Mutations in microphthalmia, the mouse homolog of the human deafness gene MITF, affect neuroepithelial and neural crest-derived melanocytes differently

Six3 and Six6 jointly control diverse target genes in multiple cell populations over developmental trajectories of mouse embryonic retinal progenitor cells

How tissue-specific progenitor cells generate adult tissues is a puzzle in organogenesis. Using single-cell RNA sequencing of control and Six3 and Six6 compound-mutant mouse embryonic eyecups, we demonstrated that these two closely related transcription factors jointly control diverse target genes in multiple cell populations over the developmental trajectories of mouse embryonic retinal progenitor cells. In the Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection for Dimension Reduction (UMAP) graph of control retinas, naïve retinal progenitor cells had two major trajectories leading to ciliary margin cells and retinal neurons, respectively. The ciliary margin trajectory was from naïve retinal progenitor cells in the G1 phase directly to ciliary margin cells, whereas the neuronal trajectory went through an intermediate neurogenic state marked by Atoh7 expression. Neurogenic retinal progenitor cells (Atoh7+) were still proliferative; early retinal neurons branched out from Atoh7+ retina progenitor cells in the G1 phase. Upon Six3 and Six6 dual deficiency, both naïve and neurogenic retinal progenitor cells were defective, ciliary margin differentiation was enhanced, and multi-lineage neuronal differentiation was disrupted. An ectopic neuronal trajectory lacking the Atoh7+ state led to ectopic neurons. Additionally, Wnt signaling was upregulated, whereas FGF signaling was downregulated. Notably, Six3 and Six6 proteins occupied the loci of diverse genes that were differentially expressed in distinct cell populations, and expression of these genes was significantly altered upon Six3 and Six6 dual deficiency. Our findings provide deeper insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying early retinal differentiation in mammals.

The Microphthalmia-Associated Transcription Factor (MITF) and Its Role in the Structure and Function of the Eye

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

The microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (Mitf) has been found to play an important role in eye development, structure, and function. The Mitf gene is responsible for controlling cellular processes in a range of cell types, contributing to multiple eye development processes. In this review, we survey what is now known about the impact of Mitf on eye structure and function in retinal disorders. Several mutations in the human and mouse Mitf gene are now known, and the effects of these on eye phenotype are addressed. We discuss the importance of Mitf in regulating ion transport across the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and the vasculature of the eye.

METHODS

The literature was searched using the PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases. Fundus and Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) images from mice were obtained with a Micron IV rodent imaging system.

RESULTS

Defects in neural-crest-derived melanocytes resulting from any Mitf mutations lead to hypopigmentation in the eye, coat, and inner functioning of the animals. While many Mitf mutations target RPE cells in the eye, fewer impact osteoclasts at the same time. Some of the mutations in mice lead to microphthalmia, and ultimately vision loss, while other mice show a normal eye size; however, the latter, in some cases, show hypopigmentation in the fundus and the choroid is depigmented and thickened, and in rare cases Mitf mutations lead to progressive retinal degeneration.

CONCLUSIONS

The Mitf gene has an impact on the structure and function of the retina and its vasculature, the RPE, and the choroid in the adult eye.

The biochemistry of melanogenesis: an insight into the function and mechanism of melanogenesis-related proteins

Melanin is an amino acid derivative produced by melanocyte through a series of enzymatic reactions using tyrosinase as substrate. Human skin and hair color is also closely related to melanin, so understanding the mechanisms and proteins that produce melanin is very important. There are many proteins involved in the process of melanin expression, For example, proteins involved in melanin formation such as p53, HNF-1α (Hepatocyte nuclear factor 1α), SOX10 (Sry-related HMg-Box gene 10) and pax3 (paired box gene 3), MC1R(Melanocortin 1 Receptor), MITF (Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor), TYR (tyrosinase), TYRP1 (tyrosinase-related protein-1), TYRP2 (tyrosinase-related protein-2), and can be regulated by changing their content to control the production rate of melanin. Others, such as OA1 (ocular albinism type 1), Par-2 (protease-activated receptor 2) and Mlph (Melanophilin), have been found to control the transfer rate of melanosomes from melanocytes to keratinocytes, and regulate the amount of human epidermal melanin to control the depth of human skin color. In addition to the above proteins, there are other protein families also involved in the process of melanin expression, such as BLOC, Rab and Rho. This article reviews the origin of melanocytes, the related proteins affecting melanin and the basic causes of related gene mutations. In addition, we also summarized the active ingredients of 5 popular whitening cosmetics and their mechanisms of action.

Revealing mitf functions and visualizing allografted tumor metastasis in colorless and immunodeficient Xenopus tropicalis

Transparent immunodeficient animal models not only enhance in vivo imaging investigations of visceral organ development but also facilitate in vivo tracking of transplanted tumor cells. However, at present, transparent and immunodeficient animal models are confined to zebrafish, presenting substantial challenges for real-time, in vivo imaging studies addressing specific biological inquiries. Here, we employed a mitf-/-/prkdc-/-/il2rg-/- triple-knockout strategy to establish a colorless and immunodeficient amphibian model of Xenopus tropicalis. By disrupting the mitf gene, we observed the loss of melanophores, xanthophores, and granular glands in Xenopus tropicalis. Through the endogenous mitf promoter to drive BRAFV600E expression, we confirmed mitf expression in melanophores, xanthophores and granular glands. Moreover, the reconstruction of the disrupted site effectively reinstated melanophores, xanthophores, and granular glands, further highlighting the crucial role of mitf as a regulator in their development. By crossing mitf-/- frogs with prkdc-/-/il2rg-/- frogs, we generated a mitf-/-/prkdc-/-/il2rg-/- Xenopus tropicalis line, providing a colorless and immunodeficient amphibian model. Utilizing this model, we successfully observed intravital metastases of allotransplanted xanthophoromas and migrations of allotransplanted melanomas. Overall, colorless and immunodeficient Xenopus tropicalis holds great promise as a valuable platform for tumorous and developmental biology research.

Absence of meningeal mast cells in the Mitf mutant mouse

Mast cells (MCs) are located in the meninges of the central nervous system (CNS), where they play key roles in the immune response. MC-deficient mice are advantageous in delineating the role of MCs in the immune response in vivo. In this study, we illustrate that a mutation in microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (Mitf) affects meningeal MC number in a dosage-dependent manner. C57BL/6J Mitf null mice lack meningeal MCs completely, whereas heterozygous mice have on average 25% fewer MCs. Mitf heterozygous mice might be a valuable tool to study the role of MCs in the meninges.

Progressive Cone-Rod Dystrophy and RPE Dysfunction in Mitfmi/+ Mice

Mutations in the mouse microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (Mitf) gene affect retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) differentiation and development and can lead to hypopigmentation, microphthalmia, deafness, and blindness. For instance, an association has been established between loss-of-function mutations in the mouse Mitf gene and a variety of human retinal diseases, including Waardenburg type 2 and Tietz syndromes. Although there is evidence showing that mice with the homozygous Mitfmi mutation manifest microphthalmia and osteopetrosis, there are limited or no data on the effects of the heterozygous condition in the eye. Mitf mice can therefore be regarded as an important model system for the study of human disease. Thus, we characterized Mitfmi/+ mice at 1, 3, 12, and 18 months old in comparison with age-matched wild-type mice. The light- and dark-adapted electroretinogram (ERG) recordings showed progressive cone-rod dystrophy in Mitfmi/+ mice. The RPE response was reduced in the mutant in all age groups studied. Progressive loss of pigmentation was found in Mitfmi/+ mice. Histological retinal sections revealed evidence of retinal degeneration in Mitfmi/+ mice at older ages. For the first time, we report a mouse model of progressive cone-rod dystrophy and RPE dysfunction with a mutation in the Mitf gene.

DAPL1 deficiency in mice impairs antioxidant defenses in the RPE and leads to retinal degeneration with AMD-like features

The decreased antioxidant capacity in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is the hallmark of retinal degenerative diseases including age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Nevertheless, the exact regulatory mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of retinal degenerations remain largely unknown. Here we show in mice that deficiencies in Dapl1, a susceptibility gene for human AMD, impair the antioxidant capacity of the RPE and lead to age-related retinal degeneration in the 18-month-old mice homozygous for a partial deletion of Dapl1. Dapl1-deficiency is associated with a reduction of the RPE's antioxidant capacity, and experimental re-expression of Dapl1 reverses this reduction and protects the retina from oxidative damage. Mechanistically, DAPL1 directly binds the transcription factor E2F4 and inhibits the expression of MYC, leading to upregulation of the transcription factor MITF and its targets NRF2 and PGC1α, both of which regulate the RPE's antioxidant function. When MITF is experimentally overexpressed in the RPE of DAPL1 deficient mice, antioxidation is restored and retinas are protected from degeneration. These findings suggest that the DAPL1-MITF axis functions as a novel regulator of the antioxidant defense system of the RPE and may play a critical role in the pathogenesis of age-related retinal degenerative diseases.

A Comprehensive Review of Mammalian Pigmentation: Paving the Way for Innovative Hair Colour-Changing Cosmetics

The natural colour of hair shafts is formed at the bulb of hair follicles, and it is coupled to the hair growth cycle. Three critical processes must happen for efficient pigmentation: (1) melanosome biogenesis in neural crest-derived melanocytes, (2) the biochemical synthesis of melanins (melanogenesis) inside melanosomes, and (3) the transfer of melanin granules to surrounding pre-cortical keratinocytes for their incorporation into nascent hair fibres. All these steps are under complex genetic control. The array of natural hair colour shades are ascribed to polymorphisms in several pigmentary genes. A myriad of factors acting via autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine mechanisms also contributes for hair colour diversity. Given the enormous social and cosmetic importance attributed to hair colour, hair dyeing is today a common practice. Nonetheless, the adverse effects of the long-term usage of such cosmetic procedures demand the development of new methods for colour change. In this context, case reports of hair lightening, darkening and repigmentation as a side-effect of the therapeutic usage of many drugs substantiate the possibility to tune hair colour by interfering with the biology of follicular pigmentary units. By scrutinizing mammalian pigmentation, this review pinpoints key targetable processes for the development of innovative cosmetics that can safely change the hair colour from the inside out.

Induced retinal pigment epithelial cells with anti-epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition ability delay retinal degeneration

The hostile microenvironment of the retina in patients with age-related macular degeneration (AMD) may trigger epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of grafted retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells, thus attenuating the therapeutic outcome. Here, we transformed human dedifferentiated induced pluripotent stem cell-derived RPE (iPSC-RPE) cells into induced RPE (iRPE) cells using a cocktail of four transcription factors (TFs)-CRX, MITF-A, NR2E1, and C-MYC. These critical TFs maintained the epithelial property of iRPE cells by regulating the expression of bmp7, forkhead box f2, lin7a, and pard6b, and conferred resistance to TGF-β-induced EMT in iRPE cells by targeting ppm1a. The iRPE cells with Tet-on system-regulated c-myc expression exhibited EMT resistance and better therapeutic function compared with iPSC-RPE cells in rat AMD model. Our study demonstrates that endowing RPE cells with anti-EMT property avoids the risk of EMT after cells are grafted into the subretinal space, and it may provide a suitable candidate for AMD treatment.

Genome-Wide Analysis Identifies Candidate Genes Encoding Beak Color of Duck

Beak color diversity is a broadly occurring phenomenon in birds. Here, we used ducks to identify candidate genes for yellow, black, and spotted beaks. For this, an F2 population consisting of 275 ducks was genotyped using whole genome resequencing containing 12.6 M single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and three beak colors. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) was used to identify the candidate and potential SNPs for three beak colors in ducks (yellow, spotted, and black). The results showed that 2753 significant SNPs were associated with black beaks, 7462 with yellow, and 17 potential SNPs with spotted beaks. Based on SNP annotation, MITF, EDNRB2, members of the POU family, and the SLC superfamily were the candidate genes regulating pigmentation. Meanwhile, isoforms MITF-M and EDNRB2 were significantly different between black and yellow beaks. MITF and EDNRB2 likely play a synergistic role in the regulation of melanin synthesis, and their mutations contribute to phenotypic differences in beak melanin deposition among individuals. This study provides new insights into genetic factors that may influence the diversity of beak color.

Molecular and functional analysis of the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (mitf) gene duplicates in red tilapia

In vertebrates, the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (mitf) is at the hub of the melanin synthesis regulation network. However, little information is known about its molecular characterization, expression, location, or function in skin color differentiation and variation of red tilapia. The full-length cDNA sequences (1977 bp and 1999 bp) of mitfa and mitfb, encoding polypeptides of 491 and 514 amino acids, were effectively identified from red tilapia in this study. The Mitfa and Mitfb sequences of red tilapia clustered first with O. aureus, then with other teleost fish, according to phylogenetic analysis. Mitfa and mitfb mRNA were highly expressed in the brain, dorsal skin and eye tissues using quantitative real-time PCR. The mRNA expressions of mitfa and mitfb were the highest in the cleavage stage during the early development of red tilapia. Among three different colors of red tilapia, the expression levels of mitfa and mitfb were highest in the PB (pink with scattered black spots) dorsal skin. After overwintering, the mitfa and mitfb mRNA expressions were high in the dorsal skin of PB (color changed from pink to black). Mitfa and mitfb were mostly found in the epidermal layer of the dorsal skin, according to in situ hybridization (ISH) analysis. After injecting mitf-dsRNA duplicates along the tail vein of red tilapia, the activity of tyrosinase and the level of melanin in the dorsal skin both decreased significantly. The mRNA expressions of mitfa and its downstream genes (tyrb, tyrp1a and dct) decreased, whereas the mRNA expression of mitfb increased after mitfa-dsRNA injection. The mRNA expressions of mitfb, tyrb, tyrp1a and dct decreased, whereas the mRNA expression of mitfa increased after injecting mitfb-dsRNA. These findings suggest that mitf gene duplicates may play an important role in red tilapia skin color differentiation and variation via the melanogenesis pathway.

MITF in Normal Melanocytes, Cutaneous and Uveal Melanoma: A Delicate Balance

Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) is an important regulator of melanogenesis and melanocyte development. Although it has been studied extensively in cutaneous melanoma, the role of MITF in uveal melanoma (UM) has not been explored in much detail. We review the literature about the role of MITF in normal melanocytes, in cutaneous melanoma, and in UM. In normal melanocytes, MITF regulates melanocyte development, melanin synthesis, and melanocyte survival. The expression profile and the behaviour of MITF-expressing cells suggest that MITF promotes local proliferation and inhibits invasion, inflammation, and epithelial-to-mesenchymal (EMT) transition. Loss of MITF expression leads to increased invasion and inflammation and is more prevalent in malignant cells. Cutaneous melanoma cells switch between MITF-high and MITF-low states in different phases of tumour development. In UM, MITF loss is associated with loss of BAP1 protein expression, which is a marker of poor prognosis. These data indicate a dual role for MITF in benign and malignant melanocytic cells.

Mechanisms of 4-Dimethylamino-4'-Methoxy Chalcone in Promoting Melanin Synthesis

Background and aims: Vitiligo, a pigmentation-associated disease, affects 1–2% of the global population andis difficult to treat. The pathogenetic mechanism of vitiligo remains unclear. Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. extract for vitiligo treatment was initially recorded 300 years ago. Itschalcone compounds are believed to play essential roles in this treatment. In a previous study, chalcones were shown to enhance melanin production and tyrosinase activity inmouse B16 cells. Materials and methods: In this study, the effects were investigated of 4-dimethylamino-4'-methoxy chalcone (DMC) on theexpression of tyrosinase (TYR), tyrosinase-related protein (TRP)-1, tyrosinase-relatedprotein (TRP)-2, and microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF)on murine B16 cells. Moreover, the signaling pathways of melanogenesis regulation,and the effects of DMCon the AC/cAMP/PKA/CREB (CREB and p-CREB), p38mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) (MAPK, p-p38 MAPK, ERK andp-ERK), Wnt/β-catenin (β-catenin), and SWI/SNF pathways (SOX-10) proteinexpression levels were examined by Western blot. Results: The data showed that DMCcould promote melanin production by upregulating the p-CREB, p-p38,p-ERK and β-catenin proteins.

The retinal pigment epithelium: Development, injury responses, and regenerative potential in mammalian and non-mammalian systems

Diseases that result in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) degeneration, such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD), are among the leading causes of blindness worldwide. Atrophic (dry) AMD is the most prevalent form of AMD and there are currently no effective therapies to prevent RPE cell death or restore RPE cells lost from AMD. An intriguing approach to treat AMD and other RPE degenerative diseases is to develop therapies focused on stimulating endogenous RPE regeneration. For this to become feasible, a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying RPE development, injury responses and regenerative potential is needed. In mammals, RPE regeneration is extremely limited; small lesions can be repaired by the expansion of adjacent RPE cells, but large lesions cannot be repaired as remaining RPE cells are unable to functionally replace lost RPE tissue. In some injury paradigms, RPE cells proliferate but do not regenerate a morphologically normal monolayer, while in others, proliferation is pathogenic and results in further disruption to the retina. This is in contrast to non-mammalian vertebrates, which possess tremendous RPE regenerative potential. Here, we discuss what is known about RPE formation during development in mammalian and non-mammalian vertebrates, we detail the processes by which RPE cells respond to injury, and we describe examples of RPE-to-retina and RPE-to-RPE regeneration in non-mammalian vertebrates. Finally, we outline barriers to RPE-dependent regeneration in mammals that could potentially be overcome to stimulate a regenerative response from the RPE.

Human TYRP1: Two functions for a single gene?

In the animal kingdom, skin pigmentation is highly variable between species, and it contributes to phenotypes. In humans, skin pigmentation plays a part in sun protection. Skin pigmentation depends on the ratio of the two pigments pheomelanin and eumelanin, both synthesized by a specialized cell population, the melanocytes. In this review, we explore one important factor in pigmentation: the tyrosinase-related protein 1 (TYRP1) gene which is involved in eumelanin synthesis via the TYRP1 protein. Counterintuitively, high TYRP1 mRNA expression is associated with a poor clinical outcome for patients with metastatic melanomas. Recently, we were able to explain this unexpected TYRP1 function by demonstrating that TYRP1 mRNA sequesters microRNA-16, a tumor suppressor miRNA. Here, we focus on actors influencing TYRP1 mRNA abundance, particularly transcription factors, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and miRNAs, as they all dictate the indirect oncogenic activity of TYRP1.

Limitations and Promise of Retinal Tissue From Human Pluripotent Stem Cells for Developing Therapies of Blindness

The self-formation of retinal tissue from pluripotent stem cells generated a tremendous promise for developing new therapies of retinal degenerative diseases, which previously seemed unattainable. Together with use of induced pluripotent stem cells or/and CRISPR-based recombineering the retinal organoid technology provided an avenue for developing models of human retinal degenerative diseases "in a dish" for studying the pathology, delineating the mechanisms and also establishing a platform for large-scale drug screening. At the same time, retinal organoids, highly resembling developing human fetal retinal tissue, are viewed as source of multipotential retinal progenitors, young photoreceptors and just the whole retinal tissue, which may be transplanted into the subretinal space with a goal of replacing patient's degenerated retina with a new retinal "patch." Both approaches (transplantation and modeling/drug screening) were projected when Yoshiki Sasai demonstrated the feasibility of deriving mammalian retinal tissue from pluripotent stem cells, and generated a lot of excitement. With further work and testing of both approaches in vitro and in vivo, a major implicit limitation has become apparent pretty quickly: the absence of the uniform layer of Retinal Pigment Epithelium (RPE) cells, which is normally present in mammalian retina, surrounds photoreceptor layer and develops and matures first. The RPE layer polarize into apical and basal sides during development and establish microvilli on the apical side, interacting with photoreceptors, nurturing photoreceptor outer segments and participating in the visual cycle by recycling 11-trans retinal (bleached pigment) back to 11-cis retinal. Retinal organoids, however, either do not have RPE layer or carry patches of RPE mostly on one side, thus directly exposing most photoreceptors in the developing organoids to neural medium. Recreation of the critical retinal niche between the apical RPE and photoreceptors, where many retinal disease mechanisms originate, is so far unattainable, imposes clear limitations on both modeling/drug screening and transplantation approaches and is a focus of investigation in many labs. Here we dissect different retinal degenerative diseases and analyze how and where retinal organoid technology can contribute the most to developing therapies even with a current limitation and absence of long and functional outer segments, supported by RPE.

MITF protects against oxidative damage-induced retinal degeneration by regulating the NRF2 pathway in the retinal pigment epithelium

Oxidative damage is one of the major contributors to retinal degenerative diseases such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD), while RPE mediated antioxidant defense plays an important role in preventing retinopathies. However, the regulatory mechanisms of antioxidant signaling in RPE cells are poorly understood. Here we show that transcription factor MITF regulates the antioxidant response in RPE cells, protecting the neural retina from oxidative damage. In the oxidative stress-induced retinal degeneration mouse model, retinal degeneration in Mitf+/- mice is significantly aggravated compared to WT mice. In contrast, overexpression of Mitf in Dct-Mitf transgenic mice and AAV mediated overexpression in RPE cells protect the neural retina against oxidative damage. Mechanistically, MITF both directly regulates the transcription of NRF2, a master regulator of antioxidant signaling, and promotes its nuclear translocation. Furthermore, specific overexpression of NRF2 in Mitf+/- RPE cells activates antioxidant signaling and partially protects the retina from oxidative damage. Taken together, our findings demonstrate the regulation of NRF2 by MITF in RPE cells and provide new insights into potential therapeutic approaches for prevention of oxidative damage diseases.

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MITF haploinsufficiency exacerbates oxidative stress-induced retinal degeneration.

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Specific overexpression of MITF in RPE cells protects retinas from oxidative damage in vivo.

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MITF directly regulates the transcription and nuclear translocation of NRF2.

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Partial rescue of retinal oxidative damage in Mitf ±mice by gene transfer mediated RPE cell specific expression of NRF2.

Abnormal retinal pigment epithelium melanogenesis as a major determinant for radiation-induced congenital eye defects

Recent studies highlighted a link between ionizing radiation exposure during neurulation and birth defects such as microphthalmos and anophthalmos. Because the mechanisms underlying these defects remain largely unexplored, we irradiated pregnant C57BL/6J mice (1.0 Gy, X-rays) at embryonic day (E)7.5, followed by histological and gene/protein expression analyses at defined days. Irradiation impaired embryonic development at E9 and we observed a delayed pigmentation of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) at E11. In addition, a reduced RNA expression and protein abundance of critical eye-development genes (e.g. Pax6 and Lhx2) was observed. Furthermore, a decreased expression of Mitf, Tyr and Tyrp1 supported the radiation-induced perturbation in RPE pigmentation. Finally, via immunostainings for proliferation (Ki67) and mitosis (phosphorylated histone 3), a decreased mitotic index was observed in the E18 retina after exposure at E7.5. Overall, we propose a plausible etiological model for radiation-induced eye-size defects, with RPE melanogenesis as a major determining factor.

The microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (Mitf) gene and its role in regulating eye function

Mutations in the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (Mitf) gene can cause retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and retinal dysfunction and degeneration. We examined retinal and RPE structure and function in 3 month old mice homo- or heterozygous or compound heterozygous for different Mitf mutations (Mitf^mi-vga9/+, Mitf^{mi-enu22(398)}/Mitf^{mi-enu22(398)}, Mitf^Mi-Wh/+ and Mitf^Mi-Wh/Mitf^mi) which all have normal eye size with apparently normal eye pigmentation. Here we show that their vision and retinal structures are differentially affected. Hypopigmentation was evident in all the mutants while bright-field fundus images showed yellow spots with non-pigmented areas in the Mitf^mi-vga9/+ mice. Mitf^Mi-Wh/+ and Mitf^Mi-Wh/Mitf^mi mice showed large non-pigmented areas. Fluorescent angiography (FA) of all mutants except Mitf^mi-vga9/+ mice showed hyperfluorescent areas, whereas FA from both Mitf^-Mi-Wh/+ and Mitf^Mi-Wh/Mitf^mi mice showed reduced capillary network as well as hyperfluorescent areas. Electroretinogram (ERG) recordings show that Mitf^Mi-Wh/+ and Mitf^Mi-Wh/Mitf^mi mice are severely impaired functionally whereas the scotopic and photopic ERG responses of Mitf^mi-vga9/+ and Mitf^{mi-enu22(398)}/Mitf^{mi-enu22(398)} mice were not significantly different from wild type mice. Histological sections demonstrated that the outer retinal layers were absent from the Mitf^Mi-Wh/+ and Mitf^Mi-Wh/Mitf^mi blind mutants. Our results show that Mitf mutations affect eye function, even in the heterozygous condition and that the alleles studied can be arranged in an allelic series in this respect.

The Role of FGF9 in the Production of Neural Retina and RPE in a Pluripotent Stem Cell Model of Early Human Retinal Development

PURPOSE

To investigate the role of fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) in the production of neural retina (NR) and retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) in a human pluripotent stem cell model of early retinal development.

METHODS

Human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) lines from an individual with microphthalmia caused by a functional null mutation (R200Q) in visual system homeobox 2 (VSX2), a transcription factor involved in early NR progenitor cell (NRPC) production, and a normal sibling were differentiated along the retinal and forebrain lineages using an established protocol. Quantitative and global gene expression analyses (microarray and RNAseq) were used to investigate endogenous FGF expression profiles in these cultures over time. Based on these results, mutant and control hiPSC cultures were treated exogenously with selected FGFs and subjected to gene and protein expression analyses to determine their effects on RPE and NR production.

RESULTS

We found that FGF9 and FGF19 were selectively increased in early hiPSC-derived optic vesicles (OVs) when compared to isogenic cultures of hiPSC-derived forebrain neurospheres. Furthermore, these same FGFs were downregulated over time in (R200Q)VSX2 hiPSC-OVs relative to sibling control hiPSC-OVs. Interestingly, long-term supplementation with FGF9, but not FGF19, partially rescued the mutant retinal phenotype of the (R200Q)VSX2 hiPSC-OV model. However, antagonizing FGF9 in wild-type control hiPSCs did not alter OV development.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show that FGF9 acts in concert with VSX2 to promote NR differentiation in hiPSC-OVs and has potential to be used to manipulate early retinogenesis and mitigate ocular defects caused by functional loss of VSX2 activity. NOTE: Publication of this article is sponsored by the American Ophthalmological Society.

Partial Rescue of Ocular Pigment Cells and Structure by Inducible Ectopic Expression of Mitf-M in MITF-Deficient Mice

Purpose

Complete deficiency of microphthalmia transcription factor (MITF) in Mitfmi-vga9/mi-vga9 mice is associated with microphthalmia, retinal dysplasia, and albinism. We investigated the ability of dopachrome tautomerase (DCT) promoter-mediated inducible ectopic expression of Mitf-M to rescue these phenotypic abnormalities.

Methods

A new mouse line was created with doxycycline-inducible ectopic Mitf-M expression on an Mitf-deficient Mitfmi-vga9 background (DMV mouse). Adult DMV mice were phenotypically characterized and tissues were collected for histology, immunohistochemistry, and evaluation of Mitf, pigmentary genes, and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) gene expression.

Results

Ectopic Mitf-M expression was specifically induced in the eyes, but was not detected in the skin of DMV mice. Inducible expression of Mitf-M partially rescued the microphthalmia, RPE structure, and pigmentation as well as a subset of the choroidal and iris melanocytes but not cutaneous melanocytes. RPE function and vision were not restored in the DMV mice.

Conclusions

Ectopic expression of Mitf-M during development of Mitf-deficient mice is capable of partially rescuing ocular and retinal structures and uveal melanocytes. These findings provide novel information about the roles of Mitf isoforms in the development of mouse eyes.

MITF-the first 25 years

In this review, Goding and Arnheiter present the current understanding of MITF's role and regulation in development and disease and highlight key areas where our knowledge of MITF regulation and function is limited.

All transcription factors are equal, but some are more equal than others. In the 25 yr since the gene encoding the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) was first isolated, MITF has emerged as a key coordinator of many aspects of melanocyte and melanoma biology. Like all transcription factors, MITF binds to specific DNA sequences and up-regulates or down-regulates its target genes. What marks MITF as being remarkable among its peers is the sheer range of biological processes that it appears to coordinate. These include cell survival, differentiation, proliferation, invasion, senescence, metabolism, and DNA damage repair. In this article we present our current understanding of MITF's role and regulation in development and disease, as well as those of the MITF-related factors TFEB and TFE3, and highlight key areas where our knowledge of MITF regulation and function is limited.

Identification and characterization of skin color microRNAs in Koi carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) by Illumina sequencing

Background

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous, small (21–25 nucleotide), non-coding RNAs that play important roles in numerous biological processes. Koi carp exhibit diverse color patterns, making it an ideal subject for studying the genetics of pigmentation. However, the influence of miRNAs on skin color regulation and variation in Koi carp is poorly understood.

Results

Herein, we performed small RNA (sRNA) analysis of the three main skin colors in Koi carp by Illumina sequencing. The results revealed 330, 397, and 335 conserved miRNAs (belonging to 81 families) and 340, 353, and 351 candidate miRNAs in black, red, and white libraries, respectively. A total of 164 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) and 14 overlapping DEMs were identified, including miR-196a, miR-125b, miR-202, miR-205-5p, miR-200b, and etc. Target prediction and functional analysis of color-related miRNAs such as miR-200b, miR-206, and miR-196a highlighted putative target genes, including Mitf, Mc1r, Foxd3, and Sox10 that are potentially related to pigmentation. Determination of reference miRNAs for relative quantification showed that let-7a was the most abundant single reference gene, and let-7a and miR-26b was the most abundant combination.

Conclusions

The findings provide novel insight into the molecular mechanisms determining skin color differentiation in Koi carp, and serve as a valuable reference for future studies on tissue-specific miRNA abundance in Koi carp.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-5189-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The peripheral eye: A neurogenic area with potential to treat retinal pathologies?

Numerous degenerative diseases affecting visual function, including glaucoma and retinitis pigmentosa, are produced by the loss of different types of retinal cells. Cell replacement therapy has emerged as a promising strategy for treating these and other retinal diseases. The retinal margin or ciliary body (CB) of mammals has been proposed as a potential source of cells to be used in degenerative conditions affecting the retina because it has been reported it might hold neurogenic potential beyond embryonic development. However, many aspects of the origin and biology of the CB are unknown and more recent experiments have challenged the capacity of CB cells to generate different types of retinal neurons. Here we review the most recent findings about the development of the marginal zone of the retina in different vertebrates and some of the mechanisms underlying the proliferative and neurogenic capacity of this fascinating region of the vertebrates eye. In addition, we performed experiments to isolate CB cells from the mouse retina, generated neurospheres and observed that they can be expanded with a proliferative ratio similar to neural stem cells. When induced to differentiate, cells derived from the CB neurospheres start to express early neural markers but, unlike embryonic stem cells, they are not able to fully differentiate in vitro or generate retinal organoids. Together with previous reports on the neurogenic capacity of CB cells, also reviewed here, our results contribute to the current knowledge about the potentiality of this peripheral region of the eye as a therapeutic source of functional retinal neurons in degenerative diseases.

MITF acts as an anti-oxidant transcription factor to regulate mitochondrial biogenesis and redox signaling in retinal pigment epithelial cells

There is increasing evidence that the mechanisms protecting the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) against oxidative stress are important for preventing retinal degenerative diseases. Little, however, is known about these mechanisms. Here we show that MITF, a transcription factor responsible for RPE development and function, regulates redox signaling by acting through PGC1α, a master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis. Mitf deficiency in mice leads to significantly higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in both RPE and retina, suggesting that Mitf dysfunction might lead to oxidative damage in the RPE and, by extension, in the retina. Furthermore, overexpression of MITF in the human RPE cell line ARPE-19 indicates that MITF up-regulates antioxidant gene expression and mitochondrial biogenesis by regulating PGC1α and protects cells against oxidative stress. Our findings provide new insights into understanding the redox function of MITF in RPE cells and its potential contribution to prevention of RPE-associated retinal degenerations.

Regulation of cell proliferation in the retinal pigment epithelium: Differential regulation of the death-associated protein like-1 DAPL1 by alternative MITF splice forms

Vertebrate eye development and homoeostasis critically depend on the regulation of proliferation of cells forming the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Previous results indicated that the death-associated protein like-1 DAPL1 cell autonomously suppresses RPE proliferation in vivo and in vitro. Here, we show in human RPE cell lines that the pigment cell transcription factor MITF regulates RPE cell proliferation by upregulating DAPL1 expression. DAPL1 regulation by MITF is, however, mediated predominantly by (-) MITF, one of two alternative splice isoforms of MITF that lacks six residues located upstream of the DNA-binding basic domain. Furthermore, we find that the regulation of DAPL1 by MITF is indirect in that (-) MITF stimulates the transcription of Musashi homolog-2 (MSI2), which negatively regulates the processing of the anti-DAPL1 microRNA miR-7. Our results provide molecular insights into the regulation of RPE cell proliferation and quiescence and may help us understand the mechanisms of normal RPE maintenance and of eye diseases associated with either RPE hyperproliferation or the lack of regenerative proliferation.

SOX10-MITF pathway activity in melanoma cells

Melanoma is one of the most dangerous and lethal skin cancers, with a considerable metastatic potential and drug resistance. It involves a malignant transformation of melanocytes. The exact course of events in which melanocytes become melanoma cells remains unclear. Nevertheless, this process is said to be dependent on the occurrence of cells with the phenotype of progenitor cells - cells characterized by expression of proteins such as nestin, CD-133 or CD-271. The development of these cells and their survival were found to be potentially dependent on the neural crest stem cell transcription factor SOX10. This is just one of the possible roles of SOX10, which contributes to melanomagenesis by regulating the SOX10-MITF pathway, but also to melanoma cell survival, proliferation and metastasis formation. The aim of this review is to describe the broad influence of the SOX10-MITF pathway on melanoma cells.

Biallelic Mutations in MITF Cause Coloboma, Osteopetrosis, Microphthalmia, Macrocephaly, Albinism, and Deafness

Human MITF is, by convention, called the "microphthalmia-associated transcription factor" because of previously published seminal mouse genetic studies; however, mutations in MITF have never been associated with microphthalmia in humans. Here, we describe a syndrome that we term COMMAD, characterized by coloboma, osteopetrosis, microphthalmia, macrocephaly, albinism, and deafness. COMMAD is associated with biallelic MITF mutant alleles and hence suggests a role for MITF in regulating processes such as optic-fissure closure and bone development or homeostasis, which go beyond what is usually seen in individuals carrying monoallelic MITF mutations.

MicroRNA-21a-5p Functions on the Regulation of Melanogenesis by Targeting Sox5 in Mouse Skin Melanocytes

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play an important role in regulating almost all biological processes. miRNAs bind to the 3′ untranslated region (UTR) of mRNAs by sequence matching. In a previous study, we demonstrated that miR-21 was differently expressed in alpaca skin with different hair color. However, the molecular and cellular mechanisms for miR-21 to regulate the coat color are not yet completely understood. In this study, we transfected miR-21a-5p into mouse melanocytes and demonstrated its function on melanogenesis of miR-21a-5p by targeting Sox5, which inhibits melanogenesis in mouse melanocytes. The results suggested that miR-21a-5p targeted Sox5 gene based on the binding site in 3′ UTR of Sox5 and overexpression of miR-21a-5p significantly down-regulated Sox5 mRNA and protein expression. Meanwhile, mRNA and protein expression of microphthalmia transcription factor (MITF) and Tyrosinase (TYR) were up-regulated, which subsequently make the melanin production in melanocytes increased. The results suggest that miR-21a-5p regulates melanogenesis via MITF by targeting Sox5.

MiR-137 affects melanin synthesis in mouse melanocyte by repressing the expression of c-Kit and Tyrp2 in SCF/c-Kit signaling pathway

Previously, we created miR-137 overexpressing transgenic mice that produced lighten color phenotypes including gray mice phenotype. However, the miR-137 functional role in coat color regulation is still not well understood. In this study, the quantity of melanin granule and the relative expression of TYRP2 in gray miR-137 overexpression transgenic mouse skin were significantly lower than that in C57BL/6J black mouse skin. The mRNA and protein expression level of c-Kit and c-Kit downstream gene Tyrp2 in miR-137 expression plasmid-transfected melanocytes were significantly down-regulated comparing with that of the control melanocytes. In melanocytes, miR-137 overexpression could decrease the enhanced expression of c-Kit and Tyrp2 and the increased melanin production caused by UV treatment. The target relationship of miR-137 and c-Kit was identified by luciferase assay. The results suggest that miR-137 could inhibit melanogenesis in mouse skin melanocytes by repressing the expression of c-Kit and Tyrp2 in SCF/c-Kit signaling pathway.

Chx10 functions as a regulator of molecular pathways controlling the regional identity in the primordial retina

The light-sensitive neural retina (NR) and the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) develop from a common primordium, the optic vesicle, raising the question of how they acquire and maintain distinct identities. Here, we demonstrate that sustained misexpression of the Chx10 homeobox gene in the presumptive RPE in chick suppresses accumulation of melanin pigments and promotes ectopic NR-like neural differentiation. This phenotypic change involved ectopic expression of NR transcription factor genes, Sox2, Six3, Rx1 and Optx2, which, when misexpressed, counteracted RPE development without upregulating Chx10. These results suggest that Chx10 can function as a cell autonomous regulator of the regional identity in the primordial retina, presumably through a downstream transcriptional cascade.

Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor regulates the visual cycle genes Rlbp1 and Rdh5 in the retinal pigment epithelium

Regeneration of the visual pigment by cells of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is fundamental to vision. Here we show that the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor, MITF, which plays a central role in the development and function of RPE cells, regulates the expression of two visual cycle genes, Rlbp1 which encodes retinaldehyde binding protein-1 (RLBP1), and Rdh5, which encodes retinol dehydrogenase-5 (RDH5). First, we found that Rlbp1 and Rdh5 are downregulated in optic cups and presumptive RPEs of Mitf-deficient mouse embryos. Second, experimental manipulation of MITF levels in human RPE cells in culture leads to corresponding modulations of the endogenous levels of RLBP1 and RDH5. Third, the retinal degeneration associated with the disruption of the visual cycle in Mitf-deficient mice can be partially corrected both structurally and functionally by an exogenous supply of 9-cis-retinal. We conclude that the expression of Rlbp1 and Rdh5 critically depends on functional Mitf in the RPE and suggest that MITF has an important role in controlling retinoid processing in the RPE.

Genetic chimeras reveal the autonomy requirements for Vsx2 in embryonic retinal progenitor cells

BACKGROUND

Vertebrate retinal development is a complex process, requiring the specification and maintenance of retinal identity, proliferative expansion of retinal progenitor cells (RPCs), and their differentiation into retinal neurons and glia. The homeobox gene Vsx2 is expressed in RPCs and required for the proper execution of this retinal program. However, our understanding of the mechanisms by which Vsx2 does this is still rudimentary. To define the autonomy requirements for Vsx2 in the regulation of RPC properties, we generated chimeric mouse embryos comprised of wild-type and Vsx2-deficient cells.

RESULTS

We show that Vsx2 maintains retinal identity in part through the cell-autonomous repression of the retinal pigment epithelium determinant Mitf, and that Lhx2 is required cell autonomously for the ectopic Mitf expression in Vsx2-deficient cells. We also found significant cell-nonautonomous contributions to Vsx2-mediated regulation of RPC proliferation, pointing to an important role for Vsx2 in establishing a growth-promoting extracellular environment. Additionally, we report a cell-autonomous requirement for Vsx2 in controlling when neurogenesis is initiated, indicating that Vsx2 is an important mediator of neurogenic competence. Finally, the distribution of wild-type cells shifted away from RPCs and toward retinal ganglion cell precursors in patches of high Vsx2-deficient cell density to potentially compensate for the lack of fated precursors in these areas.

CONCLUSIONS

Through the generation and analysis of genetic chimeras, we demonstrate that Vsx2 utilizes both cell-autonomous and cell-nonautonomous mechanisms to regulate progenitor properties in the embryonic retina. Importantly, Vsx2's role in regulating Mitf is in part separable from its role in promoting proliferation, and proliferation is excluded as the intrinsic timer that determines when neurogenesis is initiated. These findings highlight the complexity of Vsx2 function during retinal development and provide a framework for identifying the molecular mechanisms mediating these functions.

The melanocyte lineage in development and disease

Melanocyte development provides an excellent model for studying more complex developmental processes. Melanocytes have an apparently simple aetiology, differentiating from the neural crest and migrating through the developing embryo to specific locations within the skin and hair follicles, and to other sites in the body. The study of pigmentation mutations in the mouse provided the initial key to identifying the genes and proteins involved in melanocyte development. In addition, work on chicken has provided important embryological and molecular insights, whereas studies in zebrafish have allowed live imaging as well as genetic and transgenic approaches. This cross-species approach is powerful and, as we review here, has resulted in a detailed understanding of melanocyte development and differentiation, melanocyte stem cells and the role of the melanocyte lineage in diseases such as melanoma.

Summary: This Review discusses melanocyte development and differentiation, melanocyte stem cells, and the role of the melanocyte lineage in diseases such as melanoma.

Genetic regulation of vertebrate eye development

Eye development is a complex and highly regulated process that consists of several overlapping stages: (i) specification then splitting of the eye field from the developing forebrain; (ii) genesis and patterning of the optic vesicle; (iii) regionalization of the optic cup into neural retina and retina pigment epithelium; and (iv) specification and differentiation of all seven retinal cell types that develop from a pool of retinal progenitor cells in a precise temporal and spatial manner: retinal ganglion cells, horizontal cells, cone photoreceptors, amacrine cells, bipolar cells, rod photoreceptors and Müller glia. Genetic regulation of the stages of eye development includes both extrinsic (such as morphogens, growth factors) and intrinsic factors (primarily transcription factors of the homeobox and basic helix-loop helix families). In the following review, we will provide an overview of the stages of eye development highlighting the role of several important transcription factors in both normal developmental processes and in inherited human eye diseases.

Loss of MITF expression during human embryonic stem cell differentiation disrupts retinal pigment epithelium development and optic vesicle cell proliferation

Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) is a master regulator of pigmented cell survival and differentiation with direct transcriptional links to cell cycle, apoptosis and pigmentation. In mouse, Mitf is expressed early and uniformly in optic vesicle (OV) cells as they evaginate from the developing neural tube, and null Mitf mutations result in microphthalmia and pigmentation defects. However, homozygous mutations in MITF have not been identified in humans; therefore, little is known about its role in human retinogenesis. We used a human embryonic stem cell (hESC) model that recapitulates numerous aspects of retinal development, including OV specification and formation of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and neural retina progenitor cells (NRPCs), to investigate the earliest roles of MITF. During hESC differentiation toward a retinal lineage, a subset of MITF isoforms was expressed in a sequence and tissue distribution similar to that observed in mice. In addition, we found that promoters for the MITF-A, -D and -H isoforms were directly targeted by Visual Systems Homeobox 2 (VSX2), a transcription factor involved in patterning the OV toward a NRPC fate. We then manipulated MITF RNA and protein levels at early developmental stages and observed decreased expression of eye field transcription factors, reduced early OV cell proliferation and disrupted RPE maturation. This work provides a foundation for investigating MITF and other highly complex, multi-purposed transcription factors in a dynamic human developmental model system.

Expression patterns and subcellular localization of carbonic anhydrases are developmentally regulated during tooth formation

Carbonic anhydrases (CAs) play fundamental roles in several physiological events, and emerging evidence points at their involvement in an array of disorders, including cancer. The expression of CAs in the different cells of teeth is unknown, let alone their expression patterns during odontogenesis. As a first step towards understanding the role of CAs during odontogenesis, we used immunohistochemistry, histochemistry and in situ hybridization to reveal hitherto unknown dynamic distribution patterns of eight CAs in mice. The most salient findings include expression of CAII/Car2 not only in maturation-stage ameloblasts (MA) but also in the papillary layer, dental papilla mesenchyme, odontoblasts and the epithelial rests of Malassez. We uncovered that the latter form lace-like networks around incisors; hitherto these have been known to occur only in molars. All CAs studied were produced by MA, however CAIV, CAIX and CARPXI proteins were distinctly enriched in the ruffled membrane of the ruffled MA but exhibited a homogeneous distribution in smooth-ended MA. While CAIV, CAVI/Car6, CAIX, CARPXI and CAXIV were produced by all odontoblasts, CAIII distribution displayed a striking asymmetry, in that it was virtually confined to odontoblasts in the root of molars and root analog of incisors. Remarkably, from initiation until near completion of odontogenesis and in several other tissues, CAXIII localized mainly in intracellular punctae/vesicles that we show to overlap with LAMP-1- and LAMP-2-positive vesicles, suggesting that CAXIII localizes within lysosomes. We showed that expression of CAs in developing teeth is not confined to cells involved in biomineralization, pointing at their participation in other biological events. Finally, we uncovered novel sites of CA expression, including the developing brain and eye, the olfactory epithelium, melanoblasts, tongue, notochord, nucleus pulposus and sebaceous glands. Our study provides important information for future single or multiple gene targeting strategies aiming at deciphering the function of CAs during odontogenesis.

Prevalence of the E318K and V320I MITF germline mutations in Polish cancer patients and multiorgan cancer risk-a population-based study

The E318K mutation in the MITF gene has been associated with a high risk of melanoma, renal cell carcinoma, and pancreatic cancer; the risk of other cancers has not been evaluated so far. Herein, we examined the possible association of E318K and a novel variant of the MITF gene, V320I, with the risk of cancers of different sites of origin in a Polish population. We assayed for the presence of the E318K and V320I missense mutations in 4,226 patients with one of six various cancers (melanoma or cancer of the kidney, lung, prostate, colon, or breast) and 2,114 controls from Poland. The E318K mutation was detected in 4 of 2,114 participants (0.19%) in the Polish control population, the V320I in 3 of 2,114 participants (0.14%) in the control group. We found no statistically significant differences in the prevalence of the E318K and V320I variants among cases and controls. We found two carriers of the E318K variant among melanoma patients (P = 0.95), one carrier among breast cancer patients (P = 0.77), one carrier among colorectal cancer patients (P = 0.82), and one carrier among kidney cancer patients (P = 0.64). Our study demonstrates a lack of strong association of E318K and V320I with increased risk of melanoma or cancers of the kidney, breast, prostate, lung, or colon.

Transcription factor SOX9 plays a key role in the regulation of visual cycle gene expression in the retinal pigment epithelium

The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) performs specialized functions to support retinal photoreceptors, including regeneration of the visual chromophore. Enzymes and carrier proteins in the visual cycle function sequentially to regenerate and continuously supply 11-cis-retinal to retinal photoreceptor cells. However, it is unknown how the expression of the visual cycle genes is coordinated at the transcriptional level. Here, we show that the proximal upstream regions of six visual cycle genes contain chromatin-accessible sex-determining region Y box (SOX) binding sites, that SOX9 and LIM homeobox 2 (LHX2) are coexpressed in the nuclei of mature RPE cells, and that SOX9 acts synergistically with orthodenticle homeobox 2 (OTX2) to activate the RPE65 and retinaldehyde binding protein 1 (RLBP1) promoters and acts synergistically with LHX2 to activate the retinal G protein-coupled receptor (RGR) promoter. ChIP reveals that SOX9 and OTX2 bind to the promoter regions of RPE65, RLBP1, and RGR and that LHX2 binds to those of RPE65 and RGR in bovine RPE. ChIP with human fetal RPE cells shows that SOX9 and OTX2 also bind to the human RPE65, RLBP1, and RGR promoters. Conditional inactivation of Sox9 in mouse RPE results in reduced expression of several visual cycle genes, most dramatically Rpe65 and Rgr. Furthermore, bioinformatic analysis predicts that multiple common microRNAs (miRNAs) regulate visual cycle genes, and cotransfection of miRNA mimics with luciferase reporter constructs validated some of the predicted miRNAs. These results implicate SOX9 as a key regulator of visual cycle genes, reveal for the first time the functional role of LHX2 in the RPE, and suggest the possible regulation of visual cycle genes by common miRNAs.

Fucci2a: a bicistronic cell cycle reporter that allows Cre mediated tissue specific expression in mice

Markers of cell cycle stage allow estimation of cell cycle dynamics in cell culture and during embryonic development. The Fucci system incorporates genetically encoded probes that highlight G1 and S/G2/M phases of the cell cycle allowing live imaging. However the available mouse models that incorporate Fucci are beset by problems with transgene inactivation, varying expression level, lack of conditional potential and/or the need to maintain separate transgenes-there is no transgenic mouse model that solves all these problems. To address these shortfalls we re-engineered the Fucci system to create 2 bicistronic Fucci variants incorporating both probes fused using the Thosea asigna virus 2A (T2A) self cleaving peptide. We characterize these variants in stable 3T3 cell lines. One of the variants (termed Fucci2a) faithfully recapitulated the nuclear localization and cell cycle stage specific florescence of the original Fucci system. We go on to develop a conditional mouse allele (R26Fucci2aR) carefully designed for high, inducible, ubiquitous expression allowing investigation of cell cycle status in single cell lineages within the developing embryo. We demonstrate the utility of R26Fucci2aR for live imaging by using high resolution confocal microscopy of ex vivo lung, kidney and neural crest development. Using our 3T3 system we describe and validate a method to estimate cell cycle times from relatively short time-lapse sequences that we then apply to our neural crest data. The Fucci2a system and the R26Fucci2aR mouse model are compelling new tools for the investigation of cell cycle dynamics in cell culture and during mouse embryonic development.

RPE specification in the chick is mediated by surface ectoderm-derived BMP and Wnt signalling

The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is indispensable for vertebrate eye development and vision. In the classical model of optic vesicle patterning, the surface ectoderm produces fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) that specify the neural retina (NR) distally, whereas TGFβ family members released from the proximal mesenchyme are involved in RPE specification. However, we previously proposed that bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) released from the surface ectoderm are essential for RPE specification in chick. We now show that the BMP- and Wnt-expressing surface ectoderm is required for RPE specification. We reveal that Wnt signalling from the overlying surface ectoderm is involved in restricting BMP-mediated RPE specification to the dorsal optic vesicle. Wnt2b is expressed in the dorsal surface ectoderm and subsequently in dorsal optic vesicle cells. Activation of Wnt signalling by implanting Wnt3a-soaked beads or inhibiting GSK3β at optic vesicle stages inhibits NR development and converts the entire optic vesicle into RPE. Surface ectoderm removal at early optic vesicle stages or inhibition of Wnt, but not Wnt/β-catenin, signalling prevents pigmentation and downregulates the RPE regulatory gene Mitf. Activation of BMP or Wnt signalling can replace the surface ectoderm to rescue MITF expression and optic cup formation. We provide evidence that BMPs and Wnts cooperate via a GSK3β-dependent but β-catenin-independent pathway at the level of pSmad to ensure RPE specification in dorsal optic vesicle cells. We propose a new dorsoventral model of optic vesicle patterning, whereby initially surface ectoderm-derived Wnt signalling directs dorsal optic vesicle cells to develop into RPE through a stabilising effect of BMP signalling.

BMP4 is required for the initial expression of MITF in melanocyte precursor differentiation from embryonic stem cells

Although the differentiation of melanoblasts to melanocytes is known to depend on many distinct factors, it is still poorly understood which factors lead to the induction of melanoblasts. To determine which factors might induce melanoblasts, we examined a set of candidate factors for their ability to induce expression of MITF, a master regulator of melanoblast development, in an ES cell-based melanocyte differentiation system. It appears that BMP4 is capable of inducing MITF expression in stem cells. In contrast, a number of other factors normally implicated in the development of the melanocyte lineage, including WNT1, WNT3a, SCF, EDN3, IGF1, PDGF, and RA, cannot induce MITF expression. Nevertheless, BMP4 alone does not allow MITF-expressing precursors to become differentiated melanocytes, but the addition of EDN3 further promotes differentiation of the precursors into mature melanocytes. Our results support a model in which BMP4 induces MITF expression in pluripotent stem cells and EDN3 subsequently promotes differentiation of these MITF expressing cells along the melanocyte lineage.

Retinal pigment epithelium development, plasticity, and tissue homeostasis

The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a simple epithelium interposed between the neural retina and the choroid. Although only 1 cell-layer in thickness, the RPE is a virtual workhorse, acting in several capacities that are essential for visual function and preserving the structural and physiological integrities of neighboring tissues. Defects in RPE function, whether through chronic dysfunction or age-related decline, are associated with retinal degenerative diseases including age-related macular degeneration. As such, investigations are focused on developing techniques to replace RPE through stem cell-based methods, motivated primarily because of the seemingly limited regeneration or self-repair properties of mature RPE. Despite this, RPE cells have an unusual capacity to transdifferentiate into various cell types, with the particular fate choices being highly context-dependent. In this review, we describe recent findings elucidating the mechanisms and steps of RPE development and propose a developmental framework for understanding the apparent contradiction in the capacity for low self-repair versus high transdifferentiation.

Differential evolution of duplicated medakafish mitf genes

Gene duplication is a major force of evolution. One whole genome duplication (WGD) event in the fish ancestor generated genome-wide duplicates in all modern species. Coloration and patterning on the animal body surface exhibit enormous diversity, representing a mysterious and ideal system for understanding gene evolution. Surface colors and patterns are determined primarily by pigment cells in the skin and eye. Thus, microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (Mitf) as a master regulator of melanocyte development is excellent for studying the evolution of WGD-derived gene duplicates. Here we report the evolution of mitf duplicate, mitf1 and mitf2, in the fish medaka (Oryzias latipes), which encode medaka co-homologs Mitf1 and Mitf2 of the mouse Mitf. Compared to mitf1, mitf2 exhibits an accelerated sequence divergence and loses melanocytic expression in embryos at critical developmental stages. Compared to a Xiphophorus counterpart, the medaka Mitf2 displayed a reduced activity in activating melanogenic gene expression by reporter assays and RT-PCR analyses. We show that the medaka Mitf2 has the ability to induce melanocyte differentiation in medaka embryonic stem cells but at a remarkably reduced efficiency compared to the Xiphophorus counterpart. Our data suggest differential evolution of the medaka mitf duplicate, with mitf1 adopting conservation and mitf2 employing degeneration, which is different from the duplication-degeneration-complementation proposed as the mechanism to preserve many gene duplicates in zebrafish. Our finding reveals species-specific variations for mitf duplicate evolution, in agreement with enormous diversity of body coloration and patterning.

microRNA regulation of skin pigmentation in fish

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous small non-coding RNAs that play crucial roles in numerous biological processes. However, the role of miRNAs in skin color determination in fish has not been completely determined. Here, we identified that 13 miRNAs are differentially expressed between red and white skin. The analysis of miRNA spatial and temporal expression patterns suggests that miR-429 is potential regulator of skin pigmentation. miR-429 silencing results in a obvious change in skin pigmentation. Bioinformatics analysis and luciferase reporter assay shows that miR-429 directly regulates Foxd3 expression by targeting its 3′ untranslated (3′-UTR) region. miR-429 silencing leads to a significant increase in Foxd3 expression in vivo, thereby repressing the transcription of MITF and its downstream genes such as TYR, TYRP1, or TYRP2. These findings would provide a novel insight into the determination of skin color in fish.

Otx but not Mitf transcription factors are required for zebrafish retinal pigment epithelium development

Otx and Mitf transcription factors have been implicated in the development of the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE), but the relationship between these factors and their specific roles in the development of the RPE have not been fully defined. The role of the three Otx transcription factors (Otx1a, Otx1b, and Otx2) and two Mitf transcription factors (Mitfa and Mitfb) in the development of the zebrafish RPE was explored in these experiments. The loss of Otx activity through morpholino knockdown produced variable eye defects, ranging from delayed RPE pigmentation to severe coloboma, depending on the combination of Otx factors that were targeted. Expression analysis through in situ hybridization demonstrates that otx transcription factors are necessary for the proper expression of mitfa and mitfb while Mitf transcription factors are not required for the expression of otx genes. Surprisingly, the loss of Mitf activity in mitfa, mitfb, or double mitf mutant zebrafish had no effect on RPE pigmentation or development. Moreover, histological analysis revealed that retinal lamination is unaffected in mitf mutants, as well as in otx morphants, even in regions lacking RPE. Otx and Mitf combined loss of function experiments suggest that mitfa and mitfb may still influence zebrafish RPE development. This is further supported by the ability of mitfa to induce pigmentation in the zebrafish retina when misexpressed. These findings suggest that one or more Otx targets in addition to mitfa and mitfb, possibly another mitf family member, are necessary for development of the RPE in zebrafish.

CXCR7 mediates SDF1-induced melanocyte migration

Melanoblasts are derived from the neural crest and migrate to the dermal/epidermal border of skin and hair bulges. Although melanoblast migration during embryogenesis has been well investigated, there are only a few reports regarding the migration of mature melanocytes. Here, we demonstrate that a chemokine, stromal-derived factor-1 (SDF1, also known as CXCL12), and one of its receptor CXCR7 regulate normal human epidermal melanocyte (NHEM) migration. We found that SDF1 induces the directional migration of NHEMs. Interestingly, although both CXCR4 and CXCR7 are expressed in NHEMs, blockade of CXCR4 using a CXCR4-specific neutralizing antibody did not exert any influence on the SDF1-induced migration of NHEMs, whereas blockade of CXCR7 using a CXCR7-specific neutralizing antibody did influence migration. Furthermore, SDF1-induced NHEMs migration exhibited the early hallmark events of CXCR7 signaling associated with MAP kinase activation. It is known that the phosphorylation of ERK through CXCR7 signaling is mediated by β-arrestins. The treatment of NHEMs with SDF1 resulted in the phosphorylation of ERK in a β-arrestin 2-dependent manner. These results suggest that melanocytes may have a unique mechanism of migration via SDF1/CXCR7 signaling that is different from that of other cell types.