Antitumor activity of a novel ginseng saponin metabolite in human pulmonary adenocarcinoma cells resistant to cisplatin

Hemolysis by Saponin Is Accelerated at Hypertonic Conditions

Saponins are a large group of organic amphiphilic substances (surfactants) mainly extracted from herbs with biological activity, considered as one of the main ingredients in numerous remedies used in traditional medicine since ancient times. Anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antiparasitic, antitumor, antioxidant and many other properties have been confirmed for some. There is increasing interest in the elucidation of the mechanisms behind the effects of saponins on different cell types at the molecular level. In this regard, erythrocytes are a very welcome model, having very simple structures with no organelles. They react to changing external conditions and substances by changing shape or volume, with damage to their membrane ultimately leading to hemolysis. Hemolysis can be followed spectrophotometrically and provides valuable information about the type and extent of membrane damage. We investigated hemolysis of erythrocytes induced by various saponin concentrations in hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic media using measurements of real time and end-point hemolysis. The osmotic pressure was adjusted by different concentrations of NaCl, manitol or a NaCl/manitol mixture. Unexpectedly, at a fixed saponin concentration, hemolysis was accelerated at hypertonic conditions, but was much faster in NaCl compared to mannitol solutions at the same osmotic pressure. These findings confirm the colloid-osmotic mechanism behind saponin hemolysis with pore formation with increasing size in the membrane.

Impact of the Hydrolysis and Methanolysis of Bidesmosidic Chenopodium quinoa Saponins on Their Hemolytic Activity

Saponins are specific metabolites abundantly present in plants and several marine animals. Their high cytotoxicity is associated with their membranolytic properties, i.e., their propensity to disrupt cell membranes upon incorporation. As such, saponins are highly attractive for numerous applications, provided the relation between their molecular structures and their biological activities is understood at the molecular level. In the present investigation, we focused on the bidesmosidic saponins extracted from the quinoa husk, whose saccharidic chains are appended on the aglycone via two different linkages, a glycosidic bond, and an ester function. The later position is sensitive to chemical modifications, such as hydrolysis and methanolysis. We prepared and characterized three sets of saponins using mass spectrometry: (i) bidesmosidic saponins directly extracted from the ground husk, (ii) monodesmosidic saponins with a carboxylic acid group, and (iii) monodesmosidic saponins with a methyl ester function. The impact of the structural modifications on the membranolytic activity of the saponins was assayed based on the determination of their hemolytic activity. The natural bidesmosidic saponins do not present any hemolytic activity even at the highest tested concentration (500 µg·mL⁻¹). Hydrolyzed saponins already degrade erythrocytes at 20 µg·mL⁻¹, whereas 100 µg·mL⁻¹ of transesterified saponins is needed to induce detectable activity. The observation that monodesmosidic saponins, hydrolyzed or transesterified, are much more active against erythrocytes than the bidesmosidic ones confirms that bidesmosidic saponins are likely to be the dormant form of saponins in plants. Additionally, the observation that negatively charged saponins, i.e., the hydrolyzed ones, are more hemolytic than the neutral ones could be related to the red blood cell membrane structure.

Identification of ginsenoside metabolites in plasma related to different bioactivities of Panax notoginseng and Panax Ginseng

Although the chemical components of Panax notoginseng (PN) and Panax ginseng (PG) are similar, the bioactivities of them are different. In this study, the differential bioactivities of PN and PG were used as the research object. First, the different metabolites in the plasma after oral administration of PN and PG were analyzed by a UPLC-Q/TOF-MS-based metabolomics approach. Afterward, the metabolite-target- pathway network of PN and PG was constructed, thus the pathways related to different bioactivities were analyzed. As the results, 7 different metabolites were identified in PN group, and 10 different metabolites were identified in the PG group. In the PN group, the metabolite of N1 was related to hemostasis, N1 and N3 were related to inhibiting the nerve center, antihypertensive, and abirritation. The metabolites of N1, N3, N4, N5, and N6 were related to protecting the liver. The results showed that the metabolites of G1, G2, G3, G5, and G6 in PG group were related to anti-heart failure, and G1, G2, G6, and G9 were related to raising blood pressure. There were 13 signaling pathways related to different biological activities of PN (eight pathways) and PG (five pathways). These pathways further clarified the mechanism of action that caused the different bioactivities between PN and PG. In summary, metabolomics combined with network pharmacology could be helpful to clarify the material basis of different bioactivities between PN and PG, promoting the research on PN and PG.

Microwave-Assisted Desulfation of the Hemolytic Saponins Extracted from Holothuria scabra Viscera

Saponins are plant and marine animal specific metabolites that are commonly considered as molecular vectors for chemical defenses against unicellular and pluricellular organisms. Their toxicity is attributed to their membranolytic properties. Modifying the molecular structures of saponins by quantitative and selective chemical reactions is increasingly considered to tune the biological properties of these molecules (i) to prepare congeners with specific activities for biomedical applications and (ii) to afford experimental data related to their structure-activity relationship. In the present study, we focused on the sulfated saponins contained in the viscera of Holothuria scabra, a sea cucumber present in the Indian Ocean and abundantly consumed on the Asian food market. Using mass spectrometry, we first qualitatively and quantitatively assessed the saponin content within the viscera of H. scabra. We detected 26 sulfated saponins presenting 5 different elemental compositions. Microwave activation under alkaline conditions in aqueous solutions was developed and optimized to quantitatively and specifically induce the desulfation of the natural saponins, by a specific loss of H₂SO₄. By comparing the hemolytic activities of the natural and desulfated extracts, we clearly identified the sulfate function as highly responsible for the saponin toxicity.

Ginsenoside CK Inhibits Hypoxia-Induced Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transformation through the HIF-1α/NF-κB Feedback Pathway in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a kind of malignant tumor with high morbidity and mortality rates worldwide. Epithelial-mesenchymal transformation (EMT) is crucial for HCC progression and prognosis. Characteristics of the tumor microenvironment, such as hypoxia, and excessive activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway have been identified as the key inducers of EMT in HCC. In our study, we verified the crosstalk between HIF-1α signaling and NF-κB pathway and their effects on EMT in HCC cells. The results show that CoCl₂-induced hypoxia could promote IκB phosphorylation to activate NF-κB signaling and vice versa. Moreover, we found that ginsenoside CK, a metabolite of protopanaxadiol saponins, could inhibit the proliferation and colony formation of different HCC cell lines. Furthermore, ginsenoside CK could impair the metastatic potential of HCC cell lines under hypoxic conditions. Mechanistically, ginsenoside CK suppressed HIF-1α/NF-κB signaling and expression level of EMT-related proteins and cytokines in hypoxia-induced or TNFα-stimulated HCC cell lines. An in vivo study revealed that the oral delivery of ginsenoside CK could inhibit the growth of xenograft tumors and block HIF-1α and NF-κB signaling as well as EMT marker expression. Our study suggests that ginsenoside CK is a potential therapy for HCC patients that functions by targeting the HIF-1α/NF-κB crosstalk.

Ginsenoside Compound K Induces Ros-Mediated Apoptosis and Autophagic Inhibition in Human Neuroblastoma Cells In Vitro and In Vivo

Autophagy can result in cellular adaptation, as well as cell survival or cell death. Modulation of autophagy is increasingly regarded as a promising cancer therapeutic approach. Ginsenoside compound K (CK), an active metabolite of ginsenosides isolated from Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, has been identified to inhibit growth of cancer cell lines. However, the molecular mechanisms of CK effects on autophagy and neuroblastoma cell death have not yet been investigated. In the present study, CK inhibited neuroblastoma cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo. Treatment by CK also induced the accumulation of sub-G1 population, and caspase-dependent apoptosis in neuroblastoma cells. In addition, CK promotes autophagosome accumulation by inducing early-stage autophagy but inhibits autophagic flux by blocking of autophagosome and lysosome fusion, the step of late-stage autophagy. This effect of CK appears to be mediated through the induction of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondria membrane potential loss. Moreover, chloroquine, an autophagy flux inhibitor, further promoted CK-induced apoptosis, mitochondrial ROS induction, and mitochondria damage. Interestingly, those promoted phenomena were rescued by co-treatment with a ROS scavenging agent and an autophagy inducer. Taken together, our findings suggest that ginsenoside CK induced ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagic flux inhibition, and the combination of CK with chloroquine, a pharmacological inhibitor of autophagy, may be a novel therapeutic potential for the treatment of neuroblastoma.

Black Ginseng and Its Saponins: Preparation, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Effects

Black ginseng is a type of processed ginseng that is prepared from white or red ginseng by steaming and drying several times. This process causes extensive changes in types and amounts of secondary metabolites. The chief secondary metabolites in ginseng are ginsenosides (dammarane-type triterpene saponins), which transform into less polar ginsenosides in black ginseng by steaming. In addition, apparent changes happen to other secondary metabolites such as the increase in the contents of phenolic compounds, reducing sugars and acidic polysaccharides in addition to the decrease in concentrations of free amino acids and total polysaccharides. Furthermore, the presence of some Maillard reaction products like maltol was also engaged. These obvious chemical changes were associated with a noticeable superiority for black ginseng over white and red ginseng in most of the comparative biological studies. This review article is an attempt to illustrate different methods of preparation of black ginseng, major chemical changes of saponins and other constituents after steaming as well as the reported biological activities of black ginseng, its major saponins and other metabolites.

Enzymatically Synthesized Ginsenoside Exhibits Antiproliferative Activity in Various Cancer Cell Lines

A glycoside derivative of compound K (CK) was synthesized by using a glycosyltransferase, and its biological activity was tested against various cancer-cell lines. A regiospecific, β-1,4-galactosyltransferase (LgtB) converted 100% of 0.5 mmol CK into a galactosylated product in 3 h. The structure of the synthesized derivative was revealed with high performance liquid chromatography, mass spectroscopy, as well as nuclear magnetic resonance analyses, and it was recognized as 20-O-β-D-lactopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol (CKGal). Out of the four cancer-cell lines tested (gastric carcinoma (AGS), skin melanoma (B16F10), cervical carcinoma (HeLa), and brain carcinoma (U87MG)), CKGal showed the best cytotoxic ability against B16F10 and AGS when compared to other ginsenosides like compound K (20-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol), Rh2 (3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol), and F12 (3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-12-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol). Thus, the synthesized derivative (CKGal) is a pharmacologically active ginsenoside.

Crystal structure and physical stability of ginsenoside compound-K solvates

Through systematic investigation on the structure of and thermal/hygroscopic experiments on GCK solvates, superior physical stabilities of the hemihydrate and monohydrate are demonstrated.

Ginsenoside metabolite compound K induces apoptosis and autophagy in non-small cell lung cancer cells via AMPK-mTOR and JNK pathways

Compound K [C-K; 20-O-(β-d-glucopyranosyl)-20(S)-protopanaxadiol], as a metabolite of ginsenoside, has been verified to have antitumor effects in various cancers, including non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, the detailed mechanisms of C-K in NSCLC remain largely unknown. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of C-K on apoptosis and autophagy in NSCLC cells as well as its related mechanisms. According to the results, C-K suppressed the proliferation, and led to G1 phase arrest and apoptosis in A549 and H1975 cells. Subsequently, C-K promoted autophagy, as confirmed by the enhanced rate of cells staining positive with acridine orange, increased levels of LC3II and Beclin-1, and with decreased levels of p62 in A549 and H1975 cells. Moreover, 3-methyladenine (3-MA; an inhibitor of autophagy) effectively suppressed the inhibition of proliferation and apoptosis that was induced with C-K. Finally, C-K treatment promoted the activation of the AMPK-mTOR and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathways. Treatment with compound C (AMPK inhibitor) or SP600125 (JNK inhibitor) significantly restrained the inhibition of proliferation, apoptosis, and autophagy induced with C-K in A549 and H1975 cells. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that C-K promotes autophagy-mediated apoptosis in NSCLC via AMPK-mTOR and JNK signaling pathways.

Compound K Induces Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Apoptosis in Human Liver Cancer Cells by Regulating STAT3

The ginsenoside compound K (20-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol; CK) is an intestinal bacterial metabolite of ginseng protopanaxadiol saponin that has been reported to induce apoptosis in many cancer cells; however, the precise mechanisms of its activity in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells remain unclear. Herein, we demonstrated that CK inhibited the growth and colony formation of HepG2 and SMMC-7721 cells, phenotypes that were mediated by inducing apoptosis. Meanwhile, CK showed lower toxicity in normal hepatoma cells. After treating HepG2 and SMMC-7721 cells with CK, p-STAT3 levels decreased, the three branches of the unfolded protein response were activated, and levels of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)-related proteins were increased. We also revealed that CK decreased the DNA-binding capacity of STAT3. Moreover, silencing STAT3 with CRISPR/Cas9 technology enhanced CK-induced ERS and apoptosis. Finally, we showed that CK inhibited the growth of liver cancer xenografts with little toxicity. Mice bearing human HCC xenografts that were treated with CK showed increased GRP78 expression and decreased p-STAT3 levels. Taken together, these data showed that CK induced ERS and apoptosis by inhibiting p-STAT3 in human liver cancer cells; thus, CK might be a potential therapeutic candidate for human HCC.

Mitochondrial pathway mediated by reactive oxygen species involvement in α-hederin-induced apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells

AIM

To investigate the antitumor activity of α-hederin in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells and its underlying mechanisms in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS

SMMC-7721, HepG-2 and Huh-7 HCC cells were cultured in vitro and treated with α-hederin (0, 5 μmol/L, 10 μmol/L, 15 μmol/L, 20 μmol/L, 25 μmol/L, 30 μmol/L, 35 μmol/L, 40 μmol/L, 45 μmol/L, 50 μmol/L, 55 μmol/L, or 60 μmol/L) for 12 h, 24 h, or 36 h, and cell viability was then detected by the Cell Counting Kit-8. SMMC-7721 cells were treated with 0, 5 μmol/L, 10 μmol/L, or 20 μmol/L α-hederin for 24 h with or without DL-buthionine-S,R-sulfoximine (2 mmol/L) or N-acetylcysteine (5 mmol/L) pretreatment for 2 h, and additional assays were subsequently performed. Apoptosis was observed after Hoechst staining. Glutathione (GSH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels were measured using GSH and ATP Assay Kits. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were determined by measuring the oxidative conversion of 2’,7’-dichlorofluorescin diacetate. Disruption of the mitochondrial membrane potential was evaluated using JC-1 staining. The protein levels of Bax, Bcl-2, cleaved caspase-3, cleaved caspase-9, apoptosis-inducing factor and cytochrome C were detected by western blotting. The antitumor efficacy of α-hederin in vivo was evaluated in a xenograft tumor model.

RESULTS

The α-hederin treatment induced apoptosis of HCC cells. The apoptosis rates in the control, low-dose α-hederin (5 μmol/L), mid-dose α-hederin (10 μmol/L) and high-dose α-hederin (20 μmol/L) groups were 0.90% ± 0.26%, 12% ± 2.0%, 21% ± 2.1% and 37% ± 3.8%, respectively (P < 0.05). The α-hederin treatment reduced intracellular GSH and ATP levels, induced ROS, disrupted the mitochondrial membrane potential, increased the protein levels of Bax, cleaved caspase-3, cleaved caspase-9, apoptosis-inducing factor and cytochrome C, and decreased Bcl-2 expression. The α-hederin treatment also inhibited xenograft tumor growth in vivo.

CONCLUSION

The α-hederin saponin induces apoptosis of HCC cells via the mitochondrial pathway mediated by increased intracellular ROS and may be an effective treatment for human HCC.

Ginsenoside-Rb1 targets chemotherapy-resistant ovarian cancer stem cells via simultaneous inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin signaling and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition

Chemoresistance is a major clinical problem compromising the successful treatment of cancer. One exciting approach is the eradication of cancer stem/tumor-initiating cells (jointly CSCs), which account for tumor initiation, progression, and drug resistance. Here we show for the first time, with mechanism-based evidence, that ginsenoside-Rb1, a natural saponin isolated from the rhizome of Panax quinquefolius and notoginseng, exhibits potent cytotoxicity on CSCs. Rb1 and its metabolite compound K could effectively suppress CSC self-renewal without regrowth. Rb1 and compound K treatment also sensitized the CSCs to clinically relevant doses of cisplatin and paclitaxel. These effects were associated with the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway by downregulating β-catenin/T-cell factor-dependent transcription and expression of its target genes ATP-binding cassette G2 and P-glycoprotein. We also identified reversal of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition as a new player in the Rb1 and compound K-mediated inhibition of CSCs. Rb1 and compound K treatment also inhibited the self-renewal of CSCs derived from ovarian carcinoma patients as well as in xenograft tumor model. Moreover, we did not observe toxicity in response to doses of Rb1 and compound K that produced an anti-CSC effect. Therefore, Rb1 should be explored further as a promising nutraceutical prototype of treating refractory tumors.

Subchronic oral toxicity study of Korean red ginseng extract in Sprague-Dawley rats with a 4-week recovery period

Ginseng is a major herbal remedy used in Asian countries for thousands of years and known to restore and enhance vital energy. Korean red ginseng, which is processed by steaming and drying fresh Panax ginseng, is most popular and contains unique ginsenosides, which have anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties. The present study was carried out to evaluate the repeated oral dose toxicity of Korean red ginseng extract. The test article was administered orally once a day to male and female Sprague-Dawley rats at dose levels of 0, 500, 1000, or 2000 mg/kg/day for 13 consecutive weeks (15 animals/sex/group in the vehicle control and 2000 mg/kg/day groups, and 10 animals/sex/group in the 500 and 1000 mg/kg/day groups). Ten animals per group were sacrificed at the end of the 13-week treatment period, and the remaining rats were sacrificed after a 4-week recovery period. Administration of Korean red ginseng extract did not result in any toxicologically significant changes in mortality, body weight, food consumption, ophthalmoscopy, hematology, serum biochemistry, gross pathological findings, absolute/relative organ weights, or histopathology. It was established that the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of the test article was 2000 mg/kg/day for both sexes in this study.

Characterization, Molecular Docking, and In Vitro Dissolution Studies of Solid Dispersions of 20(S)-Protopanaxadiol

In this study, we prepared solid dispersions (SDs) of 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD) using a melting-solvent method with different polymers, in order to improve the solubility and dissolution performance of drugs with poor water solubility. The SDs were characterized via differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and molecular docking and dynamics study. DSC and PXRD results indicated that PPD crystallinity in SDs was significantly reduced, and that the majority of PPD is amorphous. No interaction was observed between PPD and polymers on FTIR and NMR spectra. Molecular docking and dynamic calculations indicated that the PPD molecule localized to the interpolated charged surface, rather than within the amorphous polymer chain network, which might help prevent PPD crystallization, consequently enhancing the PPD dispersion in polymers. An in vitro dissolution study revealed that the SDs considerably improved the PPD dissolution performance in distilled water containing 0.35% Tween-80 (T-80). Furthermore, among three PPD-SDs formulations, Poloxamer188 (F68) was the most effective in improving the PPD solubility and was even superior to the mixed polymers. Therefore, the SD prepared with F68 as a hydrophilic polymer carrier might be a promising strategy for improving solubility and in vitro dissolution performance. F68-based SD, containing PPD with a melting-solvent preparation method, can be used as a promising, nontoxic, quick-release, and effective intermediate for other pharmaceutical formulations, in order to achieve a more effective drug delivery.

Carbon nanotubes as carriers of Panax ginseng metabolites and enhancers of ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 anti-cancer activity

A major benefit to nanomaterial based-medicine is the ability to provide nanosized vehicles for sporadic metabolites. Here, we describe how the conjugation of valuable ginseng secondary metabolites (ginsenoside Rb1 or Rg1) with carbon nanotubes (CNT) can enhance their anti-proliferative and anti-cancer effects. Ginsenoside-CNT conjugate (Rb-CNT or Rg-CNT) permitted the ginsenosides to be used at a low dose, yet achieve a higher incidence of cancer killing. We were able to demonstrate that the ginsenoside-CNT conjugate can decrease cell viability up to 62% in breast cancer cells (MCF-7) and enhance antiproliferation of drug-resistant pancreatic cancer cells (PANC-1) by 61%. The interaction of the ginsenoside-CNT conjugate with breast cancer cells was studied using Raman Spectroscopy mapping. Total transcriptome profiling (Affymetrix platform) of MCF-7 cells treated with the ginsenoside-CNT conjugate shows that a number of cellular, apoptotic and response to stimulus processes were affected. Therefore, our data confirmed the potential use of CNT as a drug delivery system.

Compound K Attenuates the Development of Atherosclerosis in ApoE(-/-) Mice via LXRα Activation

Background: Atherosclerosis is a fundamental pathological process responded to some serious cardiovascular events. Although the cholesterol-lowering drugs are widely prescribed for atherosclerosis therapy, it is still the leading cause of death in the developed world. Here we measured the effects of compound K in atherosclerosis formation and investigated the probably mechanisms of the anti-antherosclerosis roles of compound K. Methods: We treated the atherosclerotic model animals (apoE^−/− mice on western diet) with compound K and measured the size of atherosclerotic lesions, inflammatory cytokine levels and serum lipid profile. Peritoneal macrophages were collected in vitro for the foam cell and inflammasome experiments. Results: Our results show that treatment with compound K dose-dependently attenuates the formation of atherosclerotic plaques by 55% through activation of reverse cholesterol transport pathway, reduction of systemic inflammatory cytokines and inhibition of local inflammasome activity. Compound K increases the cholesterol efflux of macrophage-derived foam cells, and reduces the inflammasome activity in cholesterol crystal stimulated macrophages. The activation of LXRα may contribute to the athero-protective effects of compound K. Conclusion: These observations provide evidence for an athero-protective effect of compound K via LXRα activation, and support its further evaluation as a potential effective modulator for the prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis.

Anticancer Activities of Protopanaxadiol- and Protopanaxatriol-Type Ginsenosides and Their Metabolites

Recently, most anticancer drugs are derived from natural resources such as marine, microbial, and botanical sources, but the low success rates of chemotherapies and the development of multidrug resistance emphasize the importance of discovering new compounds that are both safe and effective against cancer. Ginseng types, including Asian ginseng, American ginseng, and notoginseng, have been used traditionally to treat various diseases, due to their immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, antioxidative, and antitumor activities. Accumulating reports have shown that ginsenosides, the major active component of ginseng, were helpful for tumor treatment. 20(S)-Protopanaxadiol (PDS) and 20(S)-protopanaxatriol saponins (PTS) are two characteristic types of triterpenoid saponins in ginsenosides. PTS holds capacity to interfere with crucial metabolism, while PDS could affect cell cycle distribution and prodeath signaling. This review aims at providing an overview of PTS and PDS, as well as their metabolites, regarding their different anticancer effects with the proposal that these compounds might be potent additions to the current chemotherapeutic strategy against cancer.

Ardipusilloside-I Metabolites from Human Intestinal Bacteria and Their Antitumor Activity

Ardipusilloside-I (ADS-I) is a triterpenoid saponin extracted from Ardisia pusilla DC, and has been demonstrated to have potent antitumor activity. However, ADS-I metabolism in humans has not been investigated. In this study, we studied the biotransformation of ADS-I in human intestinal bacteria, and examined the in vitro antitumor activity of the major metabolites. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC–MS/MS) was used to detect ADS-I biotransformation products, and their chemical structures were identified by high performance liquid chromatography–nuclear magnetic resonance (HPLC–NMR). The antitumor activity of the major metabolites was determined by the MTT assay. Here, we show that main reaction seen in the metabolism of ADS-I in human intestinal bacteria was deglycosylation, which produced a total of four metabolites. The structures of the two major metabolites M1 and M2 were confirmed by using NMR. MTT assay showed that ADS-I metabolites M1 and M2 have the same levels of inhibitory activities as ADS-I in cultured SMMC-7721 cells and MCF-7 cells. In conclusion, this study demonstrates deglycosylation as a primary pathway of ADS-I metabolism in human intestinal bacteria, and suggests that the pharmacological activity of ADS-I may be mediated, at least in part, by its metabolites.

Ginsenoside metabolite compound K enhances the efficacy of cisplatin in lung cancer cells

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the potential of ginsenoside metabolite compound K (CK) in enhancing the anti-tumor effects of cisplatin against lung cancer cells, including cell proliferation and apoptosis, and the underlying mechanism.

METHODS

Western blotting and p53 reporter assay were used to assess p53 expression and activity. MTT assay and TUNEL staining were employed to investigate the drug effects on cell growth and apoptosis, respectively. Combination index (CI) was calculated to determine synergism.

RESULTS

We found that CK could significantly enhance cisplatin-induced p53 expression and activity in two lung cancer cell lines, H460 and A549. Consequently, synergistic inhibition of cell growth was observed when the cells were co-treated with CK and cisplatin compared to single treatment. In addition, the ability of cisplatin in apoptosis induction was similarly synergized by CK. Furthermore, by using p53-null lung cancer cells, we demonstrate that the synergy was p53 dependent.

CONCLUSIONS

Conventional chemotherapies are often accompanied by development of drug resistance and severe side effects. Novel discoveries of low toxicity compounds to improve the outcome or enhance the efficacy of chemotherapies are of great interest. In the present study, our data provide the first evidence that CK could be potentially used as an agent to synergize the efficacy of cisplatin in lung cancer.

Compound K inhibits MMP-1 expression through suppression of c-Src-dependent ERK activation in TNF-α-stimulated dermal fibroblast

Compound K (CK) is one of the major metabolites of ginsenosides exhibiting a variety of pharmacological properties such as anti-ageing, anti-oxidation and anti-inflammatory activities. However, the protective efficacy of CK in abnormal skin conditions with inflammatory responses was not examined. Here, we investigated the effects of CK on matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) and type I procollagen production in tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-stimulated human skin fibroblasts HS68 cells and human skin equivalents. We found that CK suppressed MMP-1 secretion and increased the level of reduced type I procollagen secretion, caused by the inhibition of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation, but not p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation in TNF-α-stimulated HS68 cells. Then, we focused on the involvement of the c-Src and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) as upstream signalling molecules for ERK activation by TNF-α in HS68 cells. CK suppressed the phosphorylation of c-Src/EGFR by TNF-α, which led to the inactivation of downstream signalling molecules including AKT and MEK. In addition, CK suppressed AP-1 (c-jun and c-fos) phosphorylation as downstream transcription factors of active ERK for MMP-1 expression in TNFα-stimulated HS68 cells. These results showed novel mechanisms by which CK inhibits TNF-α-induced MMP-1 expression through the inactivation of c-Src/EGFR-dependent ERK/AP-1 signalling pathway, resulting in the inhibition of collagen degradation in human fibroblast cells. Therefore, CK may be a promising protective agent for the treatment of inflammatory skin conditions such as skin ageing and atopic dermatitis.

Target genes involved in antiproliferative effect of modified ginseng extracts in lung cancer A549 cells

Lung cancer is the most common cancer and the leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Panax ginseng has long been used to treat cancer and other diseases worldwide. Most of the pharmacological actions of ginseng are attributed to a variety of ginsenosides, which are often metabolized by intestinal bacteria into more effective forms. In this study, we found that the antiproliferative activity of ginseng was increased after enzymatic processing of ginseng saponin (50% inhibitory concentration, >70 μg/ml). To elucidate the mechanism by which modified ginseng extract (MGX) induced cell death in human lung cancer cells, the gene expression profiles of A549 cells regulated by MGX were assayed using Agilent PrimeView Human Gene Expression Arrays. The expression of 17 genes involved in the regulation of cell signaling, cell metabolism, transport, and cytoskeleton-regulation was up-regulated, whereas the expression of 16 genes implicated in invasion and metastasis and cellular metabolism was down-regulated in MGX-treated A549 cells. Moreover, nuclear staining with 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole revealed that MGX clearly caused nuclear condensation and fragmentation which are observed in apoptosis cell. These results elucidate crucial anticancer mechanisms of MGX and provide potential new targets for the assessment of anticancer activity of MGX.

Compound K-induced apoptosis of human hepatocellular carcinoma MHCC97-H cells in vitro

An intestinal bacterial metabolite of ginseng protopanaxadiol saponin, 20-O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl)-20(S)-protopanaxadiol (compound K), has been reported to induce apoptosis in a variety of cancer cells. However, the precise mechanisms induced by compound K in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells remain unclear. In order to examine possible apoptotic mechanisms, we investigated the anticancer effect of compound K in MHCC97-H. MTT assay showed that compound K inhibited the proliferation of MHCC97-H cells with a relatively low toxicity in normal hepatoma cells. Cell cycle progression and cell staining showed an increase in apoptotic sub-G1 fraction. Treatment of MHCC97-H with compound K also induced a reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) and DNA damage. Further study showed that compound K upregulated Fas, FasL, Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and downregulated pro-caspase-9, pro-caspase-3 in a dose-dependent manner, and it also inhibited Akt phosphorylation. These results suggest that compound K significantly inhibits cell proliferation and induces apoptosis in MHCC97-H cells through Fas- and mitochondria-mediated caspase-dependent pathways in human HCC cells.

Pharmacokinetics of ginsenoside Rb1 and its metabolite compound K after oral administration of Korean Red Ginseng extract

Compound K is a major metabolite of ginsenoside Rb1, which has various pharmacological activities in vivo and in vitro. However, previous studies have focused on the pharmacokinetics of a single metabolite or the parent compound and have not described the pharmacokinetics of both compounds in humans. To investigate the pharmacokinetics of ginsenoside Rb1 and compound K, we performed an open-label, single-oral dose pharmacokinetic study using Korean Red Ginseng extract. We enrolled 10 healthy Korean male volunteers in this study. Serial blood samples were collected during 36 h after Korean Red Ginseng extract administration to determine plasma concentrations of ginsenoside Rb1 and compound K. The mean maximum plasma concentration of compound K was 8.35±3.19 ng/mL, which was significantly higher than that of ginsenoside Rb1 (3.94±1.97 ng/mL). The half-life of compound K was 7 times shorter than that of ginsenoside Rb1. These results suggest that the pharmacokinetics, especially absorption, of compound K are not influenced by the pharmacokinetics of its parent compound, except the time to reach the maximum plasma concentration The delayed absorption of compound K support the evidence that the intestinal microflora play an important role in the transformation of ginsenoside Rb1 to compound K.

Ginsenoside-Re ameliorates ischemia and reperfusion injury in the heart: a hemodynamics approach

Ginsenosides are divided into two groups based on the types of the panaxadiol group (e.g., ginsenoside-Rb1 and -Rc) and the panaxatriol group (e.g., ginsenoside-Rg1 and -Re). Among them, ginsenoside-Re (G-Re) is one of the compounds with the highest content in Panax ginseng and is responsible for pharmacological effects. However, it is not yet well reported if G-Re increases the hemodynamics functions on ischemia (30 min)/reperfusion (120 min) (I/R) induction. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated whether treatment of G-Re facilitated the recovery of hemodynamic parameters (heart rate, perfusion pressure, aortic flow, coronary flow, and cardiac output) and left ventricular developed pressure (±dp/dt_max). This research is designed to study the effects of G-Re by studying electrocardiographic changes such as QRS interval, QT interval and R-R interval, and inflammatory marker such as tissue necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in heart tissue in I/R-induced heart. From the results, I/R induction gave a significant increase in QRS interval, QT interval and R-R interval, but showed decrease in all hemodynamic parameters. I/R induction resulted in increased TNF-α level. Treatment of G-Re at 30 and 100 μM doses before I/R induction significantly prevented the decrease in hemodynamic parameters, ameliorated the electrocardiographic abnormality, and inhibited TNF-α level. In this study, G-Re at 100 μM dose exerted more beneficial effects on cardiac function and preservation of myocardium in I/R injury than 30 μM. Collectively, these results indicate that G-Re has distinct cardioprotectective effects in I/R induced rat heart.

Compound K modulates fatty acid-induced lipid droplet formation and expression of proteins involved in lipid metabolism in hepatocytes

BACKGROUND & AIMS

A key factor in the development of type 2 diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is hepatic steatosis. Incubation of human hepatic cells with free fatty acids (FFAs) causes accumulation of neutral lipids in lipid droplets (LDs) and serves as a model for hepatic steatosis. Ginsenosides, active constituents of ginsengs, have demonstrated beneficial effects in various pharmacological areas, including diabetes, however their effect on lipid accumulation in hepatocytes remains unclear. Here, we examine the effect of compound K (ComK), an active metabolite of ginsenosides, on the regulation of LD formation and on the expression of proteins involved in lipid homeostasis in hepatocytes.

METHODS

HuH7 cells were pretreated with ComK, followed by lipid loading with FFA. LDs were visualized using Oil Red O staining and immunohistochemistry for the LD-related protein PLIN2. Triglyceride levels were determined in isolated LDs. The expression of proteins involved in lipid homeostasis was examined by Western blotting.

RESULTS

Treatment with ComK significantly decreased LD formation in FFA-loaded HuH7 cells and increased phosphorylation levels of AMPK, and its substrate ACC. ComK also increased protein expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPAR-α) and acyl-CoA oxidase (ACOX1) together with elevated activity of a PPAR-α response element reporter construct. These effects were inhibited by the PPAR-α antagonist MK886.

CONCLUSIONS

ComK reduced LD formation and TG accumulation in FFA-loaded hepatocytes, in part by up-regulating AMPK activity and PPAR-α related pathways. These results suggest that ComK may have efficacy for the treatment of hepatic steatosis and associated diseases.

Identification of Target Genes Involved in the Antiproliferative Effect of Enzyme-Modified Ginseng Extract in HepG2 Hepatocarcinoma Cell

Ginsenosides are ginseng saponins, which are the major biologically active components of Panax ginseng, often metabolized by intestinal bacteria into more effective forms. In this study, we found that the antiproliferative activity of ginseng increased after enzymatic processing of ginseng saponin (50% inhibitory concentration [IC₅₀], >30 μg/mL), which may be the result of the accumulation of minor saponins, such as Rh1, Rg3, compound K, and PPT constituents in ginseng saponin. Using the Agilent PrimeView Human Gene Expression Array, we found that the expression of several genes involved in apoptosis (caspase-4, Annexin A2, HSPA9, AIFM1, UQCRC2, and caspase-7) were increased in HepG2 human hepatocarcinoma cells after their treatment with enzyme-modified ginseng extract (EMGE). Furthermore, several genes implicated in cell cycle progression (CDCA3, CDCA8, CABLES2, CDC25B, CNNM3, and CCNK) showed decreased expression in HepG2 cells treated with EMGE. Finally, from flow cytometric analysis, we found that EMGE-treated HepG2 cells showed increased apoptotic sub-G1 population (24%), compared with that observed in DMSO-treated control cells (1.6%). Taken together, our results suggest that EMGE induces anticancer activity through the induction of apoptosis-related genes and cell cycle arrest via decreased expression of cell cycle regulatory genes.

Compound K induces apoptosis of bladder cancer T24 cells via reactive oxygen species-mediated p38 MAPK pathway

Compound K (CK; 20-O-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol), a major metabolite of ginsenoside, has been shown to possess several biological activities such as potent antitumor properties. However, the effect of CK on the apoptosis of bladder cancer cells and its underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Therefore, we examined the effect of CK on the apoptosis of bladder cancer T 24 cells. Cell counts showed that treatment of T24 cells with CK decreased the cell number in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that CK could significantly induce apoptosis of T24 cells in vitro. Further, cellular glutathione reduction, accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were also observed in CK-treated T24 cells. Western blot demonstrated the release of cytochrome c, activation of procaspases-3, procaspases-9, and the change of Bax/Bcl-2 proteins ratio. We also found that the phosphorylation of p38MAPK was increased by CK, while treatment with SB203580 inhibited CK-induced cell apoptosis in T24 cells. The blockage of ROS generation by N-acetylcysteine effectively prevented the apoptosis induction in T24 cells with CK treatment, accompanied by the decrease of activation of p38MAPK. These results suggested that CK induced the apoptosis of bladder cancer T24 cells, which is partially due to ROS generation and p38MAPK activation.

Chemical Diversity of Panax ginseng, Panax quinquifolium, and Panax notoginseng

The major commercial ginsengs are Panax ginseng Meyer (Korean ginseng), P. quinquifolium L. (American ginseng), and P. notoginseng (Burk.) FH Chen (Notoginseng). P. ginseng is the most commonly used as an adaptogenic agent and has been shown to enhance physical performance, promote vitality, increase resistance to stress and aging, and have immunomodulatory activity. These ginsengs contain saponins, which can be classified as dammarane-type, ocotillol-type and oleanane-type oligoglycosides, and polysaccharides as main constituents. Dammarane ginsenosides are transformed into compounds such as the ginsenosides Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1 by steaming and heating and are metabolized into metabolites such as compound K, ginsenoside Rh1, protoand panaxatriol by intestinal microflora. These metabolites are nonpolar, pharmacologically active and easily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. However, the activities metabolizing these constituents into bioactive compounds differ significantly among individuals because all individuals possess characteristic indigenous strains of intestinal bacteria. To overcome this difference, ginsengs fermented with enzymes or microbes have been developed.

Genotoxicity of Nicotiana tabacum leaves on Helix aspersa

Tobacco farmers are routinely exposed to complex mixtures of inorganic and organic chemicals present in tobacco leaves. In this study, we examined the genotoxicity of tobacco leaves in the snail Helix aspersa as a measure of the risk to human health. DNA damage was evaluated using the micronucleus test and the Comet assay and the concentration of cytochrome P450 enzymes was estimated. Two groups of snails were studied: one fed on tobacco leaves and one fed on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L) leaves (control group). All of the snails received leaves (tobacco and lettuce leaves were the only food provided) and water ad libitum. Hemolymph cells were collected after 0, 24, 48 and 72 h. The Comet assay and micronucleus test showed that exposure to tobacco leaves for different periods of time caused significant DNA damage. Inhibition of cytochrome P450 enzymes occurred only in the tobacco group. Chemical analysis indicated the presence of the alkaloid nicotine, coumarins, saponins, flavonoids and various metals. These results show that tobacco leaves are genotoxic in H. aspersa and inhibit cytochrome P450 activity, probably through the action of the complex chemical mixture present in the plant.

Chemoprevention of lung squamous cell carcinoma by ginseng

Ginseng has been used as a medicinal herb to maintain physical vitality for thousands of years, and it has also been shown to be a nonorgan-specific cancer preventive agent by several epidemiologic studies. However, the chemopreventive effects of Korea white ginseng (KWG) in lung squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) have not been tested. In this study, we investigated the chemopreventive activity of KWG in a mouse lung SCC model. N-nitroso-trischloroethylurea (NTCU) was used to induce lung tumors in female Swiss mice, and KWG was given orally. KWG significantly reduced the percentage of lung SCCs from 26.5% in the control group to 9.1% in the KWG group and in the meantime, increased the percentage of normal bronchial and hyperplasia. KWG was also found to greatly reduce squamous cell lung tumor area from an average of 9.4% in control group to 1.5% in the KWG group. Treatment with KWG decreased Ki-67 staining, suggesting that the lung tumor inhibitory effects of KWG were partly through inhibition of proliferation. High-performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry identified 10 ginsenosides from KWG extracts, Rb1 and Rd being the most abundant as detected in mouse blood and lung tissue. The tumor inhibitory effects of KWG are mediated by inhibition of activator protein (AP-1), as showed by in vitro study conducted on AP-1/NF-κB-dependent mouse non-small cell lung carcinoma cell lines. Western blotting of lung tissues also indicated that NTCU upregulated AP-1 through phosphorylation of c-jun-NH2-kinase, which was downregulated by KWG in concurrence with its chemoprevention function. These results suggest that KWG could be a potential chemopreventive agent for lung SCC.

Application of Scutellariae radix, Gardeniae fructus, and Probiotics to Prevent Salmonella enterica Serovar Choleraesuis Infection in Swine

Salmonella enterica serovar Choleraesuis, a host-adapted pathogen of swine, usually causes septicemia. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains have been widely studied in recent years for their probiotic properties. In this study, a mouse infection model first screened for potential agents against infection, then a pig infection model evaluated effects of LAB strains and herbal plants against infection. Scutellariae radix (SR) and Gardeniae fructus (GF) showed abilities to reduce bacteria shedding and suppressing serum level of TNF-α induced by infection in swine. Bioactivities of SR and GF were enhanced by combining with LAB strains, which alone could speed up the bacteria elimination time in feces and boost immunity of infected pigs. Baicalein and genipin exhibited stronger cytotoxicity than baicalin and geniposide did, as well as prevent Salmonella from invading macrophages. Our study suggests LAB strains as exhibiting multiple functions: preventing infection, enhancing immunity to prepare host defenses against further infection, and adjusting intestinal microbes' enzymatic activity in order to convert herbal compounds to active compounds. The SR/GF-LAB strain mixture holds potential infection-prevention agents supplied as feed additives.

Compound K, a Ginsenoside Metabolite, Inhibits Colon Cancer Growth via Multiple Pathways Including p53-p21 Interactions

Compound K (20-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol, CK), an intestinal bacterial metabolite of ginseng protopanaxadiol saponins, has been shown to inhibit cell growth in a variety of cancers. However, the mechanisms are not completely understood, especially in colorectal cancer (CRC). A xenograft tumor model was used first to examine the anti-CRC effect of CK in vivo. Then, multiple in vitro assays were applied to investigate the anticancer effects of CK including antiproliferation, apoptosis and cell cycle distribution. In addition, a qPCR array and western blot analysis were executed to screen and validate the molecules and pathways involved. We observed that CK significantly inhibited the growth of HCT-116 tumors in an athymic nude mouse xenograft model. CK significantly inhibited the proliferation of human CRC cell lines HCT-116, SW-480, and HT-29 in a dose- and time-dependent manner. We also observed that CK induced cell apoptosis and arrested the cell cycle in the G1 phase in HCT-116 cells. The processes were related to the upregulation of p53/p21, FoxO3a-p27/p15 and Smad3, and downregulation of cdc25A, CDK4/6 and cyclin D1/3. The major regulated targets of CK were cyclin dependent inhibitors, including p21, p27, and p15. These results indicate that CK inhibits transcriptional activation of multiple tumor-promoting pathways in CRC, suggesting that CK could be an active compound in the prevention or treatment of CRC.

Metabolite profiling of ginsenoside Re in rat urine and faeces after oral administration

Following oral administration of ginsenoside Re, the compound and its metabolites were identified and quantified in rat urine and faeces by liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Ginsenoside Re (200 mg/kg) was orally administered to rats by gastric intubation, and urine and faeces samples were then collected during the next 24 h using metabolic cages. Samples were prepared by solid phase extraction and analysed by LC-MS/MS. The precursor-product ion pairs used for LC-MS/MS analysis were: m/z 945→475 for ginsenoside Re, 799→637 for ginsenoside Rg1, 783→475 for ginsenoside Rg2, 637→475 for ginsenosides Rh1 and F1, 475→391 for protopanaxatriol, and 779→641 for digoxin (internal standard). The major ginsenosides excreted in urine were ginsenosides Re and Rg1, and only minimal amounts of ginsenosides Rg2 and Rh1 were found. Greater amounts of ginsenoside metabolites were detected in the faeces samples; biotransformation to ginsenoside Rg1 was predominant but further deglycosylated metabolites including ginsenoside F1 and protopanaxatriol were additionally detected. The total recovery of ginsenosides over 24 h was approximately 46%.

Structural characterization and immunological activities of the water-soluble oligosaccharides isolated from the Panax ginseng roots

Water-soluble ginseng oligosaccharides (designated as WGOS) with a degree of polymerization ranging from 2 to 10 were obtained from warm-water extract of Panax ginseng roots, and fractionated into five purified fractions (i.e., WGOS-0, WGOS-1, WGOS-2, WGOS-3, and WGOS-4) by gel-filtration chromatography. In order to ascertain the monosaccharide residues in the WGOS, a technique that combines acid hydrolysis and high-performance liquid chromatography was employed. It was found that only glucose residues were present in the WGOS. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry provided the sequence, linkage, and configuration information. It is noteworthy that α-Glcp-(1 → 6)-α-Glcp, α-Glcp-(1 → 6)-α-Glcp-(1 → 4)-α-Glcp, α-Glcp-(1 → 6)-α-Glcp-(1 → 6)-α-Glcp-(1 → 4)-α-Glcp, and other six malto-oligosaccharides (i.e., maltopentaose, maltohexaose, maltoheptaose, maltooctaose, maltononaose, and maltodecaose) were detected in ginseng. Preliminary immunological tests in vitro indicated that WGOS were potent B and T-cell stimulators and WGOS-1 has the highest immunostimulating effect on lymphocyte proliferation among those purified fractions. It is hoped that the WGOS will be developed into functional food or medicine.

Ginsenoside Re: Its chemistry, metabolism and pharmacokinetics

Ginsenosides, the bioactive components of ginseng, can be divided into two major groups, namely 20(S)-protopanaxatriol (e.g. Re, Rg₁, Rg₂, and Rb₃) and 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (e.g. Rb₁, Rb₂, Rc, and Rd). Biological and environmental factors may affect the content of ginsenosides in different parts of ginseng plant. Evidence from pharmacokinetic and metabolic studies of Re demonstrated that (1) the absorption of Re is fast in gastrointestinal tract; (2) Re may be metabolized mainly to Rh₁ and F₁ by intestinal microflora before absorption into blood; and (3) Re is quickly cleared from the body.

Pharmacokinetic comparison of ginsenoside metabolite IH-901 from fermented and non-fermented ginseng in healthy Korean volunteers

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

IH-901 (20-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol) is a novel ginseng saponin metabolite formed by human intestinal bacteria and is known to have antitumor and antimetastatic effects. However, there has been no pharmacokinetic study of IH-901 in human beings.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to investigate the pharmacokinetic differences of IH-901 from fermented and non-fermented ginseng.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To investigate whether the pharmacokinetics of IH-901 differ between fermented and non-fermented ginseng, an open label, randomized, single dose, fasting, two-period, cross-over, pharmacokinetic study was conducted. A total of 24 healthy Korean male volunteers participated in this study. All subjects were allocated into two equal groups and administered 3g of fermented or non-fermented Panax ginseng. Serial blood samples for pharmacokinetic analysis were collected in the 24 h after dosing. Plasma IH-901 concentration was measured by a validated high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. Pharmacokinetic parameters including AUC(t), C(max), and T(max) were calculated by noncompartmental models in the BA-CALC program (KFDA, 2008, 1.0.0, Korea).

RESULTS

After oral administration of fermented ginseng, 5 subjects experienced diarrhea. The means of AUC(t) and C(max) were significantly different between the two groups. In the fermented ginseng group, AUC(t) was 2083.09±91.97 ng h/mL, a 15.5-fold increase over that of IH-901 from the non-fermented group (134.50±63.10 ng h/mL), and the mean C(max) was 325.00±91.97 ng/mL in the fermented ginseng group, a 27-fold higher value than that in the non-fermented group (13.88±7.24 ng/mL). T(max) was 3.29±1.00 and 12.04±4.96 h in the fermented and non-fermented group, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study showed that the pharmacokinetic parameters of IH-901 from fermented Panax ginseng are different from those of non-fermented ginseng, from which IH-901 is formed by intestinal fermentation.

Co-transformation of Panax major ginsenosides Rb₁ and Rg₁ to minor ginsenosides C-K and F₁ by Cladosporium cladosporioides

Rb₁ and Rg₁ are the major ginsenosides in protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol. Their content in ginsenosides was 23.8 and 17.6%, respectively. A total of 22 isolates of β-glucosidase producing microorganisms were isolated from the soil of a ginseng field using Esculin-R2A agar. Among these isolates, the strain GH21 showed the strongest activities to convert ginsenoside Rb₁ and Rg₁ to minor ginsenosides compound-K and F₁, respectively. Ginsenosides Rb₁ and Rg₁ bioconversion rates were 74.2 and 89.3%, respectively. Meanwhile, the results demonstrated that the ginsenoside Rg₁ could change the biotransformation pathway of ginsenoside Rb₁ by inhibiting the formation of the intermediate metabolite gypenoside-XVII. GH21 was identified as a Cladosporium cladosporioides species based on the internal transcribed spacers (ITS) ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 rRNA gene sequences constructed phylogenetic trees.