding in six of them. The infection resolved spontaneously in one snake whereas another one succumbed one month later. The antibiotic treatment administered (marbofloxacin) to the remaining four PCR positive animals stopped the mortalities and the shedding. Analysis of the 16S and 23S ribosomal gene sequences identified C. serpentis, a recently described novel chlamydial species in snakes. A PCR tool for a quick and specific identification of this new chlamydial species was developed in this study.
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20
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Altherr FM, Nute AW, Zerihun M, Sata E, Stewart AEP, Gessese D, Melak B, Astale T, Ayenew G, Callahan EK, Chanyalew M, Gashaw B, Waller LA, Tadesse Z, Nash SD. Associations between Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) and trachoma clustering at aggregate spatial scales, Amhara, Ethiopia. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:540. [PMID: 31727155 PMCID: PMC6857222 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3790-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Trachoma is the leading infectious cause of blindness globally. The WHO has recommended the SAFE (Surgery, Antibiotics, Facial cleanliness and Environmental improvements) strategy to eliminate trachoma as a public health problem. The F and E arms of the strategy will likely be important for sustained disease reductions, yet more evidence is needed detailing relationships between hygiene, sanitation and trachoma in areas with differing endemicity. This study addressed whether the regional differences in water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) variables were associated with the spatial distribution of trachomatous inflammation-follicular (TF) among children aged 1 to 9 years in the Amhara National Regional State of Ethiopia. Methods Data from 152 multi-stage cluster random trachoma surveys were used to understand the degree of clustering of trachoma on two spatial scales (district and village) in Amhara using a geographical information system and the Getis-Ord Gi* (d) statistic for local clustering. Trained and certified graders examined children for the clinical signs of trachoma using the WHO simplified system. Socio-demographic, community, and geoclimatic factors thought to promote the clustering of the disease were included as covariates in a logistic regression model. Results The mean district prevalence of TF among children aged 1 to 9 years in Amhara was 25.1% (standard deviation = 16.2%). The spatial distribution of TF was found to exhibit global spatial dependency with neighboring evaluation units at both district and village level. Specific clusters of high TF were identified at both the district and the village scale of analysis using weighted estimates of the prevalence of the disease. Increased prevalence of children without nasal and ocular discharge as well as increased prevalence of households with access to a water source within 30 minutes were statistically significantly negatively associated with clusters of high TF prevalence. Conclusions Water access and facial cleanliness were important factors in the clustering of trachoma within this hyperendemic region. Intensified promotion of structural and behavioral interventions to increase WASH coverage may be necessary to eliminate trachoma as a public health problem in Amhara and perhaps other hyper-endemic settings.
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Lietman TM, Pinsent A, Liu F, Deiner M, Hollingsworth TD, Porco TC. Models of Trachoma Transmission and Their Policy Implications: From Control to Elimination. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 66:S275-S280. [PMID: 29860288 PMCID: PMC5982784 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite great progress in eliminating trachoma from the majority of worldwide districts, trachoma control seems to have stalled in some endemic districts. Can mathematical models help suggest the way forward? We review specific achievements of models in trachoma control in the past. Models showed that, even with incomplete coverage, mass drug administration could eliminate disease through a spillover effect, somewhat analogous to how incomplete vaccine campaigns can eliminate disease through herd protection. Models also suggest that elimination can always be achieved if enough people are treated often enough with an effective enough drug. Other models supported the idea that targeting ages at highest risk or continued improvements in hygiene and sanitation can contribute meaningfully to trachoma control. Models of intensive targeting of a core group may point the way to final eradication even in areas with substantial transmission and within-community heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Lietman
- Francis I. Proctor Foundation, San Francisco.,Department of Ophthalmology, San Francisco.,Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, San Francisco.,Global Health Sciences, University of California, San Francisco
| | - Amy Pinsent
- School of Public Health and Preventative Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | | | - Michael Deiner
- Francis I. Proctor Foundation, San Francisco.,Department of Ophthalmology, San Francisco
| | - T Deirdre Hollingsworth
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Travis C Porco
- Francis I. Proctor Foundation, San Francisco.,Department of Ophthalmology, San Francisco.,Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, San Francisco
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22
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Greenland K, White S, Sommers K, Biran A, Burton MJ, Sarah V, Alemayehu W. Selecting behaviour change priorities for trachoma 'F' and 'E' interventions: A formative research study in Oromia, Ethiopia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007784. [PMID: 31596851 PMCID: PMC6785218 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Trachoma is the leading infectious cause of blindness. However, little is known about the behavioural and environmental determinants of transmission of the causative organism, Chlamydia trachomatis. We conducted formative research in a trachoma hyper-endemic area of Ethiopia to explore the behaviours which are likely to contribute to trachoma transmission and map their determinants. Methodology/Principal findings Data on water use, hygiene, defecation, and sleeping arrangements were collected from five communities during the dry and rainy seasons in 2016. Data collection involved direct observation in households (n = 20), interviews with caregivers (n = 20) and focus group discussions (n = 11). Although several behaviours that likely contribute to trachoma transmission were identified, no single behaviour stood out as the dominant contributor. Hygiene practices reflected high levels of poverty and water scarcity. Face washing and soap use varied within and between households, and were associated with other factors such as school attendance. Children’s faces were rarely wiped to remove nasal or ocular discharge, which was not perceived to be socially undesirable. Bathing and laundry were performed infrequently due to the amount of time and water required. Open defecation was a normative practice, particularly for young children. Latrines, when present, were poorly constructed, maintained and used. Young children and parents slept closely together and shared bedding that was infrequently washed. Conclusions/Significance Existing norms and enabling factors in this context favour the development of interventions to improve facial cleanliness as more feasible than those that reduce unsafe faeces disposal. Interventions to increase the frequency of bathing and laundry may also be infeasible unless water availability within the home is improved. Trachoma is the leading infectious cause of blindness globally. It is caused by Chlamydia trachomatis, which is believed to spread eye to eye through direct transmission on skin (e.g. after touching ocular and nasal secretions), indirect transmission on fomites (e.g. towels and bedsheets) and via eye-seeking flies (which breed in faeces). Interventions aiming to interrupt transmission of C. trachomatis can therefore be designed to promote behaviours ranging from face washing and handwashing to improving sanitation, waste disposal, laundry practices and sleeping practices. Changing behaviour is challenging and interventions are often ineffective if they fail to change important determinants of behaviour. We conducted formative research to understand trachoma-related behaviour and the determinants of these behaviours in order to inform future intervention design. We found that the hygiene practices we observed reflected high levels of poverty and water scarcity. In this context we found that it would be challenging to shift sub-optimal hygiene practices related to latrine use, bathing and laundry without a substantial and large-scale investment in water and sanitation infrastructure. Given this, it may be more feasible for the Government and supporting organisations to design trachoma prevention interventions which target facial cleanliness and hand hygiene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie Greenland
- Department for Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Sian White
- Department for Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Katina Sommers
- Department for Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Adam Biran
- Department for Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew J. Burton
- International Centre for Eye Health, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Virginia Sarah
- Partnerships and Advocacy, The Fred Hollows Foundation, London, United Kingdom
| | - Wondu Alemayehu
- Berhan Public Health and Eye Care Consultancy, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Technical Advisor, The Fred Hollows Foundation, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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23
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Gogarten JF, Düx A, Mubemba B, Pléh K, Hoffmann C, Mielke A, Müller-Tiburtius J, Sachse A, Wittig RM, Calvignac-Spencer S, Leendertz FH. Tropical rainforest flies carrying pathogens form stable associations with social nonhuman primates. Mol Ecol 2019; 28:4242-4258. [PMID: 31177585 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Living in groups provides benefits but also incurs costs such as attracting disease vectors. For example, synanthropic flies associate with human settlements, and higher fly densities increase pathogen transmission. We investigated whether such associations also exist in highly mobile nonhuman primate (NHP) Groups. We studied flies in a group of wild sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys atys) and three communities of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. We observed markedly higher fly densities within both mangabey and chimpanzee groups. Using a mark-recapture experiment, we showed that flies stayed with the sooty mangabey group for up to 12 days and for up to 1.3 km. We also tested mangabey-associated flies for pathogens infecting mangabeys in this ecosystem, Bacillus cereus biovar anthracis (Bcbva), causing sylvatic anthrax, and Treponema pallidum pertenue, causing yaws. Flies contained treponemal (6/103) and Bcbva (7/103) DNA. We cultured Bcbva from all PCR-positive flies, confirming bacterial viability and suggesting that this bacterium might be transmitted and disseminated by flies. Whole genome sequences of Bcbva isolates revealed a diversity of Bcbva, probably derived from several sources. We conclude that flies actively track mangabeys and carry infectious bacterial pathogens; these associations represent an understudied cost of sociality and potentially expose many social animals to a diversity of pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan F Gogarten
- Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Primatology Department, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.,Institute of Microbiology and Epizootics, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Viral Evolution, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ariane Düx
- Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Viral Evolution, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Benjamin Mubemba
- Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Wildlife Sciences, Copperbelt University, Kitwe, Zambia
| | - Kamilla Pléh
- Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Constanze Hoffmann
- Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Alexander Mielke
- Primatology Department, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Andreas Sachse
- Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Roman M Wittig
- Primatology Department, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Ivory Coast
| | - Sébastien Calvignac-Spencer
- Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Viral Evolution, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Fabian H Leendertz
- Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
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24
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Alada JJ, Mpyet C, Florea VV, Boisson S, Willis R, Bakhtiari A, Muhammad N, Adamu MD, Umar MM, Olobio N, Isiyaku S, Adamani W, Amdife D, Solomon AW. Prevalence of Trachoma in Kogi State, Nigeria: Results of four Local Government Area-Level Surveys from the Global Trachoma Mapping Project. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 2019; 25:33-40. [PMID: 30806551 PMCID: PMC6444201 DOI: 10.1080/09286586.2017.1409359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine the prevalence of trachoma in four Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kogi State, Nigeria. METHODS In June 2014, we conducted population-based, cross-sectional surveys according to Global Trachoma Mapping Project (GTMP) protocols in selected LGAs of Kogi State. In each LGA, 25 clusters were selected with probability proportional to size. In each of these clusters, 25 households were enrolled for the survey. All residents of selected households aged ≥1 year were examined by GTMP-certified graders for trachomatous inflammation-follicular (TF) and trichiasis using the simplified trachoma grading scheme. Data on sources of household water and types of sanitation facilities were collected through questioning and direct observation. RESULTS The age-adjusted TF prevalence in 1-9-year-olds ranged from 0.4% (95% CI 0.1-0.8%) in Bassa to 1.0% (95% CI 0.3-1.9%) in Omala. Across all four LGAs, only one case of trichiasis was found; this individual was in Omala, giving that LGA a trichiasis prevalence in individuals aged ≥15 years of 0.02% (95% CI 0.00-0.07%). Between 77 and 88% of households had access to water for hygiene purposes, while only 10-30% had access to improved sanitation facilities. CONCLUSION Trachoma is not a public health problem in any of the 4 LGAs surveyed. There is, however, the need to increase access to adequate water and sanitation services to contribute to the health and social and economic well-being of these communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel J Alada
- a Department of Ophthalmology , Federal Medical Centre , Makurdi , Nigeria
| | - Caleb Mpyet
- b Department of Ophthalmology , University of Jos , Jos , Nigeria.,c Sightsavers , Kaduna , Nigeria.,d Kilimanjaro Centre for Community Ophthalmology International, Division of Ophthalmology , University of Cape Town , Cape Town , South Africa
| | - Victor V Florea
- e Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases , World Health Organization , Geneva , Switzerland
| | - Sophie Boisson
- f Department of Public Health, the Environment and Social Determinants of Health , World Health Organization , Geneva , Switzerland
| | - Rebecca Willis
- g International Trachoma Initiative, Task Force for Global Health , Decatur , GA , USA
| | - Ana Bakhtiari
- g International Trachoma Initiative, Task Force for Global Health , Decatur , GA , USA
| | - Nasiru Muhammad
- h Ophthalmology Unit, Surgery Department , Usmanu Danfodiyo University , Sokoto , Nigeria
| | - Mohammed D Adamu
- h Ophthalmology Unit, Surgery Department , Usmanu Danfodiyo University , Sokoto , Nigeria
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Anthony W Solomon
- e Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases , World Health Organization , Geneva , Switzerland.,l Clinical Research Department , London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine , London , United Kingdom.,m London Centre for Neglected Tropical Disease Research , London , United Kingdom
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25
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Flueckiger RM, Giorgi E, Cano J, Abdala M, Amiel ON, Baayenda G, Bakhtiari A, Batcho W, Bennawi KH, Dejene M, Elshafie BE, Elvis AA, François M, Goepogui A, Kalua K, Kebede B, Kiflu G, Masika MP, Massangaie M, Mpyet C, Ndjemba J, Ngondi JM, Olobio N, Turyaguma P, Willis R, Yeo S, Solomon AW, Pullan RL. Understanding the spatial distribution of trichiasis and its association with trachomatous inflammation-follicular. BMC Infect Dis 2019; 19:364. [PMID: 31039737 PMCID: PMC6492377 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-019-3935-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 03/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Whilst previous work has identified clustering of the active trachoma sign "trachomatous inflammation-follicular" (TF), there is limited understanding of the spatial structure of trachomatous trichiasis (TT), the rarer, end-stage, blinding form of disease. Here we use community-level TF prevalence, information on access to water and sanitation, and large-scale environmental and socio-economic indicators to model the spatial variation in community-level TT prevalence in Benin, Cote d'Ivoire, DRC, Guinea, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan and Uganda. METHODS We fit binomial mixed models, with community-level random effects, separately for each country. In countries where spatial correlation was detected through a semi-variogram diagnostic check we then fitted a geostatistical model to the TT prevalence data including TF prevalence as an explanatory variable. RESULTS The estimated regression relationship between community-level TF and TT was significant in eight countries. We estimate that a 10% increase in community-level TF prevalence leads to an increase in the odds for TT ranging from 20 to 86% when accounting for additional covariates. CONCLUSION We find evidence of an association between TF and TT in some parts of Africa. However, our results also suggest the presence of additional, country-specific, spatial risk factors which modulate the variation in TT risk.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Emanuele Giorgi
- Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Lancaster, Lancashire, UK
| | - Jorge Cano
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Mariamo Abdala
- Ophthalmology Department, Ministry of Health, Maputo, Mozambique
| | | | | | | | - Wilfrid Batcho
- Programme National de Lutte contre les Maladies Transmissibles, Ministère de la Santé, Cotonou, Benin
| | | | - Michael Dejene
- Michael Dejene Public Health Consultancy Services, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | | | - Aba Ange Elvis
- Programme National de la Santé Oculaire et de la lutte contre l'Onchocercose, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Missamou François
- Direction de Lutte contre la Maladie, Kinshasa, Ministere de la Santé Publique, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - André Goepogui
- Programmes National de Lutte contre l'Onchocercoses et les autres Maladies Tropicales Négligées, Ministère de la Sante, Conakry, Guinea
| | - Khumbo Kalua
- Blantyre Institute for Community Outreach, Blantyre, Malawi
| | | | - Genet Kiflu
- Federal Ministry of Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | | | | | - Caleb Mpyet
- Sightsavers Nigeria, Kaduna, Nigeria.,Department of Ophthalmology, Jos University, Jos, Nigeria
| | - Jean Ndjemba
- Direction de Lutte contre la Maladie, Kinshasa, Ministere de la Santé Publique, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | | | - Nicholas Olobio
- Nigeria Trachoma Elimination Program, Federal Ministry of Health, Abuja, Nigeria
| | | | | | - Souleymane Yeo
- Programme National de la Santé Oculaire et de la lutte contre l'Onchocercose, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
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Bernhardt V, Finkelmeier F, Verhoff MA, Amendt J. Myiasis in humans-a global case report evaluation and literature analysis. Parasitol Res 2018; 118:389-397. [PMID: 30456490 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-018-6145-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Myiasis refers to the infestation of living humans and vertebrates with fly larvae that feed on necrotic or vital tissue of the host. Since the invasion of new fly species in Europe is currently being observed, which live obligatorily parasitically or are close relatives of such species, the aim of this study is to obtain a global overview of the distribution of myiasis-causing fly species in times of climate change and to assess the possible consequences for Western Europe. A systematic literature search was conducted using Pubmed/Medline for the years 1997 to 2017 and a total of 464 international case reports from 79 countries were evaluated. The described cases were caused by 41 different species. In 99.4% of the cases, it was a colonization by just one species, a maximum of three species were detected in a human. Casuistics from Western Europe mostly describe myiasis as a "holiday souvenir" from tropical regions. Reports of autochthonous cases are rare in comparison to other regions. With regard to rising temperatures and the invasion of new fly species, a noticeable increase in the number of cases in Western Europe is to be assumed, which could be an increasing problem in the clinical area and in care, which is why thorough monitoring for professional identification and treatment seems important in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Bernhardt
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Main, Germany.
| | - Fabian Finkelmeier
- Department of Medicine I, Gastroenterology, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Main, Germany
| | - Marcel A Verhoff
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Main, Germany
| | - Jens Amendt
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Main, Germany
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27
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Ofosu A, Osei I, Hagan M, Biekro L, Awedoba AK. Eye health knowledge and health-seeking behaviours in Ghana. AFRICAN VISION AND EYE HEALTH 2018. [DOI: 10.4102/aveh.v77i1.426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
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28
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Cano J, Rodríguez A, Simpson H, Tabah EN, Gómez JF, Pullan RL. Modelling the spatial distribution of aquatic insects (Order Hemiptera) potentially involved in the transmission of Mycobacterium ulcerans in Africa. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:501. [PMID: 30189883 PMCID: PMC6127916 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3066-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Biting aquatic insects belonging to the order Hemiptera have been suggested as potential vectors of Mycobacterium ulcerans in endemic areas for Buruli ulcer (BU). If this is the case, these insects would be expected to co-exist with M. ulcerans in the same geographical areas. Here, we studied the geographical distribution of six aquatic Hemiptera families that are thought to be vectors of M. ulcerans and explored their potential geographical overlapping with communities reporting BU cases in endemic countries. Methods We have developed ensemble ecological models of predicted distribution for six families of the Hemiptera (Naucoridae, Belostomatidae, Notonectidae, Nepidae, Corixidae and Gerridae) applying a robust modelling framework over a collection of recorded presences and a suite of environmental and topographical factors. Ecological niche factor analysis (ENFA) was first used to identify factors that best described the ecological niches for each hemipteran family. Finally, we explored the potential geographical co-occurrence of these insects and BU in two endemic countries, Cameroon and Ghana. Results Species of the families Naucoridae and Belostomatidae, according to our models, are widely distributed across Africa, although absent from drier and hotter areas. The other two families of biting Hemiptera, the Notonectidae and Nepidae, would have a more restricted distribution, being more predominant in western and southern Africa. All these four families of biting water bugs are widely distributed across coastal areas of West Africa. They would thrive in areas where annual mean temperature varies between 15–22 °C, with moderate annual precipitation (i.e. 350–1000 mm/annual) and near to water courses. Species of all hemipteran families show preference for human-made environments such as agricultural landscapes and urbanized areas. Finally, our analysis suggests that M. ulcerans and species of these aquatic insects might coexist in the same ecological niches, although there would be variation in species diversity between BU endemic areas. Conclusions Our findings predict the geographical co-existence of some species of aquatic hemipteran families and BU. Considering the existing biological evidence that points to some of these aquatic insects as potential phoretic vectors of M. ulcerans, its presence in BU endemic areas should be considered a risk factor. The ecological models here presented may be helpful to inform future environmental based models intended to delineate the potential geographical distribution of BU in the African region. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-3066-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Cano
- Faculty of Infectious & Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
| | - Antonio Rodríguez
- Department of Horticulture, Botany and Landscaping, School of Agriculture, Food and Forestry Science and Engineering, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain
| | - Hope Simpson
- Faculty of Infectious & Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Earnest N Tabah
- National Yaws, Leishmaniasis, Leprosy and Buruli ulcer Control Programme, Ministry of Public Health, Yaounde, Cameroon
| | - Jose F Gómez
- Department of Biodiversity, Ecology & Evolution, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rachel L Pullan
- Faculty of Infectious & Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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29
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Géopogui A, Badila CF, Baldé MS, Nieba C, Lamah L, Reid SD, Yattara ML, Tougoue JJ, Ngondi J, Bamba IF, Amon JJ, Solomon AW, Zhang Y. Baseline trachoma prevalence in Guinea: Results of national trachoma mapping in 31 health districts. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006585. [PMID: 29889826 PMCID: PMC6013237 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2018] [Revised: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Based on previous studies, historical records and risk factors, trachoma was suspected to be endemic in 31 health districts (HDs) in Guinea. To facilitate planning for the elimination of trachoma as a public health problem, national trachoma surveys were conducted between 2011 and 2016 to determine the prevalence of trachomatous inflammation—follicular (TF) and trachomatous trichiasis (TT) in all 31 endemic HDs. Methodology/Principal findings A total of 27 cross-sectional surveys were conducted, each using two-stage cluster sampling (one survey in 2011 covered five HDs). Children aged 1–9 years and adults aged ≥15 years were examined for TF and TT, respectively, using the World Health Organization (WHO) simplified grading system. Indicators of household access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) were also collected. A total of 100,051 people from 13,725 households of 556 clusters were examined, of whom 44,899 were male and 55,152 were female. 44,209 children aged 1–9-years and 48,745 adults aged ≥15 years were examined. The adjusted prevalence of TF varied between 1.0% (95%CI: 0.6–1.5%) to 41.8% (95%CI: 39.4–44.2%), while the adjusted prevalence of TT ranged from 0.0% (95%CI: 0.0–0.2%) to 2.8% (95%CI: 2.3–3.5%) in the 27 surveys. In all, 18 HDs had a TF prevalence ≥5% in children aged 1–9 years and 21 HDs had a TT prevalence ≥0.2% in adults aged ≥15 years. There were an estimated 32,737 (95% CI: 19,986–57,811) individuals with TT living in surveyed HDs at the time of surveys. Conclusions/Significance Trachoma is a public health problem in Guinea. 18 HDs required intervention with at least one round of mass drug administration and an estimated 32,737 persons required TT surgery in the country. The results provided clear evidence for Guinea to plan for national trachoma elimination. Trachoma is the leading infectious cause of blindness worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that endemic countries implement the SAFE strategy (surgery for trichiasis, antibiotic treatment, facial cleanliness and environmental improvement) to achieve trachoma elimination by the year 2020. Trachoma was suspected to be endemic in Guinea in 31 health districts except those in and around the capital Conakry, based on historical records and previous studies. To facilitate planning for the elimination of trachoma as a public health problem, Guinea conducted 27 separate trachoma surveys between 2011 and 2016 to determine the prevalence of trachomatous inflammation—follicular (TF) and trachomatous trichiasis (TT) in these 31 health districts. The results showed 18 health districts requiring intervention with at least one round of mass drug administration and an estimated 32,737 persons requiring TT surgery in the country. These data provided clear evidence for Guinea to plan for national trachoma elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Géopogui
- National Neglected Tropical Diseases Control Program, Ministry of Health, Conakry, Guinea
| | | | - Mamadou Siradiou Baldé
- National Neglected Tropical Diseases Control Program, Ministry of Health, Conakry, Guinea
| | - Cece Nieba
- National Neglected Tropical Diseases Control Program, Ministry of Health, Conakry, Guinea
| | - Lamine Lamah
- Guinea Office, Helen Keller International, Conakry, Guinea
| | - Steven D. Reid
- Headquarters, Helen Keller International, New York, New York, United States of America
| | | | | | - Jeremiah Ngondi
- ENVISION Project, RTI International, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | | | - Joseph J. Amon
- Headquarters, Helen Keller International, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Anthony W. Solomon
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Neglected Tropical Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Yaobi Zhang
- Regional office for Africa, Helen Keller International, Dakar, Senegal
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Brugman VA, Kristan M, Gibbins MP, Angrisano F, Sala KA, Dessens JT, Blagborough AM, Walker T. Detection of malaria sporozoites expelled during mosquito sugar feeding. Sci Rep 2018; 8:7545. [PMID: 29765136 PMCID: PMC5954146 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-26010-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a severe disease of global importance transmitted by mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. The ability to rapidly detect the presence of infectious mosquitoes able to transmit malaria is of vital importance for surveillance, control and elimination efforts. Current methods principally rely on large-scale mosquito collections followed by labour-intensive salivary gland dissections or enzyme-linked immunosorbent (ELISA) methods to detect sporozoites. Using forced salivation, we demonstrate here that Anopheles mosquitoes infected with Plasmodium expel sporozoites during sugar feeding. Expelled sporozoites can be detected on two sugar-soaked substrates, cotton wool and Whatman FTA cards, and sporozoite DNA is detectable using real-time PCR. These results demonstrate a simple and rapid methodology for detecting the presence of infectious mosquitoes with sporozoites and highlight potential laboratory applications for investigating mosquito-malaria interactions. Our results indicate that FTA cards could be used as a simple, effective and economical tool in enhancing field surveillance activities for malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- V A Brugman
- Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK.
- Evolution Biotechnologies, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook, Bedford, MK44 1LZ, UK.
| | - M Kristan
- Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - M P Gibbins
- Department of Immunology and Infection, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - F Angrisano
- Department of Life Sciences, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Imperial College London, Imperial College Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - K A Sala
- Department of Life Sciences, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Imperial College London, Imperial College Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - J T Dessens
- Department of Pathogen Molecular Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - A M Blagborough
- Department of Life Sciences, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Imperial College London, Imperial College Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - T Walker
- Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
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Abstract
Climate change is expected to impact across every domain of society, including health. The majority of the world's population is susceptible to pathological, infectious disease whose life cycles are sensitive to environmental factors across different physical phases including air, water and soil. Nearly all so-called neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) fall into this category, meaning that future geographic patterns of transmission of dozens of infections are likely to be affected by climate change over the short (seasonal), medium (annual) and long (decadal) term. This review offers an introduction into the terms and processes deployed in modelling climate change and reviews the state of the art in terms of research into how climate change may affect future transmission of NTDs. The 34 infections included in this chapter are drawn from the WHO NTD list and the WHO blueprint list of priority diseases. For the majority of infections, some evidence is available of which environmental factors contribute to the population biology of parasites, vectors and zoonotic hosts. There is a general paucity of published research on the potential effects of decadal climate change, with some exceptions, mainly in vector-borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Booth
- Newcastle University, Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom.
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Lewis J. Tracking Trachoma: How The Gambia Is Eliminating an Ancient Disease. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2017; 125:122001. [PMID: 29233796 PMCID: PMC5963589 DOI: 10.1289/ehp2699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
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West SK, Ansah D, Munoz B, Funga N, Mkocha H. The "F" in SAFE: Reliability of assessing clean faces for trachoma control in the field. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0006019. [PMID: 29190298 PMCID: PMC5708607 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although facial cleanliness is part of the SAFE strategy for trachoma there is controversy over the reliability of measuring a clean face. A child’s face with no ocular and nasal discharge is clean and the endpoint of interest, regardless of the number of times it must be washed to achieve that endpoint. The issue of reliability rests on the reproducibility of graders to assess a clean face. We report the reproducibility of assessing a clean face in a field trial in Kongwa, Tanzania. Methods/Findings Seven graders were trained to assess the presence and absence of nasal and ocular discharge on children’s faces. Sixty children ages 1–7 years were recruited from a community and evaluated independently by seven graders, once and again about 50 minutes later. Intra-and inter-observer variation was calculated using unweighted kappa statistics. The average intra-observer agreement was kappa = 0.72, and the average inter-observer agreement was kappa = 0.78. Conclusions Intra-observer and inter-observer agreement was substantial for the assessment of clean faces using trained Tanzania staff who represent a variety of educational backgrounds. As long as training is provided, the estimate of clean faces in children should be reliable, and reflect the effort of families to keep ocular and nasal discharge off the faces. These data suggest assessment of clean faces could be added to trachoma surveys, which already measure environmental improvements, in districts. The repeated infection that causes trachoma is spread from person to person via infected ocular and nasal secretions. The World Health Organization (WHO) strategy for trachoma control includes keeping children’s faces clean of discharges, yet “clean faces” are not measured in most of the district surveys that evaluate the impact of programs. We studied the reliability of assessing “clean faces” in 60 children in a village in Tanzania, using trained Tanzania staff with a variety of educational backgrounds. When assessing the same child twice after 50 minutes, the staff showed substantial agreement with themselves. The agreement between a senior grader and each staff member was also excellent. The data suggest that clean faces in children can be reliably assessed, and should be added to district surveys that are measuring the impact of programs on control of trachoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila K. West
- Dana Center for Preventive Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Derick Ansah
- Dana Center for Preventive Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Beatriz Munoz
- Dana Center for Preventive Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
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Ishtiaq F, Bowden CGR, Jhala YV. Seasonal dynamics in mosquito abundance and temperature do not influence avian malaria prevalence in the Himalayan foothills. Ecol Evol 2017; 7:8040-8057. [PMID: 29043055 PMCID: PMC5632643 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.3319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Revised: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined seasonal prevalence in avian haemosporidians (Plasmodium and Haemoproteus) in migrant and resident birds in western Himalaya, India. We investigated how infection with haemosporidians in avian hosts is associated with temporal changes in temperature and mosquito abundance along with host abundance and life‐history traits (body mass). Using molecular methods for parasite detection and sequencing partial cytochrome b gene, 12 Plasmodium and 27 Haemoproteus lineages were isolated. Our 1‐year study from December 2008 to December 2009 in tropical Himalayan foothills revealed a lack of seasonal variation in Plasmodium spp. prevalence in birds despite a strong correlation between mosquito abundance and temperature. The probability of infection with Plasmodium decreased with increase in temperature. Total parasite prevalence and specifically Plasmodium prevalence showed an increase with average avian body mass. In addition, total prevalence exhibited a U‐shaped relationship with avian host abundance. There was no difference in prevalence of Plasmodium spp. or Haemoproteus spp. across altitudes; parasite prevalence in high‐altitude locations was mainly driven by the seasonal migrants. One Haemoproteus lineage showed cross‐species infections between migrant and resident birds. This is the first molecular study in the tropical Himalayan bird community that emphasizes the importance of studying seasonal variation in parasite prevalence. Our study provides a basis for further evolutionary study on the epidemiology of avian malaria and spread of disease across Himalayan bird communities, which may not have been exposed to vectors and parasites throughout the year, with consequential implications to the risk of infection to naïve resident birds in high altitude.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farah Ishtiaq
- Centre for Ecological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Bangalore India.,Wildlife Institute of India Dehradun Uttarakhand India
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Haddow AD, Nasar F, Schellhase CW, Moon RD, Padilla SL, Zeng X, Wollen-Roberts SE, Shamblin JD, Grimes EC, Zelko JM, Linthicum KJ, Bavari S, Pitt ML, Trefry JC. Low potential for mechanical transmission of Ebola virus via house flies (Musca domestica). Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:218. [PMID: 28468673 PMCID: PMC5415731 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2149-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ebola virus (EBOV) infection results in high morbidity and mortality and is primarily transmitted in communities by contact with infectious bodily fluids. While clinical and experimental evidence indicates that EBOV is transmitted via mucosal exposure, the ability of non-biting muscid flies to mechanically transmit EBOV following exposure to the face had not been assessed. RESULTS To investigate this transmission route, house flies (Musca domestica Linnaeus) were used to deliver an EBOV/blood mixture to the ocular/nasal/oral facial mucosa of four cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis Raffles). Following exposure, macaques were monitored for evidence of infection through the conclusion of the study, days 57 and 58. We found no evidence of systemic infection in any of the exposed macaques. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study indicate that there is a low potential for the mechanical transmission of EBOV via house flies - the conditions in this study were not sufficient to initiate infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Haddow
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
| | - Farooq Nasar
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Christopher W Schellhase
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Roger D Moon
- Department of Entomology, University of Minnesota, 219 Hodson Hall, 1980 Folwell Avenue, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Susana L Padilla
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Xiankun Zeng
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Suzanne E Wollen-Roberts
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Joshua D Shamblin
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Elizabeth C Grimes
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Justine M Zelko
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Kenneth J Linthicum
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Center for Medical, Agricultural, & Veterinary Entomology, 1600 SW 23rd Drive, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Sina Bavari
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - M Louise Pitt
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - John C Trefry
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
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Oswald WE, Stewart AE, Kramer MR, Endeshaw T, Zerihun M, Melak B, Sata E, Gessese D, Teferi T, Tadesse Z, Guadie B, King JD, Emerson PM, Callahan EK, Flanders D, Moe CL, Clasen TF. Active trachoma and community use of sanitation, Ethiopia. Bull World Health Organ 2017; 95:250-260. [PMID: 28479620 PMCID: PMC5407250 DOI: 10.2471/blt.16.177758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Revised: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective To investigate, in Amhara, Ethiopia, the association between prevalence of active trachoma among children aged 1–9 years and community sanitation usage. Methods Between 2011 and 2014, prevalence of trachoma and household pit latrine usage were measured in five population-based cross-sectional surveys. Data on observed indicators of latrine use were aggregated into a measure of community sanitation usage calculated as the proportion of households with a latrine in use. All household members were examined for clinical signs, i.e. trachomatous inflammation, follicular and/or intense, indicative of active trachoma. Multilevel logistic regression was used to estimate prevalence odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI), adjusting for community, household and individual factors, and to evaluate modification by household latrine use and water access. Findings In surveyed areas, prevalence of active trachoma among children was estimated to be 29% (95% CI: 28–30) and mean community sanitation usage was 47% (95% CI: 45–48). Despite significant modification (p < 0.0001), no pattern in stratified ORs was detected. Summarizing across strata, community sanitation usage values of 60 to < 80% and ≥ 80% were associated with lower prevalence odds of active trachoma, compared with community sanitation usage of < 20% (OR: 0.76; 95% CI: 0.57–1.03 and OR: 0.67; 95% CI: 0.48–0.95, respectively). Conclusion In Amhara, Ethiopia, a negative correlation was observed between community sanitation usage and prevalence of active trachoma among children, highlighting the need for continued efforts to encourage higher levels of sanitation usage and to support sustained use throughout the community, not simply at the household level.
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Affiliation(s)
- William E Oswald
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, England
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Paul M Emerson
- The Carter Center, Atlanta, United States of America (USA)
| | | | - Dana Flanders
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA
| | - Christine L Moe
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA
| | - Thomas F Clasen
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA
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A Cross-Sectional Population-Based Survey of Trachoma among Migrant School Aged Children in Shanghai, China. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 2016:8692685. [PMID: 27610383 PMCID: PMC5005553 DOI: 10.1155/2016/8692685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2016] [Revised: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the prevalence of clinical trachoma in 154,265 children aged 6 to 16 years in 206 Shanghai migrant schools. Clean water availability in school, each child's facial cleanliness, eyelids, corneas, and the presenting distance visual acuities were examined. Trachoma was clinically diagnosed in accordance with the World Health Organization simplified classification. Eyes diagnosed with trachoma were swabbed to test for ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infections (OCTI) with a rapid latex immunochromatographic test. Among 153,977 students, no blindness was found related to trachoma. Trachoma was diagnosed in 8029 children (5.2%). In 87 schools clinical trachoma prevalence was higher than 5%. OCTI was confirmed in 2073 of 6823 trachoma diagnosed children (30.4%). Clinical trachoma prevalence was higher among females than males (p < 0.001), but gender comparison showed no statistical difference in the prevalence of OCTI (p = 0.077). Age and clinical trachoma (r = -0.014; p < 0.001) or OCTI (r = -0.026; p = 0.031) prevalence were negatively correlated. Clinical trachoma was different in different districts and counties (p < 0.001). Trachoma warrants close attention in Shanghai migrant children because the condition remains endemic in some schools.
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Knauf S, Raphael J, Mitjà O, Lejora IAV, Chuma IS, Batamuzi EK, Keyyu JD, Fyumagwa R, Lüert S, Godornes C, Liu H, Schwarz C, Šmajs D, Grange P, Zinner D, Roos C, Lukehart SA. Isolation of Treponema DNA from Necrophagous Flies in a Natural Ecosystem. EBioMedicine 2016; 11:85-90. [PMID: 27488881 PMCID: PMC5049926 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2016.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Revised: 07/26/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Recently, the World Health Organization launched a campaign to eradicate the tropical disease yaws, caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum subsp. pertenue; however, for decades researchers have questioned whether flies act as a vector for the pathogen that could facilitate transmission. Methods A total of 207 fly specimens were trapped in areas of Africa in which T. pallidum-induced skin ulcerations are common in wild baboons; 88 flies from Tarangire National Park and 119 from Lake Manyara National Park in Tanzania were analyzed by PCR for the presence of T. pallidum DNA. Findings We report that in the two study areas, T. pallidum DNA was found in 17–24% of wild-caught flies of the order Diptera. Treponemal DNA sequences obtained from many of the flies match sequences derived from nearby baboon T. pallidum strains, and one of the fly species with an especially high prevalence of T. pallidum DNA, Musca sorbens, has previously been shown to transmit yaws in an experimental setting. Interpretation Our results raise the possibility that flies play a role in yaws transmission; further research is warranted, given how important understanding transmission is for the eradication of this disfiguring disease. Treponema pallidum DNA was found in 17–24% of wild-caught flies in the Manyara region of Tanzania. Results further support the possibility that flies play a role in yaws transmission. New theoretic route of inter-species transmission for Treponema
The discovery of Treponema pallidum DNA on necrophagous flies in Africa supports historical reports on possible transmission of the bacterium by flies as a mechanical vector. The bacterium (subsp. pertenue) causes human yaws, which is currently subject to eradication efforts. It has been shown that African nonhuman primates are also found to be infected with T. pallidum strains that are closely related to human yaws causing strains. The ecology of T. pallidum infection in primates is not yet fully understood and intra- and interspecies transmission pathways, apart from skin-to-skin contact in humans, are largely unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Knauf
- Work Group Neglected Tropical Diseases, Pathology Unit, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Jane Raphael
- Ecology Monitoring Department, Tanzania National Parks, P.O. Box 3134, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Oriol Mitjà
- ISGlobal, Barcelona Centre for International Health Research, Hospital Clínic, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Inyasi A V Lejora
- Ecology Monitoring Department, Tanzania National Parks, P.O. Box 3134, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Idrissa S Chuma
- Ecology Monitoring Department, Tanzania National Parks, P.O. Box 3134, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Emmanuel K Batamuzi
- Department of Surgery and Theriogenology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3020, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Julius D Keyyu
- Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute, P.O. Box. 661, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Robert Fyumagwa
- Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute, P.O. Box. 661, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Simone Lüert
- Work Group Neglected Tropical Diseases, Pathology Unit, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany; Primate Genetics Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Charmie Godornes
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Harborview Medical Center, 325 Ninth Avenue, Seattle, WA 98104, USA
| | - Hsi Liu
- National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Christiane Schwarz
- Primate Genetics Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - David Šmajs
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, Brno 625 00, Czech Republic
| | - Philippe Grange
- Laboratoire de Dermatologie, Centre National de Reference de la Syphilis, 75014 Paris, France
| | - Dietmar Zinner
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Christian Roos
- Primate Genetics Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany; Gene Bank of Primates, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sheila A Lukehart
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Harborview Medical Center, 325 Ninth Avenue, Seattle, WA 98104, USA
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Solomon AW, Pavluck AL, Courtright P, Aboe A, Adamu L, Alemayehu W, Alemu M, Alexander NDE, Kello AB, Bero B, Brooker SJ, Chu BK, Dejene M, Emerson PM, Flueckiger RM, Gadisa S, Gass K, Gebre T, Habtamu Z, Harvey E, Haslam D, King JD, Mesurier RL, Lewallen S, Lietman TM, MacArthur C, Mariotti SP, Massey A, Mathieu E, Mekasha A, Millar T, Mpyet C, Muñoz BE, Ngondi J, Ogden S, Pearce J, Sarah V, Sisay A, Smith JL, Taylor HR, Thomson J, West SK, Willis R, Bush S, Haddad D, Foster A. The Global Trachoma Mapping Project: Methodology of a 34-Country Population-Based Study. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 2016; 22:214-25. [PMID: 26158580 PMCID: PMC4687001 DOI: 10.3109/09286586.2015.1037401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Purpose: To complete the baseline trachoma map worldwide by conducting population-based surveys in an estimated 1238 suspected endemic districts of 34 countries. Methods: A series of national and sub-national projects owned, managed and staffed by ministries of health, conduct house-to-house cluster random sample surveys in evaluation units, which generally correspond to “health district” size: populations of 100,000–250,000 people. In each evaluation unit, we invite all residents aged 1 year and older from h households in each of c clusters to be examined for clinical signs of trachoma, where h is the number of households that can be seen by 1 team in 1 day, and the product h × c is calculated to facilitate recruitment of 1019 children aged 1–9 years. In addition to individual-level demographic and clinical data, household-level water, sanitation and hygiene data are entered into the purpose-built LINKS application on Android smartphones, transmitted to the Cloud, and cleaned, analyzed and ministry-of-health-approved via a secure web-based portal. The main outcome measures are the evaluation unit-level prevalence of follicular trachoma in children aged 1–9 years, prevalence of trachomatous trichiasis in adults aged 15 + years, percentage of households using safe methods for disposal of human feces, and percentage of households with proximate access to water for personal hygiene purposes. Results: In the first year of fieldwork, 347 field teams commenced work in 21 projects in 7 countries. Conclusion: With an approach that is innovative in design and scale, we aim to complete baseline mapping of trachoma throughout the world in 2015.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony W Solomon
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine , London , UK
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Ramesh A, Bristow J, Kovats S, Lindsay SW, Haslam D, Schmidt E, Gilbert C. The impact of climate on the abundance of Musca sorbens, the vector of trachoma. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:48. [PMID: 26817815 PMCID: PMC4730668 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1330-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To assess the extent to which climate may affect the abundance of Musca sorbens, a putative vector of trachoma. DATA SOURCES Studies were identified by systematically searching online databases including CAB abstracts, Embase, Global Health, Medline, Web of Science and BIOS Online, references from key articles, and the websites of relevant international agencies. METHODS A systematic literature review was conducted of field and laboratory studies that reported the impact of climate factors (e.g., temperature, humidity) on the synanthropic fly Musca sorbens. Data were systematically extracted and studies assessed for quality by two readers. Study results were reported narratively. RESULTS A total of 16 studies met the inclusion criteria but only three evaluated associations between climatic/abiotic factors and M. sorbens. Limited evidence indicates that M. sorbens abundance has an optimal temperature and humidity range. Thirteen studies reported seasonal patterns but no consistent pattern was found between season and the abundance of M. sorbens. CONCLUSIONS The evidence base regarding the effect of climatic factors on M. sorbens is limited, so it is difficult to construct a biological model driven by climate for this species. A multivariate statistical approach based on the climate of sites where M. sorbens is found may better capture its complex relationship with climatic factors as well as aid in mapping the global range of M. sorbens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Ramesh
- Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases (ITD), London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), Keppel Street, London, UK.
| | - Julie Bristow
- Department of Disease Control, ITD, LSHTM, Keppel Street, London, UK.
| | - Sari Kovats
- Department of Social and Environmental Health Research, Faculty of Public Health and Policy, LSHTM, Keppel Street, London, UK.
| | - Steven W Lindsay
- School of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Durham University, Durham, UK.
| | | | | | - Clare Gilbert
- Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases (ITD), London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), Keppel Street, London, UK.
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Smith JL, Sivasubramaniam S, Rabiu MM, Kyari F, Solomon AW, Gilbert C. Multilevel Analysis of Trachomatous Trichiasis and Corneal Opacity in Nigeria: The Role of Environmental and Climatic Risk Factors on the Distribution of Disease. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015. [PMID: 26222549 PMCID: PMC4519340 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The distribution of trachoma in Nigeria is spatially heterogeneous, with large-scale trends observed across the country and more local variation within areas. Relative contributions of individual and cluster-level risk factors to the geographic distribution of disease remain largely unknown. The primary aim of this analysis is to assess the relationship between climatic factors and trachomatous trichiasis (TT) and/or corneal opacity (CO) due to trachoma in Nigeria, while accounting for the effects of individual risk factors and spatial correlation. In addition, we explore the relative importance of variation in the risk of trichiasis and/or corneal opacity (TT/CO) at different levels. Data from the 2007 National Blindness and Visual Impairment Survey were used for this analysis, which included a nationally representative sample of adults aged 40 years and above. Complete data were available from 304 clusters selected using a multi-stage stratified cluster-random sampling strategy. All participants (13,543 individuals) were interviewed and examined by an ophthalmologist for the presence or absence of TT and CO. In addition to field-collected data, remotely sensed climatic data were extracted for each cluster and used to fit Bayesian hierarchical logistic models to disease outcome. The risk of TT/CO was associated with factors at both the individual and cluster levels, with approximately 14% of the total variation attributed to the cluster level. Beyond established individual risk factors (age, gender and occupation), there was strong evidence that environmental/climatic factors at the cluster-level (lower precipitation, higher land surface temperature, higher mean annual temperature and rural classification) were also associated with a greater risk of TT/CO. This study establishes the importance of large-scale risk factors in the geographical distribution of TT/CO in Nigeria, supporting anecdotal evidence that environmental conditions are associated with increased risk in this context and highlighting their potential use in improving estimates of disease burden at large scales. Trichiasis (TT) and corneal opacity (CO) are chronic stages of trachoma, which remains an important cause of blindness. This study used multilevel spatial models to investigate risk factors for TT/CO in Nigeria, including data for more than 13,500 adults aged 40 years and above collected in the 2007 National Blindness and Visual Impairment survey. Individual-level risk factors were consistent with those identified in other studies, including a higher risk in females, older individuals and those with lower socioeconomic status. After controlling for these factors, there was evidence that a number of environmental and climatic factors are associated with the distribution of TT/CO in Nigeria. These findings establish for the Nigerian context the importance of risk factors at different scales for the later stages of trachoma, supporting anecdotal evidence that hotter, drier environmental conditions are associated with increased risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L. Smith
- Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- Global Health Group, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Selvaraj Sivasubramaniam
- Medical Statistics Team, Division of Applied Health Sciences, University of Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | | | - Fatima Kyari
- Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- College of Health Sciences of University of Abuja, Abuja, Nigeria
| | - Anthony W. Solomon
- Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Clare Gilbert
- Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Trachoma is the most common infectious cause of blindness. Repeated episodes of infection with Chlamydia trachomatis in childhood lead to severe conjunctival inflammation, scarring, and potentially blinding inturned eyelashes (trichiasis or entropion) in later life. Trachoma occurs in resource-poor areas with inadequate hygiene, where children with unclean faces share infected ocular secretions. Much has been learnt about the epidemiology and pathophysiology of trachoma. Integrated control programmes are implementing the SAFE Strategy: surgery for trichiasis, mass distribution of antibiotics, promotion of facial cleanliness, and environmental improvement. This strategy has successfully eliminated trachoma in several countries and global efforts are underway to eliminate blinding trachoma worldwide by 2020.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugh R Taylor
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC, Australia.
| | - Matthew J Burton
- International Centre for Eye Health, Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Danny Haddad
- Global Vision Initiative, Emory Eye Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Sheila West
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Heathcote Wright
- Centre for Eye Research Australia, University of Melbourne, East Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Ross RK, King JD, Damte M, Ayalew F, Gebre T, Cromwell EA, Teferi T, Emerson PM. Evaluation of household latrine coverage in Kewot woreda, Ethiopia, 3 years after implementing interventions to control blinding trachoma. Int Health 2013; 3:251-8. [PMID: 24038498 DOI: 10.1016/j.inhe.2011.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The SAFE strategy for trachoma control includes Surgery, Antibiotic distribution, Facial cleanliness and Environmental improvements, including promotion of latrine construction. In this study, household latrine coverage was estimated in order to evaluate SAFE implementation in a district of Ethiopia where reported coverage in rural areas was 97%. Characteristics of latrine adopters and non-adopters were explored. Interviews were conducted in 442 households selected at random in a multistage cluster sample. Overall, estimated household latrine coverage was 56.2% (95% CI 37.5-74.8%) and in rural areas coverage was 67.7% (95% CI 59.6-75.7%). Previously owning a latrine was reported by 12.7% (95% CI 8.9-16.5%) of respondents, of which 32.0% (95% CI 15.9-48.2%) had built a replacement. Latrine adopters were more likely to be male (P < 0.0001), to report their primary occupation as agriculture (P < 0.0001), have more than five residents in their household (P = 0.004) and live in a rural area (P < 0.0001). Respondents who were advised by a health extension worker (P < 0.0001) or development agent (P < 0.0001) were more likely to have built a latrine. Household latrine coverage has increased from the 2007 zonal estimate (8.9%), but was lower than that reported. Latrine promotion should include emphasis on rebuilding latrines. More support may be needed by small households as well as those with a female head if universal latrine access is to be achieved in Kewot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael K Ross
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, 1518 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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Adenusi AA, Adewoga TOS. Studies on the potential and public health importance of non-biting synanthropic flies in the mechanical transmission of human enterohelminths. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2013; 107:812-8. [DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/trt095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Rotondo LA, Ngondi J, Rodgers AF, King JD, Kamissoko Y, Amadou A, Jip N, Cromwell EA, Emerson PM. Evaluation of community intervention with pit latrines for trachoma control in Ghana, Mali, Niger and Nigeria. Int Health 2013; 1:154-62. [PMID: 24036560 DOI: 10.1016/j.inhe.2009.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Trachoma is the leading cause of preventable blindness worldwide and is controlled with an integrated strategy of treatment and prevention which includes latrine provision and promotion. We aimed to evaluate the latrine uptake, construction, and usage in villages participating in latrine promotion programmes supported by The Carter Center in Ghana, Mali, Niger and Nigeria where 113 457 new latrines have been reported from 2002 to 2008. In each country a two stage cluster random sampling design was used to select villages and households for evaluation. Household heads were interviewed using a standardised structured questionnaire and latrines were inspected. The sample included 1154 households (Ghana: 326; Mali: 293; Niger: 300; and Nigeria: 235). Overall, 813 (70.5%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 65.7-74.8) had pit latrines, ranging from 30.3% of households in Niger to over 92.0% of households in Ghana and Mali. Of those with latrines 762 (93.7%) were found to be usable and 659 (86.5%) were in use. Overall 659/1154 (57.1%) of households in the targeted communities were using latrines at least 12 months after latrine promotion was initiated. Latrine promotion had been successful increasing access to sanitation in different country contexts and demonstrates the target population are willing to construct, use and maintain household latrines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A Rotondo
- The Carter Center, 1 Copenhill Avenue, Atlanta, GA 30307, USA
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Stoller NE, Gebre T, Ayele B, Zerihun M, Assefa Y, Habte D, Zhou Z, Porco TC, Keenan JD, House JI, Gaynor BD, Lietman TM, Emerson PM. Efficacy of latrine promotion on emergence of infection with ocular Chlamydia trachomatis after mass antibiotic treatment: a cluster-randomized trial. Int Health 2013; 3:75-84. [PMID: 21785663 DOI: 10.1016/j.inhe.2011.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends environmental improvements such as latrine construction in the integrated trachoma control strategy, SAFE. We report a cluster-randomized trial assessing the effect of intensive latrine promotion on emergence of infection with ocular Chlamydia trachomatis after mass treatment with antibiotics.Twenty-four communities in Goncha Seso Enesie woreda, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia, were enumerated, and a random selection of 60 children aged 0- 9 years in each was monitored for clinical signs of trachoma and ocular chlamydial infection at baseline, 12 and 24 months. All community members were offered treatment with a single dose of oral azithromycin or topical tetracycline. After treatment, 12 subkebeles were randomized to receive intensive latrine promotion. Mean cluster ocular infection in the latrine and the non-latrine arms were reduced from 45.5% (95% CI 34.1-56.8%) and 43.0% (95% CI 31.1-54.8%) respectively at baseline to 14.6% (95% CI 7.4-21.8%) and 14.8% (95% CI 8.9-20.8%) respectively at 24 months (P=0.93). Clinical signs fell from 72.0% (95% CI 58.2-85.5%) and 61.3% (95% CI 44.0-78.5%) at baseline to 45.8% (36.0-55.6%) and 48.5% (34.0-62.9%) respectively at 24 months (P=0.69). At 24 months, estimated household latrine coverage and use were 80.8% and 61.7% respectively where there had been intensive latrine promotion and 30.0% and 25.0% respectively in the single treatment only arm. We were unable to detect a difference in the prevalence of ocular chlamydial infection in children due to latrine construction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole E Stoller
- F.I. Proctor Foundation, University of California San Francisco, USA
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Haile M, Tadesse Z, Gebreselassie S, Ayele B, Gebre T, Yu SN, Stoller NE, Gaynor BD, Porco TC, Emerson PM, Lietman TM, Keenan JD. The association between latrine use and trachoma: a secondary cohort analysis from a randomized clinical trial. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2013; 89:717-20. [PMID: 24002488 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.13-0299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Latrine use has been promoted as a component of an integrated strategy for trachoma control. As part of a randomized trial in Ethiopia, 12 communities received a mass azithromycin distribution followed by a latrine promotion intervention. A random sample of children ages 0-9 years in each community was monitored longitudinally for ocular chlamydia. After latrine construction ended, those communities with a higher proportion of households using latrines were more likely to experience a reduction in the prevalence of ocular chlamydia. Specifically, for each 10% increase in latrine use, there was a 2.0% decrease (95% confidence interval = 0.2-3.9% decrease) in the community prevalence of ocular chlamydia over the subsequent year (P = 0.04).
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Affiliation(s)
- Meron Haile
- Francis I. Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco, California; The Carter Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Departments of Ophthalmology and Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, California; The Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia; Institute for Global Health, University of California, San Francisco, California
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48
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Burr SE, Hart JD, Edwards T, Baldeh I, Bojang E, Harding-Esch EM, Holland MJ, Lietman TM, West SK, Mabey DCW, Sillah A, Bailey RL. Association between ocular bacterial carriage and follicular trachoma following mass azithromycin distribution in The Gambia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2347. [PMID: 23936573 PMCID: PMC3723595 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 06/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trachoma, caused by ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infection, is the leading infectious cause of blindness, but its prevalence is now falling in many countries. As the prevalence falls, an increasing proportion of individuals with clinical signs of follicular trachoma (TF) is not infected with C. trachomatis. A recent study in Tanzania suggested that other bacteria may play a role in the persistence of these clinical signs. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We examined associations between clinical signs of TF and ocular colonization with four pathogens commonly found in the nasopharnyx, three years after the initiation of mass azithromycin distribution. Children aged 0 to 5 years were randomly selected from 16 Gambian communities. Both eyes of each child were examined and graded for trachoma according to the World Health Organization (WHO) simplified system. Two swabs were taken from the right eye: one swab was processed for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using the Amplicor test for detection of C. trachomatis DNA and the second swab was processed by routine bacteriology to assay for the presence of viable Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus and Moraxella catarrhalis. Prevalence of TF was 6.2% (96/1538) while prevalence of ocular C. trachomatis infection was 1.0% (16/1538). After adjustment, increased odds of TF were observed in the presence of C. trachomatis (OR = 10.4, 95%CI 1.32-81.2, p = 0.03), S. pneumoniae (OR = 2.14, 95%CI 1.03-4.44, p = 0.04) and H. influenzae (OR = 4.72, 95% CI 1.53-14.5, p = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Clinical signs of TF can persist in communities even when ocular C. trachomatis infection has been controlled through mass azithromycin distribution. In these settings, TF may be associated with ocular colonization with bacteria commonly carried in the nasopharnyx. This may affect the interpretation of impact surveys and the determinations of thresholds for discontinuing mass drug administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Burr
- Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Disease, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom.
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Adenusi AA, Adewoga TOS. Human intestinal parasites in non-biting synanthropic flies in Ogun State, Nigeria. Travel Med Infect Dis 2013; 11:181-9. [PMID: 23290716 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2012.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2012] [Revised: 11/09/2012] [Accepted: 11/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Filth-feeding and breeding, non-biting synanthropic flies have been incriminated in the dissemination of human enteropathogens in the environment. This study determined the species of non-biting synanthropic flies associated with four filthy sites in Ilishan, Ogun State, southwest Nigeria, and assessed their potentials for mechanical transmission of human intestinal parasites. 7190 flies identified as Musca domestica (33.94%), Chrysomya megacephala (26.01%), Musca sorbens (23.23%), Lucilia cuprina (8.76%), Calliphora vicina (4.59%), Sarcophaga sp. (2.78%) and Fannia scalaris (0.70%) were examined for human intestinal parasites by the formol-ether concentration and modified Ziehl-Neelsen techniques. Eggs of the following parasites: Ascaris lumbricoides (34.08%), Trichuris trichiura (25.87%), hookworms (20.45%), Taenia sp. (2.36%), Hymenolepis nana (1.11%), Enterobius vermicularis (0.56%), Strongyloides stercoralis (larvae; 3.89%) and cysts of Entamoeba histolytica/dispar (27.26%), Entamoeba coli (22.67%), Giardia lamblia (3.34%) and Cryptosporidium sp. (1.81%) were isolated from the body surfaces and or gut contents of 75.24% of 719 pooled fly batches. The helminths A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura and the protozoans, E. histolytica/dispar and E. coli were the dominant parasites detected, both on body surfaces and in the gut contents of flies. C. megacephala was the highest carrier of parasites (diversity and number). More parasites were isolated from the gut than from body surfaces (P < 0.05). Flies from soiled ground often carried more parasites than those from abattoir, garbage or open-air market. Synanthropic fly species identified in this study can be of potential epidemiological importance as mechanical transmitters of human intestinal parasites acquired naturally from filth and carried on their body surfaces and or in the gut, because of their vagility and feeding mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adedotun Adesegun Adenusi
- Parasitology Unit, Department of Plant Science and Applied Zoology, Olabisi Onabanjo University, P.M.B. 2002, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria.
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Lindsay TC, Jawara M, D'Alessandro U, Pinder M, Lindsay SW. Development of odour-baited flytraps for sampling the African latrine fly, Chrysomya putoria, a putative vector of enteric diseases. PLoS One 2012; 7:e50505. [PMID: 23226296 PMCID: PMC3511572 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0050505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2012] [Accepted: 10/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
African pit latrines produce prodigious numbers of the latrine fly, Chrysomya putoria, a putative vector of diarrhoeal pathogens. We set out to develop a simple, low-cost odour-baited trap for collecting C. putoria in the field. A series of field experiments was carried out in The Gambia to assess the catching-efficiency of different trap designs. The basic trap was a transparent 3L polypropylene box baited with 50 g of fish, with a white opaque lid with circular entrance holes. We tested variations of the number, diameter, position and shape of the entrance holes, the height of the trap above ground, degree of transparency of the box, its shape, volume, colour, and the attractiveness of gridded surfaces on or under the trap. Traps were rotated between positions on different sampling occasions using a Latin Square design. The optimal trapping features were incorporated into a final trap that was tested against commercially available traps. Features of the trap that increased the number of flies caught included: larger entrance holes (compared with smaller ones, p<0.001), using conical collars inside the holes (compared with without collars, p = 0.01), entrance holes on the top of the trap (compared with the side or bottom, p<0.001), traps placed on the ground (compared with above ground, p<0.001), the box having transparent sides (compared with being opaque, p<0.001), and with no wire grids nearby (compared with those with grids, p = 0.03). This trap collected similar numbers of C. putoria to other common traps for blow flies. The optimum trap design was a transparent box, with a white plastic lid on top, perforated with 10 conical entrance holes, placed on the ground. Our simple trap provides a cheap, low-maintenance and effective method of sampling C. putoria in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas C Lindsay
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom.
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