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Reece MD, Song C, Hancock SC, Pereira Ribeiro S, Kulpa DA, Gavegnano C. Repurposing BCL-2 and Jak 1/2 inhibitors: Cure and treatment of HIV-1 and other viral infections. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1033672. [PMID: 36569952 PMCID: PMC9782439 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1033672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
B cell lymphoma 2 (BCL-2) family proteins are involved in the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway and are key modulators of cellular lifespan, which is dysregulated during human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and other viral infections, thereby increasing the lifespan of cells harboring virus, including the latent HIV-1 reservoir. Long-lived cells harboring integrated HIV-1 DNA is a major barrier to eradication. Strategies reducing the lifespan of reservoir cells could significantly impact the field of cure research, while also providing insight into immunomodulatory strategies that can crosstalk to other viral infections. Venetoclax is a first-in-class orally bioavailable BCL-2 homology 3 (BH3) mimetic that recently received Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for treatment in myeloid and lymphocytic leukemia. Venetoclax has been recently investigated in HIV-1 and demonstrated anti-HIV-1 effects including a reduction in reservoir size. Another immunomodulatory strategy towards reduction in the lifespan of the reservoir is Jak 1/2 inhibition. The Jak STAT pathway has been implicated in BCL-2 and interleukin 10 (IL-10) expression, leading to a downstream effect of cellular senescence. Ruxolitinib and baricitinib are FDA-approved, orally bioavailable Jak 1/2 inhibitors that have been shown to indirectly decay the HIV-1 latent reservoir, and down-regulate markers of HIV-1 persistence, immune dysregulation and reservoir lifespan in vitro and ex vivo. Ruxolitinib recently demonstrated a significant decrease in BCL-2 expression in a human study of virally suppressed people living with HIV (PWH), and baricitinib recently received emergency use approval for the indication of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), underscoring their safety and efficacy in the viral infection setting. BCL-2 and Jak 1/2 inhibitors could be repurposed as immunomodulators for not only HIV-1 and COVID-19, but other viruses that upregulate BCL-2 anti-apoptotic proteins. This review examines potential routes for BCL-2 and Jak 1/2 inhibitors as immunomodulators for treatment and cure of HIV-1 and other viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica D. Reece
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Colin Song
- Department of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Sarah C. Hancock
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Susan Pereira Ribeiro
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Deanna A. Kulpa
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Christina Gavegnano
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Center for the Study of Human Health, College of Arts and Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA, United States
- Center for Bioethics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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Mei M, Long T, Zhang Q, Zhao J, Tian Q, Peng J, Luo J, Jiang H, Lin Y, Lin Z, Guo X. Phenotypic Consequence of Rearranging the N Gene of RABV HEP-Flury. Viruses 2019; 11:v11050402. [PMID: 31035728 PMCID: PMC6563252 DOI: 10.3390/v11050402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 04/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Nucleoprotein (N) is a key element in rabies virus (RABV) replication. To further investigate the effect of N on RABV, we manipulated an infectious cDNA clone of the RABV HEP-Flury to rearrange the N gene from its wild-type position of 1 (N-P-M-G-L) to 2 (P-N-M-G-L), 3 (P-M-N-G-L), or 4 (P-M-G-N-L), using an approach that left the viral nucleotide sequence unaltered. Subsequently, viable viruses were recovered from each of the rearranged cDNA and examined for their gene expression levels, growth kinetics in cell culture, pathogenicity in suckling mice and protection in mice. The results showed that gene rearrangement decreased N mRNA transcription and vRNA replication. As a result, all viruses with rearranged genomes showed worse replication than that of rHEP-Flury in NA cells at a MOI of 0.01, but equivalent or slightly better replication levels at a MOI of 3. Consequently, the lethality in suckling mice infected with N4 was clearly attenuated compared with rHEP-Flury. However, the protection to mice was not enhanced. This study not only gives us insight into the understanding of the phenotype of RABV N gene rearrangement, but also helps with rabies vaccine candidate construction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingzhu Mei
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
- Guangdong Inspection and Quarantine Technology Center, Guangzhou 510623, China.
| | - Teng Long
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - Qiong Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - Jing Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - Qin Tian
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - Jiaojiao Peng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - Jun Luo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - He Jiang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - Yingyi Lin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - Zhixiong Lin
- Guangdong Inspection and Quarantine Technology Center, Guangzhou 510623, China.
| | - Xiaofeng Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
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Mei M, Long T, Zhang Q, Zhao J, Tian Q, Peng J, Luo J, Wang Y, Lin Y, Guo X. Phenotypic Consequences In vivo and In vitro of Rearranging the P Gene of RABV HEP-Flury. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:120. [PMID: 28217116 PMCID: PMC5289960 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphoprotein (P) of the Rabies virus (RABV) is critically required for viral replication and pathogenicity. Here we manipulated infectious cDNA clones of the RABV HEP-Flury to translocate the P gene from its wild-type position 2 to 1, 3, or 4 in gene order, using an approach which left the viral nucleotide sequence unaltered. The recovered viruses were evaluated for the levels of gene expression, growth kinetics in cell culture, lethality in suckling mice and protection of mice. The results showed that viral replication was affected by the absolute value of N protein which was regulated by P protein. Viral lethality in suckling mice was consistent with the ratio of P mRNA in one complete transcription. The protection of mice induced by viruses was related to the antibody titer 5 weeks post-infection which might be regulated by G protein. However, the ability to induce cell apoptosis and viral spread were not only related to the viral replication but also to the ratio of related gene which affected by the gene position. These findings might not only improve the understanding of phenotype of RABV and P gene rearrangement, but also help rabies vaccine candidate construction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingzhu Mei
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong ProvinceGuangzhou, China
| | - Teng Long
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong ProvinceGuangzhou, China
| | - Qiong Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong ProvinceGuangzhou, China
| | - Jing Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong ProvinceGuangzhou, China
| | - Qin Tian
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong ProvinceGuangzhou, China
| | - Jiaojiao Peng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong ProvinceGuangzhou, China
| | - Jun Luo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong ProvinceGuangzhou, China
| | - Yifei Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong ProvinceGuangzhou, China
| | - Yingyi Lin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong ProvinceGuangzhou, China
| | - Xiaofeng Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong ProvinceGuangzhou, China
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Azimzadeh Jamalkandi S, Mozhgani SH, Gholami Pourbadie H, Mirzaie M, Noorbakhsh F, Vaziri B, Gholami A, Ansari-Pour N, Jafari M. Systems Biomedicine of Rabies Delineates the Affected Signaling Pathways. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1688. [PMID: 27872612 PMCID: PMC5098112 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 10/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The prototypical neurotropic virus, rabies, is a member of the Rhabdoviridae family that causes lethal encephalomyelitis. Although there have been a plethora of studies investigating the etiological mechanism of the rabies virus and many precautionary methods have been implemented to avert the disease outbreak over the last century, the disease has surprisingly no definite remedy at its late stages. The psychological symptoms and the underlying etiology, as well as the rare survival rate from rabies encephalitis, has still remained a mystery. We, therefore, undertook a systems biomedicine approach to identify the network of gene products implicated in rabies. This was done by meta-analyzing whole-transcriptome microarray datasets of the CNS infected by strain CVS-11, and integrating them with interactome data using computational and statistical methods. We first determined the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in each study and horizontally integrated the results at the mRNA and microRNA levels separately. A total of 61 seed genes involved in signal propagation system were obtained by means of unifying mRNA and microRNA detected integrated DEGs. We then reconstructed a refined protein–protein interaction network (PPIN) of infected cells to elucidate the rabies-implicated signal transduction network (RISN). To validate our findings, we confirmed differential expression of randomly selected genes in the network using Real-time PCR. In conclusion, the identification of seed genes and their network neighborhood within the refined PPIN can be useful for demonstrating signaling pathways including interferon circumvent, toward proliferation and survival, and neuropathological clue, explaining the intricate underlying molecular neuropathology of rabies infection and thus rendered a molecular framework for predicting potential drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sayed-Hamidreza Mozhgani
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Mehdi Mirzaie
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University Tehran, Iran
| | - Farshid Noorbakhsh
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences Tehran, Iran
| | - Behrouz Vaziri
- Protein Chemistry and Proteomics Unit, Medical Biotechnology Department, Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Gholami
- WHO Collaborating Center for Reference and Research on Rabies, Pasteur Institute of Iran Tehran, Iran
| | - Naser Ansari-Pour
- Faculty of New Sciences and Technology, University of TehranTehran, Iran; Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, UCL Genetics Institute, University College LondonLondon, UK
| | - Mohieddin Jafari
- Drug Design and Bioinformatics Unit, Medical Biotechnology Department, Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran Tehran, Iran
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5
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Abstract
Rabies virus (RABV) is a strictly neurotropic virus that slowly propagates in the nervous system (NS) of the infected host from the site of entry (usually due to a bite) up to the site of exit (salivary glands). Successful achievement of the virus cycle relies on the preservation of the neuronal network. Once RABV has entered the NS, its progression is not interrupted either by destruction of the infected neurons or by the immune response, which are major host mechanisms for combating viral infection. RABV has developed two main mechanisms to escape the host defenses: (1) its ability to kill protective migrating T cells and (2) its ability to sneak into the NS without triggering apoptosis of the infected neurons and preserving the integrity of neurites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monique Lafon
- Unité de Neuroimmunologie Virale, Département de Virologie, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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6
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Préhaud C, Wolff N, Terrien E, Lafage M, Mégret F, Babault N, Cordier F, Tan GS, Maitrepierre E, Ménager P, Chopy D, Hoos S, England P, Delepierre M, Schnell MJ, Buc H, Lafon M. Attenuation of rabies virulence: takeover by the cytoplasmic domain of its envelope protein. Sci Signal 2010; 3:ra5. [PMID: 20086240 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.2000510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The capacity of a rabies virus to promote neuronal survival (a signature of virulence) or death (a marker of attenuation) depends on the cellular partners recruited by the PDZ-binding site (PDZ-BS) of its envelope glycoprotein (G). Neuronal survival requires the selective association of the PDZ-BS of G with the PDZ domains of two closely related serine-threonine kinases, MAST1 and MAST2. Here, we found that a single amino acid change in the PDZ-BS triggered the apoptotic death of infected neurons and enabled G to interact with additional PDZ partners, in particular the tyrosine phosphatase PTPN4. Knockdown of PTPN4 abrogated virus-mediated apoptosis. Thus, we propose that attenuation of rabies virus requires expansion of the set of host PDZ proteins with which G interacts, which interferes with the finely tuned homeostasis required for survival of the infected neuron.
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Abstract
Rabies virus, the prototypical neurotropic virus, causes one of the most lethal zoonotic diseases. According to official estimates, over 55,000 people die of the disease annually, but this is probably a severe underestimation. A combination of virulence factors enables the virus to enter neurons at peripheral sites and travel through the spinal cord to the brain of the infected host, where it often induces aggression that facilitates the transfer of the virus to a new host. This Review summarizes the current knowledge of the replication cycle of rabies virus and virus- host cell interactions, both of which are fundamental elements in our quest to understand the life cycle of rabies virus and the pathogenesis of rabies.
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Amino acid at position 95 of the matrix protein is a cytopathic determinant of rabies virus. Virus Res 2008; 137:33-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2008.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2008] [Revised: 05/21/2008] [Accepted: 05/23/2008] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Lafon M, Mégret F, Meuth SG, Simon O, Velandia Romero ML, Lafage M, Chen L, Alexopoulou L, Flavell RA, Prehaud C, Wiendl H. Detrimental contribution of the immuno-inhibitor B7-H1 to rabies virus encephalitis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:7506-15. [PMID: 18490751 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.11.7506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Rabies virus is the etiological agent of an acute encephalitis, which in absence of post exposure treatment is fatal in almost all cases. Virus lethality rests on its ability to evade the immune response. In this study, we analyzed the role of the immuno-inhibitory molecule B7-H1 in this virus strategy. We showed that in the brain and spinal cord of mice, rabies virus infection resulted in significant up-regulation of B7-H1 expression, which is specifically expressed in infected neurons. Correlatively, clinical rabies in B7-H1(-/-) mice is markedly less severe than in wild-type mice. B7-H1(-/-) mice display resistance to rabies. Virus invasion is reduced and the level of migratory CD8 T cells increases into the nervous system, while CD4/CD8 ratio remains unchanged in the periphery. In vivo, neuronal B7-H1 expression is critically depending on TLR3 signaling and IFN-beta, because TLR3(-/-) mice--in which IFN-beta production is reduced--showed only a limited increase of B7-H1 transcripts after infection. These data provide evidence that neurons can express the B7-H1 molecule after viral stress or exposure to a particular cytokine environment. They show that the B7-H1/PD-1 pathway can be exploited locally and in an organ specific manner--here the nervous system--by a neurotropic virus to promote successful host invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monique Lafon
- Viral Neuroimmunology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
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10
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Gholami A, Kassis R, Real E, Delmas O, Guadagnini S, Larrous F, Obach D, Prevost MC, Jacob Y, Bourhy H. Mitochondrial dysfunction in lyssavirus-induced apoptosis. J Virol 2008; 82:4774-84. [PMID: 18321977 PMCID: PMC2346764 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02651-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2007] [Accepted: 02/22/2008] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Lyssaviruses are highly neurotropic viruses associated with neuronal apoptosis. Previous observations have indicated that the matrix proteins (M) of some lyssaviruses induce strong neuronal apoptosis. However, the molecular mechanism(s) involved in this phenomenon is still unknown. We show that for Mokola virus (MOK), a lyssavirus of low pathogenicity, the M (M-MOK) targets mitochondria, disrupts the mitochondrial morphology, and induces apoptosis. Our analysis of truncated M-MOK mutants suggests that the information required for efficient mitochondrial targeting and dysfunction, as well as caspase-9 activation and apoptosis, is held between residues 46 and 110 of M-MOK. We used a yeast two-hybrid approach, a coimmunoprecipitation assay, and confocal microscopy to demonstrate that M-MOK physically associates with the subunit I of the cytochrome c (cyt-c) oxidase (CcO) of the mitochondrial respiratory chain; this is in contrast to the M of the highly pathogenic Thailand lyssavirus (M-THA). M-MOK expression induces a significant decrease in CcO activity, which is not the case with M-THA. M-MOK mutations (K77R and N81E) resulting in a similar sequence to M-THA at positions 77 and 81 annul cyt-c release and apoptosis and restore CcO activity. As expected, the reverse mutations, R77K and E81N, introduced in M-THA induce a phenotype similar to that due to M-MOK. These features indicate a novel mechanism for energy depletion during lyssavirus-induced apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alireza Gholami
- Unité Postulante de Recherche et d'Expertise Dynamique des Lyssavirus et Adaptation à l'Hôte, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
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Abstract
Various technological developments have revitalized the approaches employed to study the disease of rabies. In particular, reverse genetics has facilitated the generation of novel viruses used to improve our understanding of the fundamental aspects of rabies virus (RABV) biology and pathogenicity and yielded novel constructs potentially useful as vaccines against rabies and other diseases. Other techniques such as high throughput methods to examine the impact of rabies virus infection on host cell gene expression and two hybrid systems to explore detailed protein-protein interactions also contribute substantially to our understanding of virus-host interactions. This review summarizes much of the increased knowledge about rabies that has resulted from such studies but acknowledges that this is still insufficient to allow rational attempts at curing those who present with clinical disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan A Nadin-Davis
- Centre of Expertise for Rabies, Ottawa Laboratory (Fallowfield), Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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Ubol S, Kasisith J, Pitidhammabhorn D, Tepsumethanol V. Screening of pro-apoptotic genes upregulated in an experimental street rabies virus-infected neonatal mouse brain. Microbiol Immunol 2005; 49:423-31. [PMID: 15905604 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.2005.tb03746.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Rabies virus (RABV) is able to induce apoptotic death of target cells. The molecular pathway of RABV-induced cell death is partially known. In the present study, cDNA array analysis was used as a tool to screen for pro-apoptotic genes that may be involved in RABV induction. RNA was extracted from the infected CNS and from mock-infected controls. When the mean gene expression was compared between the infected group and controls, 21 potential apoptotic genes were identified that exhibited more than 2.5-fold difference in their expression levels. These 21 genes can be grouped into two groups, those genes that participate in the commitment phase and those that play a role as executioners. Examples of genes in commitment phase were death receptors (Fas-L receptor, TNF-receptor), lysosomal proteases, calpain, caspase-1, signaling molecules (ERK, p38MAPK) and bcl-2 family members. Cytochrome c and caspase-3 were representatives of executioners. Based on types of genes activated during the commitment phase, two independent apoptotic mechanisms may be activated in response to the RV infection. The first is immune-mediated death which may operate through the receptor-ligand pathway activated by caspase-1 and the pro-inflammatory cytokine, IL-1beta. The other mechanism is a protease-mediated process which involves lysosomal proteases and calcium-dependent neutral proteases. These two stimulating pathways were followed by Bad, Bak, Bid activation and subsequently the upregulation of cytochrome c and caspase-3. In addition, mobilization of K+ ion and other accessory apoptotic genes such as annexins and clusterin were also upregulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukathida Ubol
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Ratchatewee, Bangkok, Thailand.
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Abstract
Rabies virus (RABV) is a pathogen well-adapted to the nervous system, where it infects neurons. RABV is transmitted by the bite of an infected animal. It enters the nervous system via a motor neuron through the neuromuscular junction, or via a sensory nerve through nerve spindles. It then travels from one neuron to the next, along the spinal cord to the brain and the salivary glands. The virions are then excreted in the saliva of the animal and can be transmitted to another host by bite. Thus preservation of neuronal network integrity is crucial for the virus to be transmitted. Successful invasion of the nervous system by RABV seems to be the result of a subversive strategy based on the survival of infected neurons. This strategy includes protection against virus-mediated apoptosis and destruction of T cells that invade the CNS in response to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Lafon
- Unité de Neuroimmunologie Virale, Département de Neuroscience, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France.
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14
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Abstract
Rabies virus (RV) is a prototype neurotropic virus that causes fatal disease in human and animals. RV infects hosts at the periphery, enters motoneurons or sensory nerves and moves to the central nervous system (CNS) via retrograde axonal transport. At later stages, there is also centrifugal spread to major exit portals, such as the salivary glands. Transmission to other hosts is facilitated by behavioral changes related to the CNS infection. Successful accomplishment of the RV infectious cycle depends on multiple functions of the virus, and of individual virus proteins, all together defining the typical pathogenicity and virulence, i.e. the biological fitness of this virus. In particular, it appears important for RV to sneak into the host without causing pronounced host responses and to preserve, at least for some time, the integrity of infected cells and of the neuronal network. The availability of reverse genetics systems that allow generation of engineered recombinant RV has provided tools for a more detailed analysis of viral functions relevant to the typical RV pathogenesis. Novel developments such as tracking of live fluorescent RV are further increasing the opportunities to decipher RV pathogenicity factors. In this review, we describe different aspects of the molecular biology of RV that are relevant to pathogenesis, with a particular emphasis on the accurate control of RV transcription, gene expression, and replication. In addition, the role of individual virus proteins in maintaining host cell integrity and supporting retrograde transport is discussed. The potential of recombinant RVs with single or multiple pathogenicity factors eliminated is being discussed in terms of vaccine and virus vector development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Finke
- Max von Pettenkofer-Institute & Gene Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, Feodor-Lynen-Str. 25, 81377 Munich, Germany.
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15
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Parris GE. The role of viruses in cell fusion and its importance to evolution, invasion and metastasis of cancer clones. Med Hypotheses 2005; 64:1011-4. [PMID: 15780502 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2004.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2004] [Accepted: 11/10/2004] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The hypothesis described here is a logical extension of two areas of observation: First, it has been discovered that viruses (and perhaps other intracellular parasites) catalyze cell fusion as a means of cell-to-cell transmission. Effective cell-to-cell transmission appears to require: (i) induced expression of adhesion molecules on the cell surface; (ii) suppression of p53-dependent apoptosis; (iii) arrest of the cell cycle that would otherwise lead to cell death by "mitotic catastrophe". Suppression of apoptosis and cell death through "mitotic catastrophe" are important for formation of stable syncytia. Expression of Bcl-2 or a viral analogue of Bcl-2 (vBcl-2) is particularly useful to viruses because Bcl-2 both suppresses (p53-dependent) apoptosis and arrests the cell cycle through p27. Bcl-2 may also block any p53-independent cell death (e.g., mitotic catastrophe) that is initiated at the mitochondria. Second, it has been found that cell fusion plays a role in cancer clone evolution, invasion of normal cells in tissue adjacent to tumors and metastasis to remote normal tissues. Thus, it can be hypothesized that infection of cancer cells with viruses that spread by cell-to-cell transmission may coincidentally contribute to development of aggressive aneuploid clones and facilitate both invasion and metastasis of tumors. Regardless of the role of viruses, suppression of Bcl-2 may be an approach to preventing successful formation of syncytia and limiting the invasion and metastasis of tumors, thus, making surgical removal and radiation treatment more feasible.
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Mégret F, Prehaud C, Lafage M, Batejat C, Escriou N, Lay S, Thoulouze MI, Lafon M. Immunopotentiation of the antibody response against influenza HA with apoptotic bodies generated by rabies virus G-ERA protein-driven apoptosis. Vaccine 2005; 23:5342-50. [PMID: 16054731 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2004] [Accepted: 06/20/2005] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Apoptosis is considered to be a way of eliminating unwanted cells without causing major inflammation. Nevertheless, several lines of evidence show that apoptotic cell-derived antigens can be strong immunogens. The rabies virus glycoprotein G-ERA is an apoptotic molecule. We tested the ability of G-ERA to potentiate a B cell response against an exogenous antigen (influenza hemagglutinin, HA). We found that co-expression of G-ERA and HA in apoptotic bodies increased both the primary and memory HA-specific immune responses. The immunopotentiation of G-ERA is apoptosis-mediated but not necrosis-mediated. Our data indicate that G-ERA-mediated apoptosis might be useful to improve the immunogenicity of live vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Mégret
- Unité de Neuroimmunologie Virale, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
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17
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Abstract
Because morphologic changes in natural rabies are usually relatively mild, it is thought that the severe clinical disease with a fatal outcome must be due to neuronal dysfunction of rabies virus-infected neurons. The precise bases of this functional impairment are unknown, and current knowledge on electro-physiological alterations, effects on ion channels and neurotransmission, and neurotoxicity are reviewed. Rabies virus may induce neuronal death, possibly through apoptotic mechanisms. Neuronal apoptosis has been observed in vitro and also in vivo under particular experimental conditions. The relevance of neuronal apoptosis in these situations to natural rabies has not yet been fully elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen F Fu
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
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18
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Abstract
In the absence of treatment, infection with a variety of rabies virus strains most often results in a lethal outcome. This can be averted by prompt immunization following exposure demonstrating that the development of anti-rabies viral immunity prior to extensive infection of neurons is protective. Otherwise it might be expected that immune clearance of the virus would result in neurological sequelae. Thus, the capacity of a rabies virus to induce a protective immune response is a major, negative determinant of its pathogenicity and highly pathogenic rabies viruses have characteristics that avoid triggering protective immune responses. On the other hand, there is evidence that certain aspects of immunity may contribute to the pathogenesis of rabies under certain circumstances. The relationship between rabies virus and the immune system of the host is the focus of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Craig Hooper
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
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19
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Rutherford M, Jackson AC. Neuronal apoptosis in immunodeficient mice infected with the challenge virus standard strain of rabies virus by intracerebral inoculation. J Neurovirol 2005; 10:409-13. [PMID: 15765812 DOI: 10.1080/13550280490523643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The challenge virus standard-11 strain (CVS) of fixed rabies virus produces neuronal apoptosis in widespread areas of the brain of mice after intracerebral inoculation. The role of the adaptive immune response in producing neuronal apoptosis in this model was evaluated by comparing the infections in adult C57BL/6J mice with nude mice (T cell deficient) and Rag1 mice (T and B cell deficient). Both strains of immunodeficient mice showed very similar clinical disease and neuropathological findings, including marked neuronal apoptosis. The adaptive immune response is unlikely of fundamental importance in producing neuronal apoptosis in the brains of mice in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maegan Rutherford
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
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20
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Abstract
Rabies virus (RV) causes a non-lytic infection of neurons leading to a fatal myeloencephalitis in mammals including humans. By comparing the infection of the nervous system of mice by a highly pathogenic neuroinvasive strain of RV (CVS) and by a strain of attenuated pathogenicity (PV) with restricted brain invasion, we showed that RV neuroinvasiveness results of three factors: not only neurotropic RV avoids induced neuron cell death but also "protective" T cells that migrate into the infected nervous system are killed by apoptosis and finally inflammation of the infected nervous system is limited. Our data suggest that the preservation of the neuronal network, the limitation of the inflammation and the destruction of T cells that invade the CNS in response to the infection are crucial events for RV neuroinvasion and for transmission of RV to another animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leïla Baloul
- Unité de neuroimmunologie virale, Institut Pasteur, 25, rue du Dr-Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
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21
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Lay S, Préhaud C, Dietzschold B, Lafon M. Glycoprotein of nonpathogenic rabies viruses is a major inducer of apoptosis in human jurkat T cells. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004; 1010:577-81. [PMID: 15033795 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1299.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
This study sought to identify the RV protein that causes apoptosis. For this purpose, we first compared the ability of G and N proteins of a pathogenic and a nonpathogenic strain to trigger apoptosis of Jurkat rtTA by using an inducible Tet-on expression system. Then we analyzed apoptosis induced by a reverse genetic-engineered recombinant rabies virus in which the G gene from a nonpathogenic strain was replaced by its pathogenic strain counterpart. No other virus proteins than G of nonpathogenic RV strains induce apoptosis, and the G polypeptide of RV is a critical determinant for apoptosis in human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Lay
- Unité de NeuroImmunologie Virale, Département de Neuroscience, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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22
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Abstract
Rabies virus (RABV) is a pathogen well-adapted to the nervous system, where it infects the neurons. RABV is transmitted by the bite of an infected animal. It enters the nervous system via a motor neuron through the neuromuscular junction, or via a sensory nerve through nerve spindles. It then travels from one neuron to the next, along the spinal cord to the brain and the salivary glands. The virions are then excreted in the saliva of the animal and can be transmitted to another host by bite. Thus, preservation of the neuronal network integrity is crucial for the virus to be transmitted. Successful invasion of the nervous system by RABV seems to be the result of a subversive strategy based on the survival of infected neurons including protection against virus-mediated apoptosis and destruction of T cells that invade the CNS in response to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Lafon
- Unité de Neuroimmunologie Virale, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
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