Prevalence and analysis of potential risk factors for Cryptosporidium parvum infection in lambs in Zaragoza (northeastern Spain)

Molecular Epidemiology of Cryptosporidiosis on Lamb and Goat Kid Farms in Gran Canaria, Canary Islands (Spain)

The aim of this study was to analyse and characterise Cryptosporidium spp. in sheep and goats in Gran Canaria (Spain) and to identify the risks and economic factors related to the disease. During sampling, a semi-structured survey was conducted with farmers, and faecal samples were collected from lambs, goat kids, sheep, and adult goats from a total of 30 farms. Adult samples were examined microscopically for the presence of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts, with only three positive samples being found in sheep and one in goats. The PCR of the SSU rRNA gene was performed on all juvenile and adult samples, and positive samples from lambs (8.3%), sheep (6.9%), goat kids (23.3%), and goats (2.5%) were subjected to sequencing, detecting three of the most important species in small ruminants: C. parvum, C. xiaoi, and C. ubiquitum. By sequencing the GP60 PCR products, two subtypes of C. parvum belonging to the IId family were identified, IIdA16G1 and IIdA23G1, with the latter being the most frequent. Although the prevalence of the disease was not very high, the zoonotic potential of C. parvum and the limited awareness of the parasite among farmers make surveillance and health education focused on the control of this member of Apicomplexa necessary.

Molecular analysis of cryptosporidiosis on cattle farms in Gran Canaria, Canary Islands (Spain)

Cryptosporidium spp. infections in calves cause serious economic losses in livestock and pose an important zoonotic risk. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in cattle on the island of Gran Canaria. Faecal samples were collected from calves and adult cattle from a total of 15 farms, and a questionnaire survey was conducted to farmers. The presence of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in faeces was determined by microscopy, showing infection rates of 45.9% in calves and 4.1% in adults, with positive correlation with the faecal scores of infected animals (p < 0.0001). Samples were amplified by PCR targeting SSU rRNA, with positivity rates for calves and adults being 51.7% and 31.7%, respectively. The PCR-positive samples were further genotyped and sequenced for the 60 kDa glycoprotein gene (GP60) and the microsatellite TP14. Four Cryptosporidium species were identified (C. parvum, C. ryanae, C. bovis, and C. andersoni), of which C. parvum was the most frequent in calves (45.8%) and adults (29.2%). GP60 sequencing revealed that all C. parvum samples belonged to the IId family, the most frequent subtypes being IIdA22G1 and IIdA23G1. Overall, the results of this study demonstrate a high occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. in both calves and adult cattle, including the zoonotic IId family of C. parvum. These findings have significant implications for cattle farming and public health. The lack of awareness among farmers regarding cryptosporidiosis highlights the need for caution to prevent epidemiological outbreaks that could impact both human and livestock health.

Cryptosporidium and agriculture: A review

Cryptosporidiosis is a significant contributor to global foodborne and waterborne disease burden. It is a widespread cause of diarrheal diseases that affect humans and animals worldwide. Agricultural environments can become a source of contamination with Cryptosporidium species through faecal material derived from humans and animals. This review aims to report the main findings of scientific research on Cryptosporidium species related to various agricultural sectors, and highlights the risks of cryptosporidiosis in agricultural production, the contamination sources, the importance of animal production in transmission, and the role of farmed animals as hosts of the parasites. Agricultural contamination sources can cause water pollution in groundwater and different surface waters used for drinking, recreational purposes, and irrigation. The application of contaminated manure, faecal sludge management, and irrigation with inadequately treated water are the main concerns associated with foodborne and waterborne cryptosporidiosis related to agricultural activities. The review emphasizes the public health implications of agriculture concerning the transmission risk of Cryptosporidium parasites and the urgent need for a new concept in the agriculture sector. Furthermore, the findings of this review provide valuable information for developing appropriate measures and monitoring strategies to minimize the risk of infection.

Past, current, and potential treatments for cryptosporidiosis in humans and farm animals: A comprehensive review

The intracellular protozoan parasite of the genus Cryptosporidium is among the leading causes of waterborne diarrheal disease outbreaks throughout the world. The parasite is transmitted by ingestion of infective oocysts that are highly stable in the environment and resistant to almost all conventional disinfection methods and water treatments. Control of the parasite infection is exceedingly difficult due to the excretion of large numbers of oocysts in the feces of infected individuals that contaminate the environment and serve as a source of infection for susceptible hosts including humans and animals. Drug development against the parasite is challenging owing to its limited genetic tractability, absence of conventional drug targets, unique intracellular location within the host, and the paucity of robust cell culture platforms for continuous parasite propagation. Despite the high prevalence of the parasite, the only US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved treatment of Cryptosporidium infections is nitazoxanide, which has shown moderate efficacy in immunocompetent patients. More importantly, no effective therapeutic drugs are available for treating severe, potentially life-threatening cryptosporidiosis in immunodeficient patients, young children, and neonatal livestock. Thus, safe, inexpensive, and efficacious drugs are urgently required to reduce the ever-increasing global cryptosporidiosis burden especially in low-resource countries. Several compounds have been tested for both in vitro and in vivo efficacy against the disease. However, to date, only a few experimental compounds have been subjected to clinical trials in natural hosts, and among those none have proven efficacious. This review provides an overview of the past and present anti-Cryptosporidium pharmacotherapy in humans and agricultural animals. Herein, we also highlight the progress made in the field over the last few years and discuss the different strategies employed for discovery and development of effective prospective treatments for cryptosporidiosis.

Enteric protozoal infections in camels: Etiology, epidemiology, and future perspectives

Camels have great potential as a safety valve for current and future food security for pastoralists, agropastoralists, and urban populations. Enteric protozoal diseases are important causes of economic losses in camels; however, they are poorly concerned globally. The most common members of enteric protozoa are Balantidium, Eimeria, Giardia, and Cryptosporidium. Some of them threaten human health as humans can be infected by consuming food or water contaminated with camel feces, particularly in poor communities with inadequate sanitation and low-quality healthcare facilities. For these reasons, a comprehensive and careful investigation was conducted on some enteric protozoal diseases of camels to present an updated insight into the etiology, epidemiology, and future trends in diagnosing and controlling camel enteric protozoa. Future studies on the camel enteric protozoa should be carried out to develop advanced diagnostic approaches in diverse farm animal species. Moreover, the protozoan zoonotic potential should be considered to secure human health.

Risk factors for Cryptosporidium infection in small ruminants in northern Greece

The knowledge of risk factors for Cryptosporidium spp. infection in small ruminants is based on limited data. Therefore, the current research aimed to describe the prevalence and risk factors associated with the occurrence of Cryptosporidium infection in sheep and goat herds in northern Greece. Hence, 530 fresh fecal samples from 59 sheep and goat farms were collected and examined for Cryptosporidium oocysts using microscopy of fecal smears stained by the modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique. The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection for both host species was 34% (180/530; 95% confidence interval (CI): 29.9-38). Specifically, the prevalence for sheep and goats was 33.5% (112/334; 95% CI: 28.4-35.6) and 34.7% (68/196; 95% CI: 28-41.4), respectively. Additionally, standardized questionnaires were filled-in to collect data regarding animals' health status, feeding, and other management practices in each farm. In total 22 risk factors hypothesized to be associated with Cryptosporidium infection were investigated. Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that farms with stagnant water were 11.78 (95% CI: 66-61.5) times more likely to be infected with Cryptosporidium than farms without stagnant water (p < 0.05). Furthermore, farms with more than 25% of their animals suffering from diarrhea were 17.39 (95% CI: 3.43-88.3) times more likely to be infected with Cryptosporidium than farms with ≤ 25% of the animals having diarrhea (p < 0.05). These results suggest that the animal health status and the prevailing environmental conditions play an important role in transmitting Cryptosporidium spp. infection.

Prevalence of Cryptosporidium Infection in Sheep and Goat Flocks in China During 2010-2019: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Cryptosporidiosis is an extensively contagious zoonotic waterborne disease caused by the genus Cryptosporidium and poses to be a danger to public health. Sheep and goats are an intermediate host of Cryptosporidium. Consequently, a first systematic review and meta-analysis are performed to assess the burden of the infection relative to the Cryptosporidium in sheep and goat flocks in China. Five databases were searched for relevant literature in accordance with the inclusion criteria until January 30, 2020. At last, a total of 33 qualified documents were included. We calculate the overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium (4.9%) in sheep and goats in China with the random-effects model. The prevalence after 2014 (4.6%) was higher than that before or in 2014 (2.8%). The pooled prevalence of Cryptosporidium in sheep and goats from Northern China (12.3%) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than other regions. The infection rate of modified acid-fast staining (14.3%) was the highest among the detection methods. In age subgroups, the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in sheep and goats in 3 months or before was the highest (20.8%). Goats had a higher infection rate (5.9%) in species. The prevalence of large-scale farms (2.8%) was lower than free-ranging farms (4.4%). The medium quality level (6.4%) was the highest. Besides, geographical factors (such as latitude, longitude, height, precipitation, humidity, mean temperature, etc.) were further analyzed as potential risk factors of Cryptosporidium in sheep and goats. This meta-analysis indicates that the Cryptosporidium infection of Chinese sheep and goat flocks is general. Thus, it is necessary to further monitor the prevalence of Cryptosporidium, and the reasonable preventive strategy should be formulated on the basis of the geographical factors of different regions and the differences in sheep and goats' growth stages to reduce the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in sheep and goats.

First report on Cryptosporidium parvum, Escherichia coli K99, rotavirus and coronavirus in neonatal lambs from north-center region, Algeria

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The etiology of neonatal diarrhea is multifactorial and remains one of the biggest problems in ruminant livestock farming. This study represent the first report in Algeria on Cryptosporidium parvum, Escherichia coli K99, rotavirus and coronavirus in the etiology of neonatal diarrhea in lambs.

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Faecal samples from 559 neonatal lambs aged less than 30 days from 30 sheepfolds were screened with pathogen-specific antigen ELISA for C. parvum, E. coli K99, rotavirus, and coronavirus.

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The prevalence of C. parvum was the highest compared to other enteric pathogens.

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In various combinations, mixed infections were detected only with C. parvum.

The etiology of neonatal diarrhea is multifactorial and remains one of the greatest health problems in sheep livestock farming. Faecal samples from 559 neonatal lambs aged less than 30 days from 30 sheepfolds located in the north-center region of Algeria were screened with pathogen-specific antigen ELISA for Cryptosporidium parvum, Escherichia coli K99, rotavirus, and coronavirus. Of the 559 lambs, 312 (58.81 %), 155 (27.72 %), 72 (12.88 %) and 20 (3.57 %) were positives for C. parvum, E. coli K99, rotavirus and coronavirus antigens, respectively. The prevalence of C. parvum was the highest (p < 0.0001). C. parvum, E. coli K99, rotavirus and coronavirus were observed in 23 (76.66 %), 17 (56.66 %), 9 (30 %) and 3 (10 %) sheepfolds, respectively. Compared to age, the prevalence of C. parvum was highest during the second and third week of age (p < 0.001). In contrast, other pathogens were found to be more frequent in lambs aged ≤7 days (p < 0.001). The number of lambs with diarrhea was 280 (50.09 %) of which 280 (100 %), 127 (45.35 %), 52 (18.57 %) and 10 (3.57 %) were found to be infected with C. parvum, E. coli K99, rotavirus and coronavirus, respectively (p < 0.0001). In various combinations, mixed infections were detected only with C. parvum. This is the first report of C. parvum, E. coli K99, rotavirus, and coronavirus in ≤30-days old neonatal lambs in Algeria. Special attention should be given to the first colostrum feeding, hygiene of the farm, prevention and control measures for a better prevention of neonatal diarrhea in lambs.

Prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in young livestock and dogs in Magude District of Maputo Province, Mozambique

BACKGROUND

Giardia and Cryptosporidium species are significant zoonotic parasites of humans and domesticated animals.

OBJECTIVES

The study aimed to determine the prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in livestock and dogs of the Magude District.

METHOD

The flotation technique (Willis), modified Ziehl-Neelsen (mZN) and direct and indirect immunofluorescence (DIF and IIF) techniques were applied to determine the prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium species in faecal samples of dog pups (156), goat kids (60) and calves (480) from the Magude District of Mozambique from February to September 2015.

RESULTS

Using Willis, IIF and DIF, the prevalence of Giardia in calves was 0%, 8.1%, and 6.0%; in dogs 0.6%, 8.3% and 5.7% and for goats 0% and 13.3% (IIF was not performed), respectively. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium in calves using Willis, mZN, IIF and DIF was 0%, 3.8%, 4.7% and 0.4% and in dogs 0%, 0.6%, 6.4% and 0.6%, respectively. The parasite was not detected in goats.

CONCLUSION

Results from the present study showed that IIF performed better diagnosis of Giardia and Cryptosporidium, and that the mZN can be used as an alternative for Cryptosporidium because of the high cost of IIF. There is a need for identification of genotypes or subtypes of these parasites through application of molecular techniques in order to determine their zoonotic potential, and we advocate a 'one health' approach in the control and prevention of these parasites.

Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium isolates from diarrheal dairy calves in France

Cryptosporidium is an obligate intracellular protist parasite infecting a wide range of vertebrate hosts and causes significant intestinal disease in both animals and humans, as some species are zoonotic. Cattle and especially calves have been identified as one of the most common reservoirs of this protist. However, little is known about the genetics of Cryptosporidium in calves in some regions of France. The aim of this study was to detect and isolate Cryptosporidium spp. in faecal samples from naturally infected pre-weaned calves (≤45 days-old) in France. A total of 35 diarrhoeic pre-weaned calf faecal samples were collected from 26 dairy cattle farms in six departments (French administrative provinces). Cryptosporidium presence was established by microscopically screening samples for oocystes with an immunofluorescent (DFA) staining method. DFA-positive samples were then analysed by PCR-RFLP and 18S rRNA gene sequencing to determine species. Cryptosporidium parvum-positive samples were subtyped via nested PCR analysis of a partial fragment of the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene product. Data were then integrated into phylogenetic tree analysis. DFA revealed the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in 31 out of 35 (88%) samples. Combined with 18S rRNA gene analysis results, C. parvum was detected in 30 samples. Subtyping analysis in 27/30 samples (90%) of the C. parvum isolates revealed two zoonotic subtype families, IIa (24/27) and IId (3/27). Four subtypes were recognised within the subtype family IIa, including the hypertransmissible IIaA15G2R1 subtype that is the most frequently reported worldwide (21/27), IIaA17G3R1 (1/27), IIaA17G1R1 (1/27), and IIaA19G1R1 (1/27). Two subtypes were recognised within the IId subtype family including IIdA22G1 (2/27) and IIdA27G1 (1/27). These findings illustrate the high occurrence of Cryptosporidium in calves in dairy herds and increase the diversity of molecularly characterised C. parvum isolates with the first description of IIaA17G3R1, IIaA19G1R1, and IId subtypes in France. The presence of zoonotic C. parvum subtype families (IIa, IId) in this study suggests that pre-weaned calves are likely to be a significant reservoir of zoonotic C. parvum, and highlights the importance of animal to human cryptosporidiosis transmission risk. Further molecular studies in calves and small ruminants from other French regions are required to better understand the epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis in France.

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Faecal samples from pre-weaned diarrheal calves were analysed

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Cryptosporidium spp. was detected in 30 samples out of 35.

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C. parvum was the only species identified

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Two zoonotic subtype families were identified: IIa and IId

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The hyper-transmissible IIaA15G2R1 was the dominant C. parvum subtype

Zoonotic Cryptosporidium species and subtypes in lambs and goat kids in Algeria

BACKGROUND

Little is known on the occurrence and identity of Cryptosporidium species in sheep and goats in Algeria. This study aimed at investigating the occurrence of Cryptosporidium species in lambs and goat kids younger than 4 weeks.

METHODS

A total of 154 fecal samples (62 from lambs and 92 from kid goats) were collected from 13 sheep flocks in Médea, Algeria and 18 goat flocks across Algiers and Boumerdes. They were screened for Cryptosporidium spp. by nested-PCR analysis of a fragment of the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene, followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism and sequence analyses to determine the Cryptosporidium species present. Cryptosporidium parvum and C. ubiquitum were further subtyped by sequence analysis of the 60 kDa glycoprotein gene.

RESULTS

Cryptosporidium spp. were detected in 17 fecal samples (11.0%): 9 from lambs (14.5%) and 8 from goat kids (8.7%). The species identified included C. parvum in 3 lambs, C. xiaoi in 6 lambs and 6 goat kids, and C. ubiquitum in 2 goat kids. Cryptosporidium infections were detected mostly in animals during the first two weeks of life (7/8 for goat kids and 7/9 for lambs) and in association with diarrhea occurrence (7/17 or 41.2% goat kids and 7/10 or 70.0% lambs with diarrhea were positive for Cryptosporidium spp.). Subtyping of C. parvum and C. ubiquitum isolates identified the zoonotic IIaA13G2R1 and XIIa subtype families, respectively. Minor differences in the SSU rRNA gene sequences were observed between C. xiaoi from sheep and goats.

CONCLUSIONS

Results of this study indicate that three Cryptosporidium species occur in lambs and goat kids in Algeria, including zoonotic C. parvum and C. ubiquitum. They are associated with the occurrence of neonatal diarrhea.

Dynamic Distribution of Gut Microbiota in Goats at Different Ages and Health States

The importance of the gut microbiota (GM) of animals is widely acknowledged because of its pivotal roles in metabolism, immunity, and health maintenance. The level of health can be reflected by the dynamic distribution of GM. In this study, high-throughput sequencing of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene was used to compare the microbial populations from feces in healthy and diarrheic kids, which reflected the dynamic shift of microbiota in kids and investigated differences from adult healthy goats. Healthy kids and goats not only displayed higher species richness but also exhibited higher bacterial diversity than diarrheic kids based on the results of the operational taxonomic unit analysis, alpha diversity, and beta diversity. Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes were the most dominant phyla in all samples. At the genus level, the differences in diversity and abundance between diarrheic kids and the other two groups were gradually observed. In the diarrheic kid intestine, Bacteroides remained the dominant species, and the proportion of Clostridium_sensu_stricto_1 and Paeniclostridium increased, whereas Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group, Ruminococcaceae_UCG-005, and Christensenellaceae_R-7_group were significantly reduced. The results showed the differences of GM in diarrheic kids and healthy kids were significant while in kids and goats were not obvious. Differences in the composition of intestinal microbiota may not be the cause of diarrhea, and some changes of bacterial richness may guide our interpretation of diarrhea. This study is the first to investigate the distribution of GM in Boer goats with different ages and health states. Furthermore, this study will provide a theoretical basis for the establishment of a prevention and treatment system for goat diarrhea.

Efficacy of chitosan, a natural polysaccharide, against Cryptosporidium parvum in vitro and in vivo in neonatal mice

Cryptosporidiosis is a zoonotic disease caused by species in the genus Cryptosporidium. In young ruminants, Cryptosporidium parvum causes economically significant disease with mild to severe clinical signs and occasional death. The typical clinical course in animals aged 1-3 weeks old is acute diarrhoea. Currently there are no available treatments that are fully effective against cryptosporidiosis in either humans or animals. Therefore there is a critical need for the development of new therapeutic agents. We adapted two in vitro culture systems (HCT-8 and Caco-2 cell lines) for C. parvum infection to investigate the "anticryptosporidial" activity of two chitosans; Chitosan NAG and Chitosan Mix. Chitosan-a naturally-occurring polysaccharide compound-has been found to be active against a variety of diseases, possessing both antimicrobial and anticancer properties. We investigated both chitosan's toxicity and effects on C. parvum in the two in vitro models. To evaluate chitosan's effects on oocyst shedding in vivo, CD-1 neonate mice were orally inoculated with C. parvum oocysts (Iowa strain), treated with chitosan, and compared to infected non-treated animals. Paromomycin, a classical drug used in veterinary medicine, was used as a reference compound. Immunofluorescence techniques were used to analyse the parasites. Our results showed significant reductions in Cryptosporidium oocyst viability (>95%) after oocyst pre-incubation with either paromomycin (P < 0.001), Chitosan Mix or Chitosan NAG (P < 0.001), for 24 h at 37 °C. Additionally, paromomycin, Chitosan Mix, and Chitosan NAG significantly inhibited C. parvum multiplication in HCT-8 and Caco-2 cell lines (P < 0.005). These effects were dose-dependent. In in vivo studies, treatment with both chitosans (Chitosan NAG, Chitosan Mix) or paromomycin sulfate significantly reduced parasite shedding in infected treated newborn mice (-56%, -34.5% and -58%, respectively). In conclusion, these findings provide the first in vitro and in vivo evidence of the anticryptosporidial activities of this natural polysaccharide.

Sheep as a Potential Source of Zoonotic Cryptosporidiosis in China

In this study, we assessed the prevalence and genetic characteristics of Cryptosporidium in sheep from 10 provinces in China. Fecal samples from 1,035 sheep originating from 16 farms were collected, and 295 (28.5%) were found to be Cryptosporidium positive by nested PCR. Cryptosporidium was detected at all farms, with infection rates between 5.7% and 50.0%. Three Cryptosporidium species were identified, including Cryptosporidium xiaoi (73.2%, 216/295), Cryptosporidium ubiquitum (21.7%, 64/295), and Cryptosporidium parvum (5.1%, 15/295). The distribution of Cryptosporidium species differed by province and by farm. All three species were detected in lambs and adult sheep but the highest infection rate was found in postweaned lambs. All three species were detected in all four seasons, with the highest prevalence found in autumn. Four C. parvum subtypes (IIaA15G2R1, IIaA17G2R1, IIdA18G1, and IIdA19G1) and one C. ubiquitum subtype (XIIa) were identified. For most provinces in this study, we are not aware of a previously published description or molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium infections in sheep. This information will improve our knowledge and understanding of the epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis in China.IMPORTANCECryptosporidium is an important zoonotic parasite that causes diarrhea in humans and animals worldwide. Previous studies suggested geographic differences in the distribution of Cryptosporidium species in sheep. However, molecular characterization studies of Cryptosporidium species in sheep have been carried out in only a few provinces in China, and the limited data available do not reflect the real situation. In this study, five districts, covering most areas where sheep are bred in China, were selected for examination of Cryptosporidium species, and Cryptosporidium infections were detected at all farms assessed, suggesting that Cryptosporidium is widespread in sheep in China. We also found geographic differences in the distribution of Cryptosporidium species but did not detect any differences between sheep age groups or seasons. Subtyping analyses showed that all of the subtypes identified in this study have been reported in humans, suggesting that sheep may be a potential source of zoonotic cryptosporidiosis.

Cryptosporidium occurrence in ruminants from the North Pioneer mesoregion of Paraná, Brazil

The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of Cryptosporidium in cattle and sheep from the North Pioneer mesoregion of the state of Paraná. For this, 317 stool samples were collected from cattle and sheep on 16 properties in six municipalities in the North Pioneer mesoregion of Paraná. For detection of Cryptosporidium species, molecular analysis was performed using nested-PCR techniques targeting the 18S rRNA gene. Of the 37 beef cows and 115 calves analyzed, four (10.8%) and 14 (12.2%), respectively, were positive for Cryptosporidium. Of the 12 cows and 52 calves, one (8.3%) and 14 (26.9%), respectively, were positive for Cryptosporidium; and of the 42 ewes and 59 lambs, six (14.3%) and 12 (20.3%), respectively were positive for Cryptosporidium. Cattle (15.3%) and sheep (17.8%) were both susceptible to infection. All the properties of the municipalities of Assaí, Ibaiti and, Leópolis presented infected animals. The study showed that Cryptosporidium occurs in most municipalities assessed, that dairy calves had a higher risk (Odds Ratio=2,66, p-value=0,018) for infection than beef calves, and that sheep are just as susceptible to infection as are cattle, and that further Cryptosporidium studies are developed.

Epidemiological observations on cryptosporidiosis and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in sheep and goats in Kuwait

Molecular epidemiological analysis of cryptosporidiosis in Middle Eastern countries suggests that small ruminants could play a major role in the transmission of Cryptosporidium spp. to humans, with a dominance of Cryptosporidium parvum, especially its IId subtypes. However, little information is available on the epidemiology and risk factors of cryptosporidiosis as well the distribution of Cryptosporidium species/genotypes and subtypes in small ruminants in this area, including Kuwait. In the present study, 47 farms from several areas in Kuwait were visited once during October 2014 to September 2015 to collect data on risk factors associated with Cryptosporidium infection. Fecal samples from 334 sheep and 222 goats were examined for Cryptosporidium oocysts by Ziehl-Neelsen staining (ZN) and antigens by enzymatic immunoassay (EIA). The Cryptosporidium prevalence was higher when samples were examined by EIA than ZN (11.4 and 7.2% in sheep and goats by EIA, compared with 4.2 and 3.6% by ZN, respectively). Young age (less than 3 months) and closed housing system are risk factors of Cryptosporidium infection. A correlation between fecal consistency and the occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. was observed; non-formed fecal samples were often found positive. Molecular characterization of 30 ovine and caprine samples using PCR-RFLP analysis of the small subunit rRNA gene revealed the presence of C. parvum in 23 samples, Cryptosporidium ubiquitum in five samples, and Cryptosporidium xiaoi in two samples. Sequence analysis of C. parvum at the 60 KDa glycoprotein gene locus identified two subtypes, IIaA15G2R1 and IIdA20G1, with the latter being more common (in 2 and 20 successfully subtyped samples, respectively). Only one subtype of C. ubiquitum (XIIa) was recorded. Cryptosporidiosis in small ruminants apparently poses public health problem in Kuwait.

Cryptosporidium infection in bovine calves: prevalence and potential risk factors in northwest Ethiopia

Objective

Cryptosporidium is an enteric protozoan organism that causes gastrointestinal disorders in different animals, mainly in calves. The parasite has also a zoonotic importance of children and immunocompromised patients. However, data are limited to northwest Ethiopia. Therefore, we conducted a cross-sectional survey from October 2014 to April 2015 to estimate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection and to identify potential risk factors in bovine calves in northwest Ethiopia.

Results

Out of the 360 examined calves, Cryptosporidium oocysts were recorded in 67 (18.6%) calves. Risk factors such as age, hygiene, faecal consistency, feed source, water source and contact with other domestic animals were significantly (P < 0.05) affected the occurrence of Cryptosporidium infection. However, significant variations (P > 0.05) were not recorded between Cryptosporidium infection and gender, body condition score, breed and study sites. Using multivariable analysis, age, feed source, water source, hygiene and close contact with other domestic animals were recognized as potential risk factors for the occurrence of Cryptosporidium infection. This study clearly figures out that Cryptosporidium infection is prevalent in the study area. Therefore, further studies, extension services and community education are recommended to adopt an integrated control approaches.

Occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in raw and finished drinking water in north-eastern Spain

This paper collects the first large-sample-size study on the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in drinking water plants at the 20 most populated towns in Aragón (north-eastern Spain). Samples of influent raw water and effluent finished water were collected from each plant during different seasons and processed according to USEPA Method 1623. Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts were detected in samples collected from 55% and 70% plants, respectively, with nine plants being positive for both protozoa and only four plants being negative over the study period. Both parasites were identified in the raw water throughout the year, with a lower frequency in autumn and a peak in winter, at a mean concentration of 67±38 oocysts per 100l and 125±241 cysts per 100l. The turbidity of raw water was not related to the presence or concentration of (oo)cysts, and the (oo)cyst removal efficiency was not related to the type of water treatment. One or both pathogens were identified in the finished water in 7 out of 11 plants with a conventional treatment process (coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection processes) compared to 4 out of 9 plants that did not apply one of the pre-chlorination treatment steps. Protozoa were detected in the finished water of positive plants at a mean concentration of 88±55 oocysts per 100l and 37±41 cysts per 100l, and most of them excluded propidium iodide so were considered potentially viable. The ubiquity of these parasites in the drinking water sources and the inefficiency of conventional water treatment in reducing/inactivating them may present a serious public health issue in this geographical area.

Dissemination of intestinal pathogens between lambs and puppies in sheep farms

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Rotavirus was detected in samples from lambs with diarrhoea.

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Salmonella enterica subsp. diarizonae was isolated in samples from lambs with diarrhoea.

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Antibiotic resistance was detected in >60% of Escherichia coli strains isolated in the study.

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Escherichia coli with identical antibacterial resistance were detected in lambs and puppies.

Objectives of the present work were (i) to confirm pathogens implicated in cases of diarrhoea in newborn and young lambs in sheep farms in Greece and (ii) to investigate a possible relation in dissemination of pathogens between lambs and dogs present in the farm. Work was carried out in 22 sheep farms, with (i) flock size over 150 animals, (ii) presence of clinical signs of diarrhoea in lambs in the flock and (iii) close and continuous contact and movement of shepherd dogs within the animal shed of each farm. Faecal sample collection from lambs was performed within 48 h of onset of clinical signs and prior to administration of any antimicrobial or antiparasitic medication to lambs. Faecal samples were also collected from puppies in the farm. In total, samples were collected from 126 lambs and 58 puppies. Samples were processed by using established techniques for isolation of bacteria, detection of viruses and observation of protozoan oocycts. Escherichia coli isolates obtained during the study, were tested for antimicrobial resistance against a variety of antimicrobial agents. In total, 236 bacterial isolates were recovered from faecal samples of lambs and 165 isolates from faecal samples of puppies. E. coli was the most frequently isolated microorganism: 104 isolates from lambs and 109 isolates from puppies were recovered. Other bacteria isolated were Enterobacter spp., Proteus spp., Klebsiella spp., (lambs and puppies), Clostridium perfringens, Citrobacter freundi, Salmonella enterica subsp. diarizonae (only lambs) and Streptococcus spp. (only puppies). Group A Rotavirus was detected in samples from lambs (2.5%) and Parvovirus in samples from puppies (5%). Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts were observed in samples from lambs and puppies. This is the first report of isolation of S. enterica subsp. diarizonae and of detection of Rotavirus from lambs in Greece. Rates of E. coli isolates from puppies resistant to antimicrobial agents were, in general, smaller than respective rates in isolates from lambs. Two pairs of isolates from the same farm (one from a lamb and one from a puppy) with identical patterns of resistance to antimicrobial agents were detected, which provides some evidence in support of a hypothesis that members of each pair might possibly have been spread from one animal species to the other.

Intra-Species Genetic Diversity and Clonal Structure of Cryptosporidium parvum in Sheep Farms in a Confined Geographical Area in Northeastern Spain

A multilocus fragment typing approach including eleven variable-number tandem-repeat (VNTR) loci and the GP60 gene was used to investigate the intra-farm and intra-host genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium parvum in sheep farms in a confined area in northeastern Spain. Genomic DNA samples of 113 C. parvum isolates from diarrheic pre-weaned lambs collected in 49 meat-type sheep farms were analyzed. Loci exhibited various degrees of polymorphism, the finding of 7–9 alleles in the four most variable and discriminatory markers (ML2, Cgd6_5400, Cgd6_3940, and GP60) being remarkable. The combination of alleles at the twelve loci identified a total of 74 multilocus subtypes (MLTs) and provided a Hunter-Gaston discriminatory index of 0.988 (95% CI, 0.979−0.996). The finding that most MLTs (n = 64) were unique to individual farms evidenced that cryptosporidial infection is mainly transmitted within sheep flocks, with herd-to-herd transmission playing a secondary role. Limited intra- host variability was found, since only five isolates were genotypically mixed. In contrast, a significant intra-farm genetic diversity was seen, with the presence of multiple MLTs on more than a half of the farms (28/46), suggesting frequent mutations or genetic exchange through recombination. Comparison with a previous study in calves in northern Spain using the same 12-loci typing approach showed differences in the identity of major alleles at most loci, with a single MLT being shared between lambs and calves. Analysis of evolutionary descent by the algorithm eBURST indicated a high degree of genetic divergence, with over 41% MLTs appearing as singletons along with a high number of clonal complexes, most of them linking only two MLTs. Bayesian Structure analysis and F statistics also revealed the genetic remoteness of most C. parvum isolates and no ancestral population size was chosen. Linkage analysis evidenced a prevalent pattern of clonality within the parasite population.

Prevalence of Cryptosporidium in small ruminants from Veracruz, Mexico

BACKGROUND

Cryptosporidiosis is a zoonotic disease caused by the protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium spp. that can affect domestic animal and human populations. In newborn ruminants, cryptosporidiosis is characterized by outbreaks of diarrhea, which can result in high morbidity and economic impact. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in small ruminants from the Perote municipality in Veracruz State, Mexico. One hundred and sixty small ruminants (80 sheep and 80 goats) from eight farms located in four towns of the Perote municipality were examined following a cross-sectional study design. Stool samples were analyzed by a modification of the Faust centrifugation method, and the presence of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts was examined using a modification of the Ziehl-Neelsen staining procedure. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were used to assess the association of Cryptosporidium infection and the general characteristics of the animals studied.

RESULTS

Overall, 112 (70%, 95% CI: 62.3-76.9) of the 160 small ruminants sampled were infected with Cryptosporidium spp. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. infection in goats was 72.5% (95% CI: 61.4-81.9) and in sheep 67.5% (95% CI: 56.1-77.6). Small ruminants aged 1 month old had the highest (88.2%; 95% CI: 63.6-98.5) prevalence of infection. Prevalence varied from 60% to 85% among herds. Animal species, age, sex, breed, farm, town or cohabitation with cattle did not influence the prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection.

CONCLUSIONS

A high prevalence of infection with Cryptosporidium spp. was observed in small ruminants from the Perote municipality in Veracruz, Mexico. Infection was widely distributed among sheep and goats regardless of their age, breed or farm location. Further research is required to identify risk factors for, and to assess the veterinary public health significance of Cryptosporidium infection among sheep and goats in the Mexican state of Veracruz.

Epidemiological Observations on Cryptosporidiosis in Diarrheic Goat Kids in Greece

This study aimed at investigating the occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. in diarrheic goat kids in Greece and the risk factors associated with cryptosporidiosis. Altogether, 292 diarrheic 4–15-day-old goat kids from 54 dairy goat herds of Northern Greece were examined. Oocysts of Cryptosporidium spp. were detected in 223 of 292 (76.4%) goat kids and the intensity of infection was scored as “high” in 142 samples, “moderate” in 45 samples, and “low” in 36 samples. Larger herds (>200 animals) had higher infection rates than smaller ones, although this difference was not statistically significant. Significantly higher infection rates were observed in herds during late kidding season (1 January to 30 April) compared to the early one (1 September to 31 December). These results suggest that cryptosporidiosis is very common in diarrheic goat kids in Greece, especially in large herds during the late parturition season.

Cryptosporidium species and subtype analysis in diarrhoeic pre-weaned lambs and goat kids from north-western Spain

Faecal specimens from diarrhoeic pre-weaned lambs (n = 171) and goat kids (n = 118) were collected in 37 sheep and 23 goat flocks, respectively, from NW Spain and microscopically examined for the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts. Positive specimens were selected for molecular characterization. Presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts were significantly higher in specimens from goat kids (62.7%) than from lambs (31.6%). PCR products of the SSU rRNA locus were obtained for 108 isolates, and three Cryptosporidium species were identified. Cryptosporidium parvum was the most common species identified from both lambs (74.4%) and goat kids (93.8%). The remaining PCR products from lambs (25.6%) and goat kids (7.7%) were identified as Cryptosporidium Ubiquitum and Cryptosporidium xiaoi, respectively. Five C. parvum subtypes were identified; IIaA13G1R1, IIaA14G2R1, IIaA15G2R1 and IIaA16G3R1 were found in both host species, and IIdA17G1 was only detected in goat kids. Subtype IIaA15G2R1 was the most common and widely distributed. The present study provides the first description of subtypes IIaA13G1R1 in both small ruminant species, IIaA14G2R1 in sheep and IIaA16G3R1 in goats. Our results also reveal that diarrhoeic pre-weaned lambs and goat kids must be considered important reservoirs of Cryptosporidium species with zoonotic potential, such as C. parvum and C. ubiquitum.

Molecular characterisation of Cryptosporidium spp. in lambs in the South Central region of the State of São Paulo

Considering the proximity of sheep farmers to animals that are possibly diseased or releasing fecal oocysts into the environment and the marked pathogenicity in lambs, the aim of this study was to determine the occurrence and to molecularly characterize the infection by Cryptosporidium spp. in lambs in the South Central region of the state of São Paulo, Brazil. A total of 193 fecal samples were collected from sheep of several breeds, males and females, aged up to one year. Polymerase chain reaction (nested-PCR) was used to amplify DNA fragments from the subunit 18S rRNA gene and indicated 15% positivity; sequencing of amplified fragments was possible for 19 samples. Analysis of the obtained sequences showed that the identified species were Cryptosporidium xiaoi for 15 samples, constituting thus the first molecular characterization study of this Cryptosporidium species in Brazil. Cryptosporidium ubiquitum was identified for three samples and Cryptosporidium meleagridis for one sample; the latter two are considered zoonotic species.

Prevalence and molecular typing of Cryptosporidium in dairy cattle in England and Wales and examination of potential on-farm transmission routes

An average of 70 samples were collected from 80 dairy farms in England and Wales, from cattle, co-grazed sheep, wildlife and farm wastes, to investigate prevalence, potential sources and transmission routes of Cryptosporidium. At least one positive sample was detected on 74 of the farms (92.5%) by IFAT microscopy. The prevalence in cattle was 10.2% (95% CI 9.4-11.1%), with greater prevalences detected in calf samples, especially from those under 1 month (45.1%). Young calves were also more likely to be shedding Cryptosporidium parvum and larger concentrations of oocysts, whereas older calves and adult cattle were more likely to be shedding Cryptosporidium bovis and Cryptosporidium andersoni, respectively. The C. parvum subtypes detected were predominantly from types commonly identified in UK cattle (67% were either IIaA15G2R1 or IIaA17G1R1). A novel subtype, IIaA17G1R2, was identified from one cattle sample. The prevalence in co-grazed sheep was low (4%). Birds and rodents may represent significant reservoirs of Cryptosporidium due to high prevalence, large oocyst concentrations, and the detection of a C. parvum subtype known to be present in human populations, identified in samples from these wildlife. Cryptosporidium were detected in dirty water and manure, and also from pasture samples where slurry had been spread. On 64% of the farms, identical Cryptosporidium species were detected (mainly C. parvum or C. bovis) from different cattle groups on the farms, although no direct or indirect contact between the groups were recorded, apart from sharing staff. The same Cryptosporidium species were found in cattle, farm wastes and bird samples on the same farms, but rarely, or not at all, present in sheep or rodent samples. The matching of species/subtypes was also related to the proximity of the different sample sources which may indicate a potential transmission route.

Point prevalence of Cryptosporidium oocyst in calves grazing along River Rima bank in Sokoto, Nigeria

The present study was conducted to investigate the point prevalence of Cryptosporidium oocysts infection in calves grazing along the bank of Rima River Sokoto in October 2011. The river bank is a converging zone for domestic animals reared in different quarters of the town and the surrounding settlements. A total number of 2,959 cattle were enumerated out of which 147 (4.97%) were calves. Faecal samples were collected from 100 (68.02%) calves by convenient sampling technique. Formol-Ether sedimentation and modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining techniques were used to identify the Cryptosporidium oocysts in the faecal samples. Faecal consistency was also used to identify diarrhoeic and non-diarrhoeic calves. Cryptosporidium oocysts were identified in 33 (33.0%) of the calves examined. The detection rate was higher among the male calves (38.46%) than females while the Rahaji breed had the highest prevalence of 62.5%. A total of 6 (18.18%) among the positive cases were diarrhoeic. The differences in prevalence based on sex, breeds and presence of diarrhoea were not statistically significant. Calves may become sources of Cryptosporidia infection to man and other animals in the study area through unrestricted movements and interactions with the environment.

Prevalence and analysis of associated risk factors for Cryptosporidium infection in lambs in Jammu district

An epidemiologic study was carried out to investigate the prevalence and analysis of risk of Cryptosporidium infection in lambs in Jammu district. Faecal samples of 120 lambs of different age groups viz., <1 month, 1-3 months and 3-6 months were assessed. Cryptosporidium oocysts were identified by using modified Zeihl Neelsen technique. Statistical analysis showed that infection rates were significantly higher in lambs of <1 month age group (65 %) than other two age groups (p < 0.05). Similarly, cryptosporidial infection rates were significantly higher in diarrhoeic (54.41 %) than in non diarrhoeic lambs (34.61 %). Winter records highest prevalence (73.33 %) which varied significantly. Sex wise higher prevalence was observed in females (51.56 %) as compared to males (39.28 %). The relationship between intensity of infection and various epidemiological factors showed that highest intensity was observed in lambs of 0-1 month age group, having diarrhoea, in winter season.

A Review of the Use of Organic Amendments and the Risk to Human Health

Historically, organic amendments—organic wastes—have been the main source of plant nutrients, especially N. Their use allows better management of often-finite resources to counter changes in soils that result from essential practices for crop production. Organic amendments provide macro- and micronutrients, including carbon for the restoration of soil physical and chemical properties. Challenges from the use of organic amendments arise from the presence of heavy metals and the inability to control the transformations required to convert the organic forms of N and P into the minerals available to crops, and particularly to minimize the losses of these nutrients in forms that may present a threat to human health. Animal manure and sewage biosolids, the organic amendments in greatest abundance, contain components that can be hazardous to human health, other animals and plants. Pathogens pose an immediate threat. Antibiotics, other pharmaceuticals and naturally produced hormones may pose a threat if they increase the number of zoonotic disease organisms that are resistant to multiple antimicrobial drugs or interfere with reproductive processes. Some approaches aimed at limiting N losses (e.g. covered liquid or slurry storage, rapid incorporation into the soil, timing applications to minimize delay before plant uptake) also tend to favor survival of pathogens. Risks to human health, through the food chain and drinking water, from the pathogens, antibiotics and hormonal substances that may be present in organic amendments can be reduced by treatment before land application, such as in the case of sewage biosolids. Other sources, such as livestock and poultry manures, are largely managed by ensuring that they are applied at the rate, time and place most appropriate to the crops and soils. A more holistic approach to management is required as intensification of agriculture increases.

Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in pre-weaned kids in a dairy goat farm in western France

A longitudinal study was undertaken to characterize the course of Cryptosporidium infection in a dairy goat farm located in western France. Two cohorts of twenty-five and fifteen animals, respectively, were sampled once a week from birth to weaning. Each individual fecal sample was screened using direct immunofluorescence (IFT) and if found positive, the Cryptosporidium species was identified using PCR analysis. Seventeen (68% [95% CI: 44-91]) animals were positive at least once during the first study and 14 (93% [95% CI: 80-100]) during the second, after IFT examination. In the first study, the age at first excretion was 17 days and the peak of excretion (mean arithmetic excretion: 22,700 oocysts per gram (opg) of feces) was recorded when kids were between 22 and 28 days old. For the second study, the age at first excretion was 10 days and the peak of excretion (mean arithmetic excretion: 3.4 × 10(6)opg) was recorded in animals aged between 10 and 14 days. Clinical signs were observed only in animals of the second cohort. DNA sequence analysis at the 18S ribosomal RNA locus was successful for 9 of the 27 IFT-positive samples in the first cohort and for 10 of the 34 positive isolates in the second cohort. All isolates were identified as Cryptosporidium xiaoi except one which was identified as Cryptosporidium parvum. Our results confirm that goat kids are hosts for C. parvum and C. xiaoi and that infection by C. xiaoi may be associated with mild clinical signs.

Zoonotic Cryptosporidium parvum in Romanian newborn lambs (Ovis aries)

This study was undertaken to investigate the occurrence and public health significance of Cryptosporidium species/genotypes and subtypes in a newborn lambs. A total of 175 diarrheic fecal samples from lambs (younger than 21 days) were collected in seven sheep flocks located in western Romania, and were microscopically examined for the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts after staining with modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique. Twenty-four (13.7%) fecal samples were tested Cryptosporidium positive by microscopy and were subjected for molecular characterization. All positive samples were successfully amplified through a nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene (18S). Cryptosporidium species were determined by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of the secondary PCR products using the conventional SspI and VspI restriction enzymes. The identified species were: Cryptosporidium parvum (20/24), C. ubiquitum (2/24) and C. xiaoi (2/24), respectively. PCR-RFLP results for C. ubiquitum and C. xiaoi isolates were confirmed by DNA sequencing. Subsequently, subtyping of seven randomly selected C. parvum isolates, based on sequence analysis of the GP60 gene, revealed the presence of five different subtypes (IIaA17G1R1, IIaA16G1R1, IIdA20G1, IIdA24G1 and IIdA22G2R1) belonging in two zoonotic subtype families (IIa and IId). These findings may suggest the potential role of the newborn lambs as a source for human cryptosporidiosis. This is the first published report about the presence of C. ubiquitum and C. xiaoi in lambs from Romania.

Prevalence of Cryptosporidium-like infection in one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) of northwestern Iran

Cryptosporidium is a ubiquitous enteropathogen protozoan infection affecting livestock worldwide. The present study was carried out to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in different age groups of dromedary camels in northwestern Iran from November 2009 to July 2010. A total number of 170 fecal samples were collected and examined using modified Ziehl-Neelsen (MZN) staining under light microscope. Examination of stained fecal smears revealed that 17 camels (10%) were positive for Cryptosporidium-like. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium-like was significantly higher in camel calves (< 1 years old) (20%) than other age groups, in which the diarrhoeic calves had the prevalence of 16%. In adult camels the prevalence was 6.5%. There was no significant difference in the prevalence of Cryptosporidium-like between male and female camels. It is concluded that Cryptosporidium infection is a problem in camel husbandry and could be of public health concern in the region.

Identification and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in children and cattle populations from the province of Álava, North of Spain

The prevalence of and factors associated with the protozoan enteropathogens Cryptosporidium and Giardia have been investigated in selected children and cattle populations from the province of Álava (Northern Spain). The presence of these organisms was detected in fecal samples using commercially available coproantigen-ELISA (CpAg-ELISA) and immunochromatographic (ICT) assays. A total of 327 caregivers of children participants were asked to answer questions on risk factors potentially associated to the prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia, including water-use practices, water sports and contact with domestic or pet animals. Molecular analyses were conducted using a nested-PCR technique to amplify the small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene of Cryptosporidium and the triosephosphate isomerase (tpi) gene of Giardia. Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts were found in 3 and 16 samples using the CpAg-ELISA, and in 5 and 9 samples using the ICT test, respectively. Cryptosporidium and Giardia were also found in 7 and 17 samples by CpAg-ELISA, and 4 and 14 samples by ICT, respectively, of 227 cattle fecal samples. The overall Cryptosporidium and Giardia infection prevalences, based on a Bayesian approach accounting for the imperfect sensitivities and specificities of both diagnostic tests, were estimated to 1.0% (95% BCI: 0.2%-2.8%) and 3.1% (1.5%-5.3%) in children and 3.0% (0.5%-9.2%) and 1.4% (0.0%-6.4%) in cattle, respectively. In humans, a single Cryptosporidium isolate was characterized as C. hominis. Of seven Giardia isolates, four were identified as assemblage B, two as assemblage A-II and one was a mixed assemblage B+A-II infection. No Cryptosporidium or Giardia isolates could be obtained from cattle samples. Although limited, these results seem to suggest that cattle are unlikely to be an important reservoir of zoonotic Cryptosporidium and/or Giardia in the province of Álava.

Cryptosporidiosis in small ruminants

Cryptosporidiosis is an infection caused by protozoan parasites belonging to the genus Cryptosporidium which is responsible for a potentially severe disease in new-born ruminants. This infection is highly prevalent in small ruminants throughout the world, especially in pre-weaned animals. The clinical expression is different between goat kids and lambs, the infection being generally more severe in the former. Molecular data demonstrate geographical variations in the species of Cryptosporidium infecting small ruminants. They also support the possibility of transmission of zoonotic species from these hosts to humans. Studies are still needed on molecular epidemiology, especially in goats, and on ways to control infection.

Fatores de risco associados à infecção por Cryptosporidium spp. e Giardia duodenalis em bovinos leiteiros na fase de cria e recria na mesorregião do Campo das Vertentes de Minas Gerais

Este estudo observacional do tipo transversal foi realizado com o objetivo avaliar os fatores de risco associados à infecção por Cryptosporidium spp. e Giardia duodenalis em bezerras provenientes de 20 propriedades leiteiras, localizadas na mesorregião do Campo das Vertentes de Minas Gerais. As propriedades foram divididas igualmente em dois grupos de acordo com o tipo de leite produzido: Grupo I = Leite B e Grupo II = Leite cru refrigerado. Amostras fecais de 356 bezerras foram coletadas no período de setembro de 2008 a agosto de 2009 e analisadas utilizando-se os métodos de Ziehl-Neelsen e flutuação em sulfato zinco a 33% para detecção, respectivamente, dos oocistos de Cryptosporidium spp. e cistos de G. duodenalis. Dados sobre práticas de manejo e condições sanitárias de criação dos bovinos foram obtidos por meio de entrevistas durante a visita a cada propriedade, no momento em que foi coletada uma única amostra de fezes de bezerras de 1 dia a 12 meses de idade. A frequência média global de bezerras infectadas por Cryptosporidium spp. foi de 21,62%, sendo a faixa etária de 7- 21 dias de idade a que apresentou o maior número de animais eliminando oocistos. Para G. duodenalis, a frequência média global foi de 25,56% e a faixa etária de 60-90 dias de idade foi a com maior número de animais com cistos nas fezes. Os resultados deste estudo indicam que infecções por Cryptosporidium spp. e G. duodenalis estão amplamente distribuídas entre fêmeas bovinas na fase de cria e recria provenientes de rebanhos leiteiros na mesorregião do Campo das Vertentes de Minas Gerais. Dentre os fatores associados a um maior risco de infecção por Cryptosporidium spp. e G. duodenalis em bezerras, discutidos neste estudo, se destacam os seguintes: a permanência no piquete maternidade por mais de 12h após o nascimento; o fornecimento de colostro a partir de 7h de vida; o primeiro fornecimento de água e concentrado entre 1 e 7 dias de idade; e a manutenção em instalação coletiva e/ou localizada próxima ao curral.

Cryptosporidium and Giardia associated with reduced lamb carcase productivity

On two extensive sheep farms in southern Western Australia, 111 (Farm A) and 124 (Farm B) female crossbred lambs (2-6 weeks old) were randomly selected and individually identified using ear tags (a numbered tag and radio-frequency tag) at marking. On five separate occasions, faecal samples were collected and live weight, body condition score (BCS), faecal consistency score (FCS), breech fleece faecal soiling score and faecal dry matter percentage (DM%) were recorded. Lamb hot carcase weight (HCW) and dressing percentage were measured at slaughter. Faecal samples were screened by PCR for Cryptosporidium (18S rRNA, actin and 60 kDa glycoprotein [gp60] loci), Giardia duodenalis (glutamate dehydrogenase [gdh] and triosephosphate isomerise [tpi]) and Campylobacter jejuni (16S rRNA). Observation of Eimeria oocysts and faecal worm egg counts (WECs) were performed using a modified McMaster technique. The WECs were adjusted for FCS for analyses. Faecal samples were screened for patent strongylid infections using PCR (specifically ITS-2 nuclear ribosomal DNA for Teladorsagia circumcincta, Trichostrongylus spp. and Haemonchus contortus). Lambs positive for Cryptosporidium at least once had lighter HCWs by 1.25 kg (6.6%) (P=0.029) and 1.46 kg (9.7%) (P<0.001) compared to lambs never positive for Cryptosporidium for Farms A and B respectively. Similarly, dressing percentages were 1.7% (P=0.022) and 1.9% (P<0.001) lower in Cryptosporidium-positive lambs on Farms A and B respectively. Lambs positive for Giardia at least once had 0.69 kg (P<0.001) lighter HCWs and 1.7% (P<0.001) lower dressing percentages compared to lambs never positive for Giardia on Farm B only. Cryptosporidium-positive lambs at the second sampling were 4.72 (P=0.010) and 3.84 (P=0.002) times more likely to have non-pelleted faeces compared to Cryptosporidium-negative lambs for Farms A and B respectively. Breech fleece faecal soiling scores of Cryptosporidium-positive lambs were 3.36 (P=0.026) and 2.96 (P=0.047) times more likely to be moderate to severe (scores 3-5), compared to negative lambs at the second sampling for Farms A and B respectively. Live weight, growth rate and BCS were inconsistently associated with protozoa detection across different samplings and farms. Adjusted WEC was correlated positively with FCS and negatively with faecal DM%, differing between sampling occasions and farms. Campylobacter jejuni prevalence was very low (<1%). Adjusted WEC were not correlated with carcase attributes, growth rates or live weights. This study is the first to quantify productivity consequences of naturally acquired protozoa infections in lambs managed under extensive farming conditions.

Genotype and subtype analysis of Cryptosporidium isolates from calves and lambs in Galicia (NW Spain)

Faecal specimens from diarrhoeic pre-weaned calves (n=61) and lambs (n=127) collected over a 1-year period (2008–2009) at 27 cattle and 28 sheep farms in Galicia (NW Spain) were examined for the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and positive specimens were selected for molecular examination. Overall, 30 calves (49·2%) and 39 lambs (30·7%) tested positive for Cryptosporidium by microscopy. PCR products of the SSU rRNA locus were obtained for 27 Cryptosporidium positive calf isolates and 23 lamb isolates. Restriction analyses generated profiles of C. parvum in all isolates except for 9 lamb specimens from 5 farms that yielded banding patterns and sequences indicative of the Cryptosporidium cervine genotype. Sequence analyses of the glycoprotein (GP60) gene revealed that all but 1 C. parvum isolate from calves belonged to the subtype IIaA15G2R1 and 1 isolate was identified as the novel subtype IIaA13G1R1. Two different subtypes were identified in sheep flocks including IIaA16G3R1, which was seen in 7 lamb isolates from a single farm and subtype IIaA15G2R1, identified in 3 isolates from 2 farms. These findings suggest a limited genetic diversity within C. parvum in ruminant livestock from this geographical area, although both calves and lambs should be considered as a reservoir for zoonotic subtypes.

Immunoenzymatic analysis and genetic detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in lambs from Italy

Cryptosporidiosis is a worldwide-diffused protozoan disease causing important economic losses to animal husbandry and livestock production. Additionally, several species/genotypes of Cryptosporidium have a relevant zoonotic potential and ruminants may be important sources of infection for human beings. Nonetheless, in Europe, little is known of the presence of Cryptosporidium in sheep nor on the species/genotypes involved. To obtain information on the occurrence of cryptosporidiosis in lambs and the potential zoonotic role of the Cryptosporidium isolates, one hundred and forty-nine faecal samples individually collected from lambs in central Italy have been examined for the presence of Cryptosporidium. All faecal specimens were processed with a commercial ELISA kit immunoassay and all ELISA-positive samples were further analyzed genetically. Twenty-six ELISA-positive samples scored positive at the PCR and the sequences obtained displayed 100% identity with the zoonotic Cryptosporidum parvum. This work suggests for the first time that lambs in Italy may shed C. parvum, thus representing a potential public health hazard.

Cryptosporidium xiaoi n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) in sheep (Ovis aries)

A new species, Cryptosporidium xiaoi, is described from sheep. Oocysts of C. xiaoi, previously identified as the Cryptosporidium bovis-like genotype or as C. bovis from sheep in Spain, Tunisia, United Kingdom, and the United States are recorded as such in GenBank (EU408314-EU408317, EU327318-EU327320, EF362478, EF514234, DQ991389, and EF158461). Oocysts obtained from naturally infected sheep were infectious for a lamb and oocysts from that lamb were infectious for three other lambs. The prepatent period for C. xiaoi in these four Cryptosporidium-naive lambs was 7-8 days and the patent period was 13-15 days. Oocysts are similar to those of C. bovis but slightly smaller, measuring 2.94-4.41 microm x 2.94-4.41 microm (mean=3.94 microm x 3.44 microm) with a length/width shape index of 1.15 (n=25). Oocysts of C. xioai were not infectious for BALB/c mice, Bos taurus calves, or Capra aegagrus hircus kids. Fragments of the SSU-rDNA, HSP-70, and actin genes were amplified by PCR, purified, and PCR products were sequenced. The new species was distinct from all other Cryptosporidium species as demonstrated by multi-locus analysis of the 3 unlinked loci. Based on morphological, molecular and biological data, this geographically widespread parasite found in Ovis aries is recognized as a new species and is named C. xiaoi.