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Andrade P, Carneiro M. Pterin-based pigmentation in animals. Biol Lett 2021; 17:20210221. [PMID: 34403644 PMCID: PMC8370806 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2021.0221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Pterins are one of the major sources of bright coloration in animals. They are produced endogenously, participate in vital physiological processes and serve a variety of signalling functions. Despite their ubiquity in nature, pterin-based pigmentation has received little attention when compared to other major pigment classes. Here, we summarize major aspects relating to pterin pigmentation in animals, from its long history of research to recent genomic studies on the molecular mechanisms underlying its evolution. We argue that pterins have intermediate characteristics (endogenously produced, typically bright) between two well-studied pigment types, melanins (endogenously produced, typically cryptic) and carotenoids (dietary uptake, typically bright), providing unique opportunities to address general questions about the biology of coloration, from the mechanisms that determine how different types of pigmentation evolve to discussions on honest signalling hypotheses. Crucial gaps persist in our knowledge on the molecular basis underlying the production and deposition of pterins. We thus highlight the need for functional studies on systems amenable for laboratory manipulation, but also on systems that exhibit natural variation in pterin pigmentation. The wealth of potential model species, coupled with recent technological and analytical advances, make this a promising time to advance research on pterin-based pigmentation in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Andrade
- CIBIO-InBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Miguel Carneiro
- CIBIO-InBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
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2
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Wu Y, Chen P, Sun L, Yuan S, Cheng Z, Lu L, Du H, Zhan M. Sepiapterin reductase: Characteristics and role in diseases. J Cell Mol Med 2020; 24:9495-9506. [PMID: 32734666 PMCID: PMC7520308 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.15608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Sepiapterin reductase, a homodimer composed of two subunits, plays an important role in the biosynthesis of tetrahydrobiopterin. Furthermore, sepiapterin reductase exhibits a wide distribution in different tissues and is associated with many diseases, including brain dysfunction, chronic pain, cardiovascular disease and cancer. With regard to drugs targeting sepiapterin reductase, many compounds have been identified and provide potential methods to treat various diseases. However, the underlying mechanism of sepiapterin reductase in many biological processes is unclear. Therefore, this article summarized the structure, distribution and function of sepiapterin reductase, as well as the relationship between sepiapterin reductase and different diseases, with the aim of finding evidence to guide further studies on the molecular mechanisms and the potential clinical value of sepiapterin reductase. In particular, the different effects induced by the depletion of sepiapterin reductase or the inhibition of the enzyme suggest that the non-enzymatic activity of sepiapterin reductase could function in certain biological processes, which also provides a possible direction for sepiapterin reductase research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Wu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug ScreeningChina Pharmaceutical UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Peng Chen
- Department of NeurosurgeryThe Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang UniversityNanchangChina
| | - Li Sun
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug ScreeningChina Pharmaceutical UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Shengtao Yuan
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug ScreeningChina Pharmaceutical UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Zujue Cheng
- Department of NeurosurgeryThe Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang UniversityNanchangChina
| | - Ligong Lu
- Interventional Radiology CenterZhuhai People's HospitalZhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan UniversityZhuhaiChina
| | - Hongzhi Du
- School of PharmacyHubei University of Chinese MedicineWuhanChina
| | - Meixiao Zhan
- Interventional Radiology CenterZhuhai People's HospitalZhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan UniversityZhuhaiChina
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Gao L, Pung YF, Zhang J, Chen P, Wang T, Li M, Meza M, Toro L, Cai H. Sepiapterin reductase regulation of endothelial tetrahydrobiopterin and nitric oxide bioavailability. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2009; 297:H331-9. [PMID: 19429835 PMCID: PMC2711718 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00007.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2009] [Accepted: 04/28/2009] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Sepiapterin reductase (SPR) catalyzes the final step of tetrahydrobiopterin (H(4)B) biosynthesis and the first step of H(4)B regeneration from an exogenous precursor sepiapterin. Despite the potential significance of SPR in regulating H(4)B-dependent nitric oxide (NO(*)) production, the endothelium-specific sequence and functions of SPR remain elusive. We first cloned endothelial SPR cDNA from bovine aortic endothelial cells (Genebank: DQ978331). In cells transiently transfected with SPR gene, SPR activity (HPLC) was dramatically increased by 19-fold, corresponding to a significant increase in endothelial H(4)B content (HPLC) and NO(*) production (electron spin resonance). In vivo delivery of SPR gene significantly increased vascular SPR protein expression (mouse vs. bovine antibodies to differentiate endogenous vs. exogenous), activity, H(4)B content, and NO(*) production, as well as NO(*)-dependent vasorelaxation. In endothelial cells transfected with small interfering RNA specific for SPR, approximately 87% of mRNA were attenuated (real-time quantitative RT-PCR), corresponding to a significant reduction in SPR protein expression and activity, which was associated with decreases in both intracellular H(4)B content and NO(*) level. Exogenous administration of sepiapterin to endothelial cells significantly upregulated H(4)B and NO(*) levels, which were attenuated by SPR RNA interference (RNAi). H(4)B-stimulated increase in NO(*) production, however, was SPR RNAi independent. GTP cyclohydrolase 1 expression and activity, as well as dihydrofolate reductase expression, were not affected by SPR RNAi, whereas dihydrofolate reductase activity was significantly downregulated. These data represent the first to study endothelial SPR functionally and clearly demonstrate an important role of endothelial SPR in modulating H(4)B and NO(*) bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Gao
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology and Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Laboratories, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90025, USA
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Yang S, Lee YJ, Kim JM, Park S, Peris J, Laipis P, Park YS, Chung JH, Oh SP. A murine model for human sepiapterin-reductase deficiency. Am J Hum Genet 2006; 78:575-87. [PMID: 16532389 PMCID: PMC1424682 DOI: 10.1086/501372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2005] [Accepted: 01/17/2006] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH(4)) is an essential cofactor for several enzymes, including all three forms of nitric oxide synthases, the three aromatic hydroxylases, and glyceryl-ether mono-oxygenase. A proper level of BH(4) is, therefore, necessary for the metabolism of phenylalanine and the production of nitric oxide, catecholamines, and serotonin. BH(4) deficiency has been shown to be closely associated with diverse neurological psychiatric disorders. Sepiapterin reductase (SPR) is an enzyme that catalyzes the final step of BH(4) biosynthesis. Whereas the number of cases of neuropsychological disorders resulting from deficiencies of other catalytic enzymes involved in BH(4) biosynthesis and metabolism has been increasing, only a handful of cases of SPR deficiency have been reported, and the role of SPR in BH(4) biosynthesis in vivo has been poorly understood. Here, we report that mice deficient in the Spr gene (Spr(-/-)) display disturbed pterin profiles and greatly diminished levels of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, indicating that SPR is essential for homeostasis of BH(4) and for the normal functions of BH(4)-dependent enzymes. The Spr(-/-) mice exhibit phenylketonuria, dwarfism, and impaired body movement. Oral supplementation of BH(4) and neurotransmitter precursors completely rescued dwarfism and phenylalanine metabolism. The biochemical and behavioral characteristics of Spr(-/-) mice share striking similarities with the symptoms observed in SPR-deficient patients. This Spr mutant strain of mice will be an invaluable resource to elucidate many important issues regarding SPR and BH(4) deficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seungkyoung Yang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, and Department of Pathology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea; Departments of Physiology and Functional Genomics and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, and Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida College of Pharmacy, Gainesville; and School of Biotechnology and Biomedical Science, Inje University, Kimhae, South Korea
| | - Young Jae Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, and Department of Pathology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea; Departments of Physiology and Functional Genomics and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, and Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida College of Pharmacy, Gainesville; and School of Biotechnology and Biomedical Science, Inje University, Kimhae, South Korea
| | - Jin-Man Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, and Department of Pathology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea; Departments of Physiology and Functional Genomics and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, and Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida College of Pharmacy, Gainesville; and School of Biotechnology and Biomedical Science, Inje University, Kimhae, South Korea
| | - Sean Park
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, and Department of Pathology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea; Departments of Physiology and Functional Genomics and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, and Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida College of Pharmacy, Gainesville; and School of Biotechnology and Biomedical Science, Inje University, Kimhae, South Korea
| | - Joanna Peris
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, and Department of Pathology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea; Departments of Physiology and Functional Genomics and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, and Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida College of Pharmacy, Gainesville; and School of Biotechnology and Biomedical Science, Inje University, Kimhae, South Korea
| | - Philip Laipis
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, and Department of Pathology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea; Departments of Physiology and Functional Genomics and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, and Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida College of Pharmacy, Gainesville; and School of Biotechnology and Biomedical Science, Inje University, Kimhae, South Korea
| | - Young Shik Park
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, and Department of Pathology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea; Departments of Physiology and Functional Genomics and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, and Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida College of Pharmacy, Gainesville; and School of Biotechnology and Biomedical Science, Inje University, Kimhae, South Korea
| | - Jae Hoon Chung
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, and Department of Pathology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea; Departments of Physiology and Functional Genomics and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, and Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida College of Pharmacy, Gainesville; and School of Biotechnology and Biomedical Science, Inje University, Kimhae, South Korea
| | - S. Paul Oh
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, and Department of Pathology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, South Korea; Departments of Physiology and Functional Genomics and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, and Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida College of Pharmacy, Gainesville; and School of Biotechnology and Biomedical Science, Inje University, Kimhae, South Korea
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Ikemoto K, Suzuki T, Ichinose H, Ohye T, Nishimura A, Nishi K, Nagatsu I, Nagatsu T. Localization of sepiapterin reductase in the human brain. Brain Res 2002; 954:237-46. [PMID: 12414107 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(02)03341-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Sepiapterin reductase (SPR) is the enzyme that catalyzes the final step of the synthesis of tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), the cofactor for phenylalanine hydroxylase, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), tryptophan hydroxylase, and nitric oxide synthase (NOS). Although SPR is essential for synthesizing BH4, the distribution of SPR in the human brain has not yet been clarified. In the present study, we purified recombinant human SPR from cDNA, raised an antibody against human SPR (hSPR), and examined the localization of SPR protein and SPR activity. Human brain homogenates from the substantia nigra (SN), caudate nucleus (CN), gray and white matters of the cerebral cortex (CTX), and dorsal and ventral parts of the medulla oblongata (MO) were subjected to Western blot analysis with anti-hSPR antibody or with anti-TH antibody. Whereas TH protein showed a restricted localization, being mainly detected in the SN and CN, SPR protein was detected in all brain regions examined. SPR activity was relatively high compared with the activity of GTP cyclohydrolase I (GCH), the rate-limiting biosynthetic enzyme of BH4, and was more widely distributed than GCH activity. Immunohistochemistry revealed SPR immunoreactivity in pyramidal neurons in the cerebral CTX, in a small number of striatal neurons, and in neurons of the hypothalamic and brain stem monoaminergic fields and olivary nucleus. Double-staining immunohistochemistry showed that TH and SPR were colocalized in the SN dopamine neurons. Localization of SPR immunoreactive neurons corresponded to monoamine or NOS neuronal fields, and also to the areas where no monoamine or NOS neurons were located. The results indicate that there might be a BH4 biosynthetic pathway where GCH is not involved and that SPR might have some yet unidentified function(s) in addition to BH4 biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiko Ikemoto
- Department of Anatomy, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan.
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Sumi-Ichinose C, Ohtsuki M, Shiraishi H, Nomura T. [Perspectives on tetrahydrobiopterin research]. Nihon Yakurigaku Zasshi 2001; 118:371-7. [PMID: 11778454 DOI: 10.1254/fpj.118.371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Tetrahydrobiopterin ((6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin, BH4) is de novo synthesized from GTP. Enzymes involved in its synthesis are the rate limiting enzyme GTP cyclohydrolase I, 6-pyruvoyl tetrahydropterin synthase (PTPS) and sepiapterin reductase. Abnormalities in the metabolism of BH4 have been demonstrated in some diseases affecting the central nervous systems such as atypical phenylketonuria, hereditary progressive dystonia (Segawa's disease). Furthermore, BH4 has been shown to be involved in vascular protection. It is suggested that the dysfunction of endothelial BH4 leads to atherosclerosis. Recently we established BH4-deficient mice by disrupting the PTPS gene to investigate the effects of BH4 depletion on the animals and the involvement of BH4 in regulating biological functions including neural systems. Investigation utilizing this model animal can contribute to the development of new therapeutic strategies toward various diseases involving neurological and vascular systems. Pterin derivatives other than biopterin may also be involved in the regulation of a variety of biological functions. We found that ciliated protozoan Tetrahymena pyriformis synthesizes tetrahydromonapterin, isomer of BH4, and its levels alter according to the progress of the cell cycle. How pterin derivatives are related to the human physiology and diseases is an interesting subject of investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Sumi-Ichinose
- Department of Pharmacology, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, 1-98 Dengakugakubo, Kutsukake-cho, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan
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Bonafé L, Thöny B, Penzien JM, Czarnecki B, Blau N. Mutations in the sepiapterin reductase gene cause a novel tetrahydrobiopterin-dependent monoamine-neurotransmitter deficiency without hyperphenylalaninemia. Am J Hum Genet 2001; 69:269-77. [PMID: 11443547 PMCID: PMC1235302 DOI: 10.1086/321970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2001] [Accepted: 05/31/2001] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Classic tetrahydrobiopterin (BH(4)) deficiencies are characterized by hyperphenylalaninemia and deficiency of monoamine neurotransmitters. In this article, we report two patients with progressive psychomotor retardation, dystonia, severe dopamine and serotonin deficiencies (low levels of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic and homovanillic acids), and abnormal pterin pattern (high levels of biopterin and dihydrobiopterin) in cerebrospinal fluid. Furthermore, they presented with normal urinary pterins and without hyperphenylalaninemia. Investigation of skin fibroblasts revealed inactive sepiapterin reductase (SR), the enzyme catalyzing the final two-step reaction in the biosynthesis of BH(4). Mutations in the SPR gene were detected in both patients and their family members. One patient was homozygous for a TC-->CT dinucleotide exchange, predicting a truncated SR (Q119X). The other patient was a compound heterozygote for a genomic 5-bp deletion (1397-1401delAGAAC) resulting in abolished SPR-gene expression and an A-->G transition leading to an R150G amino acid substitution and to inactive SR as confirmed by recombinant expression. The absence of hyperphenylalaninemia and the presence of normal urinary pterin metabolites and of normal SR-like activity in red blood cells may be explained by alternative pathways for the final two-step reaction of BH(4) biosynthesis in peripheral and neuronal tissues. We propose that, for the biosynthesis of BH(4) in peripheral tissues, SR activity may be substituted by aldose reductase (AR), carbonyl reductase (CR), and dihydrofolate reductase, whereas, in the brain, only AR and CR are fully present. Thus, autosomal recessive SR deficiency leads to BH(4) and to neurotransmitter deficiencies without hyperphenylalaninemia and may not be detected by neonatal screening for phenylketonuria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Bonafé
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, University Children's Hospital, Zurich; Children’s Hospital, Augsburg; and Children’s Hospital Königsborn, Unna, Germany
| | - Beat Thöny
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, University Children's Hospital, Zurich; Children’s Hospital, Augsburg; and Children’s Hospital Königsborn, Unna, Germany
| | - Johann M. Penzien
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, University Children's Hospital, Zurich; Children’s Hospital, Augsburg; and Children’s Hospital Königsborn, Unna, Germany
| | - Barbara Czarnecki
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, University Children's Hospital, Zurich; Children’s Hospital, Augsburg; and Children’s Hospital Königsborn, Unna, Germany
| | - Nenad Blau
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, University Children's Hospital, Zurich; Children’s Hospital, Augsburg; and Children’s Hospital Königsborn, Unna, Germany
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