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Suski M, Olszanecki R, Chmura Ł, Stachowicz A, Madej J, Okoń K, Adamek D, Korbut R. Influence of metformin on mitochondrial subproteome in the brain of apoE knockout mice. Eur J Pharmacol 2016; 772:99-107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.12.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Revised: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Boudina S, Sena S, Sloan C, Tebbi A, Han YH, O'Neill BT, Cooksey RC, Jones D, Holland WL, McClain DA, Abel ED. Early mitochondrial adaptations in skeletal muscle to diet-induced obesity are strain dependent and determine oxidative stress and energy expenditure but not insulin sensitivity. Endocrinology 2012; 153:2677-88. [PMID: 22510273 PMCID: PMC3359615 DOI: 10.1210/en.2011-2147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
This study sought to elucidate the relationship between skeletal muscle mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and insulin resistance in two mouse models with differential susceptibility to diet-induced obesity. We examined the time course of mitochondrial dysfunction and insulin resistance in obesity-prone C57B and obesity-resistant FVB mouse strains in response to high-fat feeding. After 5 wk, impaired insulin-mediated glucose uptake in skeletal muscle developed in both strains in the absence of any impairment in proximal insulin signaling. Impaired mitochondrial oxidative capacity preceded the development of insulin resistant glucose uptake in C57B mice in concert with increased oxidative stress in skeletal muscle. By contrast, mitochondrial uncoupling in FVB mice, which prevented oxidative stress and increased energy expenditure, did not prevent insulin resistant glucose uptake in skeletal muscle. Preventing oxidative stress in C57B mice treated systemically with an antioxidant normalized skeletal muscle mitochondrial function but failed to normalize glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity. Furthermore, high fat-fed uncoupling protein 3 knockout mice developed increased oxidative stress that did not worsen glucose tolerance. In the evolution of diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance, initial but divergent strain-dependent mitochondrial adaptations modulate oxidative stress and energy expenditure without influencing the onset of impaired insulin-mediated glucose uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sihem Boudina
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA.
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3
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Schreurs BG. The effects of cholesterol on learning and memory. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2010; 34:1366-79. [PMID: 20470821 PMCID: PMC2900496 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2010] [Revised: 04/26/2010] [Accepted: 04/28/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cholesterol is vital to normal brain function including learning and memory but that involvement is as complex as the synthesis, metabolism and excretion of cholesterol itself. Dietary cholesterol influences learning tasks from water maze to fear conditioning even though cholesterol does not cross the blood brain barrier. Excess cholesterol has many consequences including peripheral pathology that can signal brain via cholesterol metabolites, pro-inflammatory mediators and antioxidant processes. Manipulations of cholesterol within the central nervous system through genetic, pharmacological, or metabolic means circumvent the blood brain barrier and affect learning and memory but often in animals already otherwise compromised. The human literature is no less complex. Cholesterol reduction using statins improves memory in some cases but not others. There is also controversy over statin use to alleviate memory problems in Alzheimer's disease. Correlations of cholesterol and cognitive function are mixed and association studies find some genetic polymorphisms are related to cognitive function but others are not. In sum, the field is in flux with a number of seemingly contradictory results and many complexities. Nevertheless, understanding cholesterol effects on learning and memory is too important to ignore.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard G Schreurs
- Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute and Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, West Virginia University School of Medicine, BRNI Building, Morgantown, WV 26505-3409-08, USA.
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4
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Age-Dependent Expression of Apolipoprotein E in Mouse Cerebral Cortex. J Mol Neurosci 2010; 43:251-6. [DOI: 10.1007/s12031-010-9412-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2010] [Accepted: 06/11/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Jo J, Gavrilova O, Pack S, Jou W, Mullen S, Sumner AE, Cushman SW, Periwal V. Hypertrophy and/or Hyperplasia: Dynamics of Adipose Tissue Growth. PLoS Comput Biol 2009; 5:e1000324. [PMID: 19325873 PMCID: PMC2653640 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 517] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2008] [Accepted: 02/09/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Adipose tissue grows by two mechanisms: hyperplasia (cell number increase) and hypertrophy (cell size increase). Genetics and diet affect the relative contributions of these two mechanisms to the growth of adipose tissue in obesity. In this study, the size distributions of epididymal adipose cells from two mouse strains, obesity-resistant FVB/N and obesity-prone C57BL/6, were measured after 2, 4, and 12 weeks under regular and high-fat feeding conditions. The total cell number in the epididymal fat pad was estimated from the fat pad mass and the normalized cell-size distribution. The cell number and volume-weighted mean cell size increase as a function of fat pad mass. To address adipose tissue growth precisely, we developed a mathematical model describing the evolution of the adipose cell-size distributions as a function of the increasing fat pad mass, instead of the increasing chronological time. Our model describes the recruitment of new adipose cells and their subsequent development in different strains, and with different diet regimens, with common mechanisms, but with diet- and genetics-dependent model parameters. Compared to the FVB/N strain, the C57BL/6 strain has greater recruitment of small adipose cells. Hyperplasia is enhanced by high-fat diet in a strain-dependent way, suggesting a synergistic interaction between genetics and diet. Moreover, high-fat feeding increases the rate of adipose cell size growth, independent of strain, reflecting the increase in calories requiring storage. Additionally, high-fat diet leads to a dramatic spreading of the size distribution of adipose cells in both strains; this implies an increase in size fluctuations of adipose cells through lipid turnover.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junghyo Jo
- Laboratory of Biological Modeling, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethedsa, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Oksana Gavrilova
- Mouse Metabolism Core Laboratory, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethedsa, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Stephanie Pack
- Mouse Metabolism Core Laboratory, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethedsa, Maryland, United States of America
| | - William Jou
- Mouse Metabolism Core Laboratory, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethedsa, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Shawn Mullen
- GPP/OITE/OIR/OD, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Anne E. Sumner
- Clinical Endocrinology Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethedsa, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Samuel W. Cushman
- Diabetes Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethedsa, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Vipul Periwal
- Laboratory of Biological Modeling, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethedsa, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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de Chaves EP, Narayanaswami V. Apolipoprotein E and cholesterol in aging and disease in the brain. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 3:505-530. [PMID: 19649144 DOI: 10.2217/17460875.3.5.505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Cholesterol can be detrimental or vital, and must be present in the right place at the right time and in the right amount. This is well known in the heart and the vascular system. However, in the CNS cholesterol is still an enigma, although several of its fundamental functions in the brain have been identified. Brain cholesterol has attracted additional attention owing to its close connection to ApoE, a key polymorphic transporter of extracellular cholesterol in humans. Indeed, both cholesterol and ApoE are so critical to fundamental activities of the brain, that the brain regulates their synthesis autonomously. Yet, similar control mechanisms of ApoE and cholesterol homeostasis may exist on either sides of the blood-brain barrier. One indication is that the APOE ε4 allele is associated with hypercholesterolemia and a proatherogenic profile on the vascular side and with increased risk of Alzheimer's disease on the CNS side. In this review, we draw attention to the association between cholesterol and ApoE in the aging and diseased brain, and to the behavior of the ApoE4 protein at the molecular level. The attempt to correlate in vivo and in vitro observations is challenging but crucial for developing future strategies to address ApoE-related aberrations in cholesterol metabolism selectively in the brain.
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Grootendorst J, Bour A, Vogel E, Kelche C, Sullivan PM, Dodart JC, Bales K, Mathis C. Human apoE targeted replacement mouse lines: h-apoE4 and h-apoE3 mice differ on spatial memory performance and avoidance behavior. Behav Brain Res 2004; 159:1-14. [PMID: 15794991 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2004.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2004] [Revised: 09/21/2004] [Accepted: 09/22/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E4 (apoE4), one of the three most common human apoE (h-apoE) isoforms, is a major genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease and for cognitive deficits associated with aging. The biological mechanisms involving apoE in learning and memory processes are unclear. A potential isoform-dependent effect of h-apoE on cognitive performance was studied in gene-targeted mice, which show physiological expression levels and distribution of h-apoE3 or h-apoE4. Male and female h-apoE3 and h-apoE4, apoE-deficient and C57BL/6J mice (4-5 months) were subjected to tasks evaluating spatial memory and avoidance conditioning. Female h-apoE4 mice did not detect changes in the spatial configuration of objects as opposed to female h-apoE3 mice. Female h-apoE3 mice failed to improve their performance during training in a reference memory version of the spatial water-maze task, but performed well during the probe trial 24 h after the last training trial. Memory retention performances of h-apoE4 mice were impaired during this probe trial. Both h-apoE3 and h-apoE4 mice did not improve their performance in a water-maze delayed matching to place task. Finally, h-apoE3 mice showed mild perturbations in a Y-maze active avoidance task, whereas both h-apoE mouse lines performed well in a passive avoidance task. Thus, spatial memory performances appeared particularly sensitive to h-apoE-isoform-dependent effects. Deficits occurred predominantly in female h-apoE4 mice, which support the hypothesis that humans carrying h-apoE4, especially women, have impaired spatial memory compared to those carrying h-apoE3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeannette Grootendorst
- Laboratoire de Neurosciences Comportementales et Cognitives, Université Louis Pasteur, CNRS-UMR 7521, IFR 37, 12 rue Goethe, 67000 Strasbourg, France
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Hotchkiss AK, Pyter LM, Neigh GN, Nelson RJ. Nyctohemeral differences in response to restraint stress in CD-1 and C57BL/6 mice. Physiol Behav 2004; 80:441-7. [PMID: 14741228 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2003.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Restraint represents psychological and physical stress. Methods used to model restraint stress in mice vary in duration, time of day during which restraint is applied, and the strain of mouse tested. The goals of this study were: (1) to identify the optimal daily time periods during which the stress response is maximized, and (2) to describe mouse strain differences, if any, in response to restraint. Groups of outbred CD-1 and inbred C57BL/6 mice were restrained for 3 h during three time points of the daily light-dark cycle: (1) the late light phase, (2) the transition between the light phase and the dark phase, and (3) the mid-dark phase. Additional mice served as control groups for food deprivation or were unhandled except for blood sampling. Mice of both strains lost significant body mass after 3 days of restraint. Unrestrained food-deprived mice lost body mass, particularly if food-deprived during transition periods. Corticosterone was elevated in restrained mice compared with control mice. Neither basal nor postrestraint corticosterone differed between strains. Corticosterone was elevated by food deprivation during transitional periods in CD-1 mice and during both transition and dark phases in C57 mice. Corticosterone response in restrained CD-1 mice was increased during the dark phase. These results suggest that the physiological response to restraint is similar in both strains. However, corticosterone responses to both restraint and food deprivation were highest during the transitional and dark phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew K Hotchkiss
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, 48a Townshend Hall, 1885 Neil Avenue Mall, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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Nathan BP, Yost J, Litherland MT, Struble RG, Switzer PV. Olfactory function in apoE knockout mice. Behav Brain Res 2004; 150:1-7. [PMID: 15033273 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(03)00219-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2003] [Revised: 04/30/2003] [Accepted: 06/24/2003] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (apoE), a lipid transporting protein, has been shown to play a vital role in nerve repair and remodeling. Since the olfactory system is in a continuous state of remodeling, the present study tested the hypothesis that apoE is required for normal functioning of the olfactory system. Olfactory behavior of wild-type (WT) and apoE-deficient (apoE KO) mice was assessed by using three standard olfactory tests: (1) the buried food pellet (BFP) test; (2) the odor choice (OC) test; and (3) the odor cued taste avoidance (OCTA) test. ApoE KO mice performed poorly in all the three tests as compared to WT mice, although they learned the tasks at a rate comparable to WT mice. ApoE KO mice had a significantly longer latency to find the buried pellet than WT mice. In the OC experiment, apoE KO mice did not differentiate water from an odorant solution. Furthermore, in the OCTA test the apoE KO mice were significantly less successful than WT mice at avoiding water containing an odorant and a bad tastant. These data demonstrate that apoE deficiency in apoE KO mice leads to a deficit in olfactory function, suggesting an important role for apoE in the olfactory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Britto P Nathan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Illinois University, 600 Lincoln Avenue, Charleston, IL 61920, USA.
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Tsai SJ, Yu YWY, Hong CJ. Personality traits in young female apolipoprotein E (apoE) epsilon4 and non-epsilon4 carriers. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2004; 124B:58-60. [PMID: 14681915 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.20052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is the major brain apolipoprotein, and is related to the functional integrity of the central nervous system. It has been reported that the apoE genetic polymorphism is associated with several components of childhood and adolescent temperament. To study the effect of the presence of the apoE epsilon4 allele on adult personality factors, tridimensional personality questionnaire (TPQ) scores were compared for epsilon4 and non-epsilon4 carriers in a sample population consisting of 135 young females. No significant differences were demonstrated comparing the scores for the two groups. Our findings suggest that the investigated apoE polymorphism does not play a major role in personality trait factors, as assessed by TPQ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shih-Jen Tsai
- Department of Psychiatry, Veterans General Hospital-Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
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Grootendorst J, Kempes MM, Lucassen PJ, Dalm S, de Kloet ER, Oitzl MS. Differential effect of corticosterone on spatial learning abilities in apolipoprotein E knockout and C57BL/6J mice. Brain Res 2002; 953:281-5. [PMID: 12384263 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(02)03399-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Previously, we found that repeated exposure to predator stress corrected the deficit in spatial learning of apolipoprotein E-knockout (apoE0/0) mice, but impaired cognitive performance of wild-type mice. Here we show that elevated corticosterone concentrations, accomplished by subcutaneously implanted pellets, results in similar genotype-related effects on water maze learning: while apoE0/0 mice improved their spatial learning abilities, wild-type mice (C57/Bl6J) became impaired. These results suggest that corticosterone mediates the lasting effects of environmental challenges on apoE-genotype related cognitive performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Grootendorst
- Division of Medical Pharmacology, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden University Medical Center, University of Leiden, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands.
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Mineur YS, Sluyter F, de Wit S, Oostra BA, Crusio WE. Behavioral and neuroanatomical characterization of the Fmr1 knockout mouse. Hippocampus 2002; 12:39-46. [PMID: 11918286 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.10005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies showed the Fmr1 knockout (KO) mouse to be an excellent animal model for human fragile-X syndrome. The aim of this study was to further characterize the phenotype of these animals. Neuroanatomically, KO male mice were compared to wild-types (littermates) with respect to their sizes of hippocampal intra- and infrapyramidal mossy fiber (IIPMF) terminal fields. Behaviorally, they were tested in four different paradigms, each measuring different aspects of cognitive and emotional behavior: elevated plus maze (anxiety), neutral cage (aggression), open field (exploration), and radial maze (spatial memory). The results showed a diminished ability for radial maze learning associated with smaller sizes of IIPMF terminal fields. In addition, Fmr1 knockout animals exhibited increased locomotor activity, while no differences were found for aggression and anxiety. These data suggest the involvement of FMRP protein in the development of spatial learning and the sprouting of IIPMF terminal fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yann S Mineur
- Brudnick Neuropsychiatric Research Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester 01604, USA
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Williams H, Johnson JL, Carson KGS, Jackson CL. Characteristics of intact and ruptured atherosclerotic plaques in brachiocephalic arteries of apolipoprotein E knockout mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22:788-92. [PMID: 12006391 DOI: 10.1161/01.atv.0000014587.66321.b4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The brachiocephalic arteries of fat-fed apolipoprotein E knockout mice develop plaques that frequently rupture and form luminal thromboses. The morphological characteristics of plaques without evidence of instability or with healed previous ruptures (intact) and vessels with acutely ruptured plaques (ruptured) have now been defined, to understand the process of plaque destabilization in more detail. Ninety-eight apolipoprotein E knockout mice were fed a diet supplemented with 21% lard and 0.15% cholesterol, for 5 to 59 weeks. Of these 98 mice, 51 had an acutely ruptured plaque in the brachiocephalic artery. Ruptured and intact plaques differed in terms of plaque cross-sectional area (intact, 0.109+/-0.016 mm2; ruptured, 0.192+/-0.009 mm2; P=0.0005), luminal occlusion (intact, 35.3+/-3.3%; ruptured, 57.7+/-1.9%; P<0.0001), the number of buried caps within the lesion (intact, 1.06+/-0.12; ruptured, 2.66+/-0.16; P<0.0001), fibrous cap thickness (intact, 4.7+/-0.6 microm; ruptured, 2.0+/-0.3 microm; P=0.0004), and lipid fractional volume (intact, 35.9+/-3.0%; ruptured, 50.7+/-2.2%; P=0.0019). This study confirms that plaque rupture is a frequent occurrence in the brachiocephalic arteries of apolipoprotein E knockout mice on a high-fat diet. The data also show that ruptured plaques in these mice show many of the characteristics of vulnerable plaques in humans. This supports the use of this model in studies of the mechanisms and therapy of plaque rupture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Williams
- Bristol Heart Institute, University of Bristol, Bristol Royal Infirmary, United Kingdom
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Mulder M, Blokland A, van den Berg DJ, Schulten H, Bakker AH, Terwel D, Honig W, de Kloet ER, Havekes LM, Steinbusch HW, de Lange EC. Apolipoprotein E protects against neuropathology induced by a high-fat diet and maintains the integrity of the blood-brain barrier during aging. J Transl Med 2001; 81:953-60. [PMID: 11454984 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.3780307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARY The present study provides evidence that chronic intake of a high-fat diet induces a dramatic extravasation of immunoglobulins, indicating alterations in blood-brain barrier (BBB) functioning, in the brains of apolipoprotein E (apoE)-knockout mice, but not of C57Bl/6 control mice. Using sodium fluorescein as a marker for the permeability of the BBB, we found additional support for age-related disturbances of BBB function in apoE-knockout mice. Behavioral analysis of apoE-knockout mice compared with C57Bl/6 mice indicated that they were also less efficient in acquiring the spatial Morris water maze task. Furthermore, apoE-knockout mice are known to develop severe atherosclerosis, which is exacerbated with a high-fat diet. We therefore compared the apoE-knockout mice with the apoE3-Leiden transgenic mice, which are known to develop atherosclerosis. However, apoE3-Leiden mice that were kept on a high-fat, high-cholesterol diet and that developed atherosclerosis to an extent similar to the apoE-knockout mice, showed no signs of BBB disturbances. These results indicate for the first time that apoE plays an essential role in the maintenance of the integrity of the BBB during aging and that it protects the brain from neuropathology induced by a high-fat diet. We therefore hypothesize that the role of apoE in the maintenance of the integrity of the BBB may be the mechanism by which apoE affects the progression of neurodegeneration, as seen in Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Mulder
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Faculty of Medicine, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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