Behavior of osteoblast, adipocyte, and myoblast markers in genome-wide expression analysis of mouse calvaria primary osteoblasts in vitro

AMP1-1 derived from Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz prevents bone aging triggered by lead and cadmium

As the major pollutants of industrial wastewater, lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) contaminate the environment and lead to bone aging when combined. To elucidate the potential mechanism by which Pb and Cd accelerate bone aging and to screen effective protective agents, we determined the optimum concentrations of Pb and Cd to establish the aging models in vitro and in vivo. The successful establishment of aging models was confirmed through β-galactosidase (β-gal) staining, the detection of aging markers, and the evaluation of biomechanical parameters. Subsequently, the polysaccharides were extracted separately from seven plants and Atractylodes macrocephala polysaccharide (AMP) was confirmed to have the strongest effect on osteoblast proliferation. Therefore, we purified AMP to obtain a small molecular fragment called AMP1-1 and investigated its effect. It has been revealed that AMP1-1 could resist oxidative stress and promote the proliferation and differentiation of osteoblasts, thereby slowing apoptosis and alleviating cell senescence through the results of the β-gal staining and the analyses of the osteoblastic, antioxidant, apoptotic, and senescence indexes. The results in vivo suggested that AMP1-1 exerted a protective role in bone aging by inhibiting the above pathways. Consequently, AMP1-1 has theoretical significance for further development of biological protective agents against heavy metal pollution.

Dolichos Lablab Linné Inhibits Bone Density Loss and Promotes Bone Union in Senile Osteoporosis through Osteogenesis

As populations continue to age, osteoporosis has emerged as an increasingly critical concern. Most advancements in osteoporosis treatment are predominantly directed toward addressing abnormal osteoclast activity associated with menopause, with limited progress in developing therapies that enhance osteoblast activity, particularly in the context of aging and fractures, and serious side effects associated with existing treatments have highlighted the necessity for natural-product-based treatments targeting senile osteoporosis and fractures. Dolichos lablab Linné (DL) is a natural product traditionally used for gastrointestinal disorders, and its potential role in addressing bone diseases has not been extensively studied. In this research, we investigated the anti-osteoporosis and bone-union-stimulating effects of DL using the SAMP6 model, a naturally aged mouse model. Additionally, we employed MC3T3-E1 cells to validate DL's osteoblast-promoting effect and to assess the involvement of core mechanisms such as the BMP-2/Smad and Wnt/β-catenin pathways. The experimental results revealed that DL promoted the formation of osteoblasts and calcified nodules by upregulating both the BMP-2/Smad and Wnt/β-catenin mechanisms. Based on its observed effects, DL demonstrated the potential to enhance bone mineral density in aged osteoporotic mice and promote bone union in fractured mice. These findings indicate the promising therapeutic potential of DL for the treatment of osteoporosis and bone-related conditions, thus warranting further investigation and potential clinical applications.

Expression dynamics of metalloproteinases during mandibular bone formation: association with Myb transcription factor

As the dentition forms and becomes functional, the alveolar bone is remodelled. Metalloproteinases are known to contribute to this process, but new regulators are emerging and their contextualization is challenging. This applies to Myb, a transcription factor recently reported to be involved in bone development and regeneration. The regulatory effect of Myb on Mmps expression has mostly been investigated in tumorigenesis, where Myb impacted the expression of Mmp1, Mmp2, Mmp7, and Mmp9. The aim of this investigation was to evaluate the regulatory influence of the Myb on Mmps gene expression, impacting osteogenesis and mandibular bone formation. For that purpose, knock-out mouse model was used. Gene expression of bone-related Mmps and the key osteoblastic transcription factors Runx2 and Sp7 was analysed in Myb knock-out mice mandibles at the survival limit. Out of the metalloproteinases under study, Mmp13 was significantly downregulated. The impact of Myb on the expression of Mmp13 was confirmed by the overexpression of Myb in calvarial-derived cells causing upregulation of Mmp13. Expression of Mmp13 in the context of other Mmps during mandibular/alveolar bone development was followed in vivo along with Myb, Sp7 and Runx2. The most significant changes were observed in the expression of Mmp9 and Mmp13. These MMPs and MYB were further localized in situ by immunohistochemistry and were identified in pre/osteoblastic cells as well as in pre/osteocytes. In conclusion, these results provide a comprehensive insight into the expression dynamics of bone related Mmps during mandibular/alveolar bone formation and point to Myb as another potential regulator of Mmp13.

Isolation and Culture of Neonatal Mouse Calvarial Osteoblasts

This chapter describes the isolation and culture of neonatal mouse calvarial osteoblasts. This primary cell population is obtained by sequential enzymatic digestion of the calvarial bone matrix and is capable of differentiating in vitro into mature osteoblasts that deposit a collagen extracellular matrix and form mineralized bone nodules. Maturation of the cultures can be monitored by gene expression analyses and staining for the presence of alkaline phosphatase or matrix mineralization. This culture system, therefore, provides a powerful model in which to test how various experimental conditions, such as the manipulation of gene expression, may affect osteoblast maturation and/or function.

Wnt7b-induced Sox11 functions enhance self-renewal and osteogenic commitment of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells

As a profoundly anabolic regulator of bone, Wnt7b is well acknowledged to enhance osteoblast activities. Here, we report that bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) are another important population responding to Wnt7b. In this study, we systematically investigated the in vivo role of Wnt7b in BMSCs using transgenic mice, high-throughput RNA-seq, immunohistochemistry, RT-qPCR, and in situ hybridization. These methods led us to uncover that Sox11 is induced via Wnt7b in BMSCs. Colony formation assay, flow cytometry, EdU incorporation labeling, RT-qPCR, and Western blot were conducted to detect the self-renewal capacity of BMSCs. Alkaline phosphatase staining, alizarin red staining, and ex vivo BMSCs transplantation were utilized to detect the osteogenic ability of BMSCs. ChIP-qPCR, shRNAs, and immunofluorescence staining were utilized to investigate the underlying mechanisms. Consequently, bone-derived Wnt7b was found to decrease in osteoporosis and elevate in bone fracture healing. During bone fracture healing, Wnt7b was particularly expressed in the mesenchymal cells residing within healing frontiers. RNA-seq data of Wnt7b-overexpressed bones uncovered the significant upregulation of Sox11. Histological results further unveiled that Sox11 is specifically increased in BMSCs. Wnt7b-induced Sox11 was demonstrated to reinforce both self-renewal and osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs. Mechanistically, Wnt7b activates the Ca²⁺ -dependent Nfatc1 signaling to directly induce Sox11 transcription, which in turn activates the transcriptions of both proliferation-related transcription factors (Ccnb1 and Sox2) and osteogenesis-related factors (Runx2, Sp7) in BMSCs. It is intriguing that this Wnt7b-Sox11 signaling in BMSCs is β-Catenin-independent. Overall, this study provides brand new insights of Wnt7b in bone formation, namely, Wnt7b can enhance both self-renewal and osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs via inducing Sox11. These findings present a new crosstalk between Wnt and Sox signaling in BMSCs.

Bone and plasma citrate is reduced in osteoporosis

High concentration of citrate exists in bone of humans and all osteo-vertebrates, and citrate incorporation imparts important biomechanical and other functional properties to bone. However, which cells are responsible for citrate production in bone remains unclear and whether the citrate component changes with bone loss during osteoporosis is also not known. Here, we show that the citrate content is markedly reduced in the bone of mice or rats with age-related, ovariectomy-induced or retinoic acid-induced bone loss. Plasmic citrate is also downregulated in osteoporotic animals. Importantly, the plasmic citrate level of aged osteoporotic males is significantly lower than that of young healthy males and positively correlates with human lumbar spine bone mineral density (BMD) and total hip BMD. Furthermore, citrate production increases with in vitro osteoblastic differentiation, accompanied by upregulation of proteins involved in citrate secretion, suggesting that osteoblasts are highly specialized cells that produce citrate in bone. Our findings establish a novel relationship between citrate content and bone loss-related diseases such as osteoporosis, suggesting a critical role of bone citrate in the maintenance of the citrate balance in the circulation. Serum citrate level may thus represent a novel marker for osteoporosis.

Antibody-based inhibition of circulating DLK1 protects from estrogen deficiency-induced bone loss in mice

Soluble delta-like 1 homolog (DLK1) is a circulating protein that belongs to the Notch/Serrate/delta family, which regulates many differentiation processes including osteogenesis and adipogenesis. We have previously demonstrated an inhibitory effect of DLK1 on bone mass via stimulation of bone resorption and inhibition of bone formation. Further, serum DLK1 levels are elevated and positively correlated to bone turnover markers in estrogen (E)-deficient rodents and women. In this report, we examined whether inhibition of serum DLK1 activity using a neutralizing monoclonal antibody protects from E deficiency-associated bone loss in mice. Thus, we generated mouse monoclonal anti-mouse DLK1 antibodies (MAb DLK1) that enabled us to reduce and also quantitate the levels of bioavailable serum DLK1 in vivo. Ovariectomized (ovx) mice were injected intraperitoneally twice weekly with MAb DLK1 over a period of one month. DEXA-, microCT scanning, and bone histomorphometric analyses were performed. Compared to controls, MAb DLK1 treated ovx mice were protected against ovx-induced bone loss, as revealed by significantly increased total bone mass (BMD) due to increased trabecular bone volume fraction (BV/TV) and inhibition of bone resorption. No significant changes were observed in total fat mass or in the number of bone marrow adipocytes. These results support the potential use of anti-DLK1 antibody therapy as a novel intervention to protect from E deficiency associated bone loss.

p53 loss increases the osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells

The tumor suppressor, p53, plays a critical role in suppressing osteosarcoma. Bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs, also known as bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells) have been suggested to give rise to osteosarcomas. However, the role of p53 in BMSCs has not been extensively explored. Here, we report that p53 regulates the lineage choice of mouse BMSCs (mBMSCs). Compared to mBMSCs with wild-type p53, mBMSCs deficient in p53 have enhanced osteogenic differentiation, but with similar adipogenic and chondrogenic differentiation. The role of p53 in inhibiting osteogenic lineage differentiation is mainly through the action of Runx2, a master transcription factor required for the osteogenic differentiation of mBMSCs. We find that p53 indirectly represses the expression of Runx2 by activating the microRNA-34 family, which suppresses the translation of Runx2. Since osteosarcoma may derive from BMSCs, we examined whether p53 has a role in the osteogenic differentiation of osteosarcoma cells and found that osteosarcoma cells with p53 deletion have higher levels of Runx2 and faster osteogenic differentiation than those with wild-type p53. A systems biology approach reveals that p53-deficient mBMSCs are more closely related to human osteosarcoma while mBMSCs with wild-type p53 are similar to normal human BMSCs. In summary, our results indicate that p53 activity can influence cell fate specification of mBMSCs, and provide molecular and cellular insights into the observation that p53 loss is associated with increased osteosarcoma incidence.

Disruption of Annexin II /p11 Interaction Suppresses Leukemia Cell Binding, Homing and Engraftment, and Sensitizes the Leukemia Cells to Chemotherapy

The bone marrow microenvironment plays an important role in acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) cell proliferation, maintenance, and resistance to chemotherapy. Annexin II (ANX2) is abundantly expressed on bone marrow cells and complexes with p11 to form ANX2/p11-hetero-tetramer (ANX2T). We present evidence that p11 is upregulated in refractory ALL cell lines and patient samples. A small molecule inhibitor that disrupts ANX2/p11 interaction (ANX2T inhibitor), an anti-ANX2 antibody, and knockdown of p11, abrogated ALL cell adhesion to osteoblasts, indicating that ANX2/p11 interaction facilitates binding and retention of ALL cells in the bone marrow. Furthermore, ANX2T inhibitor increased the sensitivity of primary ALL cells co-cultured with osteoblasts to dexamethasone and vincristine induced cell death. Finally, in an orthotopic leukemia xenograft mouse model, the number of ALL cells homing to the bone marrow was reduced by 40-50% in mice injected with anti-ANX2 antibody, anti-p11 antibody or ANX2T inhibitor compared to respective controls. In a long-term engraftment assay, the percentage of ALL cells in mouse blood, bone marrow and spleen was reduced in mice treated with agents that disrupt ANX2/p11 interaction. These data show that disruption of ANX2/p11 interaction results in reduced ALL cell adhesion to osteoblasts, increased ALL cell sensitization to chemotherapy, and suppression of ALL cell homing and engraftment.

Bisphosphonate-functionalized hyaluronic acid showing selective affinity for osteoclasts as a potential treatment for osteoporosis

Bisphosphonate-functionalized hyaluronic can potentially reduce long-term administration of high doses of BPs.

Identification of novel regulators of osteoblast matrix mineralization by time series transcriptional profiling

Bone mineralization is a carefully orchestrated process, regulated by a number of promoters and inhibitors that function to ensure effective hydroxyapatite formation. Here we sought to identify new regulators of this process through a time series microarray analysis of mineralising primary osteoblast cultures over a 27 day culture period. To our knowledge this is the first microarray study investigating murine calvarial osteoblasts cultured under conditions that permit both physiological extracellular matrix mineralization through the formation of discrete nodules and the terminal differentiation of osteoblasts into osteocytes. RT-qPCR was used to validate and expand the microarray findings. We demonstrate the significant up-regulation of >6,000 genes during the osteoblast mineralization process, the highest-ranked differentially expressed genes of which were those dominated by members of the PPAR-γ signalling pathway, namely Adipoq, Cd36 and Fabp4. Furthermore, we show that the inhibition of this signalling pathway promotes matrix mineralisation in these primary osteoblast cultures. We also identify Cilp, Phex, Trb3, Sox11, and Psat1 as novel regulators of matrix mineralization. Further studies examining the precise function of the identified genes and their interactions will advance our understanding of the mechanisms underpinning biomineralization.

Isolation and culture of neonatal mouse calvarial osteoblasts

This chapter describes the isolation and culture of neonatal mouse calvarial osteoblasts. This primary cell population is obtained by sequential enzymatic digestion of the calvarial bone matrix and is capable of differentiating in vitro into mature osteoblasts that deposit a collagen extracellular matrix and form mineralized bone nodules. Maturation of the cultures can be monitored by gene expression analyses and staining for the presence of alkaline phosphatase or matrix mineralization. This culture system, therefore, provides a powerful model to test how various experimental conditions, such as the manipulation of gene expression, may affect osteoblast maturation and/or function.

SNP rs6265 regulates protein phosphorylation and osteoblast differentiation and influences BMD in humans

Bone mineral density (BMD) is a major index for diagnosing osteoporosis. PhosSNPs are nonsynonymous SNPs that affect protein phosphorylation. The relevance and significance of phosSNPs to BMD and osteoporosis is unknown. This study aimed to identify and characterize phosSNPs significant for BMD in humans. We conducted a pilot genomewide phosSNP association study for BMD in three independent population samples, involving ∼5000 unrelated individuals. We identified and replicated three phosSNPs associated with both spine BMD and hip BMD in Caucasians. Association with hip BMD for one of these phosSNPs, ie, rs6265 (major/minor allele: G/A) in BDNF gene, was also suggested in Chinese. Consistently in both ethnicities, individuals carrying the AA genotype have significantly lower hip BMD than carriers of the GA and GG genotypes. Through in vitro molecular and cellular studies, we found that compared to osteoblastic cells transfected with wild-type BDNF-Val66 (encoded with allele G at rs6265), transfection of variant BDNF-Met66 (encoded with allele A at rs6265) significantly decreased BDNF protein phosphorylation (at amino acid residue T62), expression of osteoblastic genes (OPN, BMP2, and ALP), and osteoblastic activity. The findings are consistent with and explain our prior observations in general human populations. We conclude that phosSNP rs6265, by regulating BDNF protein phosphorylation and osteoblast differentiation, influences hip BMD in humans. This study represents our first endeavor to dissect the functions of phosSNPs in bone, which might stimulate extended large-scale studies on bone or similar studies on other human complex traits and diseases.

In vitro analysis of bone phenotypes in Col1a1 and Jagged1 mutant mice using a standardized osteoblast cell culture system

The mouse is a valuable model organism for studying bone biology and for unravelling pathological processes in skeletal disorders. In vivo methods like X-ray analysis, DXA measurements, pQCT and μCT are available to investigate the bone phenotype of mutant mice. However, the descriptive nature of such methods does not provide insights into the cellular and molecular bases of the observed bone alterations. Thus, first-line investigations might be complemented by cell culture-based methods to characterize the pathological processes at the cellular level independent from systemic influences. By combining well-established assays, we designed a comprehensive test system to investigate the cellular and molecular phenotype of primary calvarial osteoblasts in mutant mice compared to wild-type controls as a first-line phenotyping method. The compilation of 9 different quantifiable assays allows assessment of general properties of cell growth and investigation of bone-specific parameters at the functional, protein and RNA level in a kinetic fashion throughout a 3-week culture period, thus maximizing the chance to discover and explain new phenotypes in mutant mice. By analyzing mutant mouse lines for Col1a1 and Jag1 (Delta-Notch pathway) that both showed clear alterations in several bone-related parameters we could demonstrate the usefulness of our cell culture system to discriminate between primary (Col1a1) and secondary effects (Jag1) in osteoblasts.

Vitamin C deficiency accelerates bone loss inducing an increase in PPAR-γ expression in SMP30 knockout mice

Senescence marker protein (SMP) 30 knockout (KO) mice display symptoms of scurvy, including spontaneous bone fractures, and this was considered to be induced by a failure of collagen synthesis owing to vitamin C deficiency. However, low bone mineral density is also known to be associated with spontaneous bone fracture. Therefore, we investigated the effects of vitamin C deficiency on the balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts in SMP30 KO mice as evidenced by histopathology. All mice were fed a vitamin C-free diet, and only one group (KV) mice were given water containing 1.5 g/l of vitamin C, whereas wild-type (WT) and KO mice were given normal drinking tap water without vitamin C for 16 weeks. After 16 weeks, all femur samples were removed for histopathological examination. The femurs of KO mice showed significantly reduced bone area and decreased number of osteoblasts compared with those of WT mice and KV mice. KO mice also exhibited the lowest level of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) expression in their femurs. However, KO mice showed the most elevated expression of the receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL). Moreover, KO mice had the strongest peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ expression level in their osteoblasts and the highest number of TUNEL-positive bone marrow cells. Therefore, we concluded that vitamin C deficiency plays an important role in spontaneous bone fracture by inhibiting osteoblast differentiation and promoting transition of osteoblasts to adipocytes, and this could in turn be related to the increased PPAR-γ expression.

L51P - A BMP2 variant with osteoinductive activity via inhibition of Noggin

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP) have to be applied at high concentrations to stimulate bone healing. The limited therapeutic efficacy may be due to the local presence of BMP antagonists such as Noggin. Thus, inhibiting BMP antagonists is an attractive therapeutic option. We hypothesized that the engineered BMP2 variant L51P stimulates osteoinduction by antagonizing Noggin-mediated inhibition of BMP2. Primary murine osteoblasts (OB) were treated with L51P, BMP2, and Noggin. OB proliferation and differentiation were quantified with XTT and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) assays. BMP receptor dependent intracellular signaling in OB was evaluated with Smad and p38 MAPK phosphorylation assays. BMP2, Noggin, BMP receptor Ia/Ib/II, osteocalcin, and ALP mRNA expressions were analyzed with real-time PCR. L51P stimulated OB differentiation by blocking Noggin mediated inhibition of BMP2. L51P did not induce OB differentiation directly and did not activate BMP receptor dependent intracellular signaling via the Smad pathway. Treatment of OB cultures with BMP2 but not with L51P resulted in an increased expression of ALP, BMP2, and Noggin mRNA. By inhibiting the BMP antagonist Noggin, L51P enhances BMP2 activity and stimulates osteoinduction without exhibiting direct osteoinductive function. Indirect osteoinduction with L51P seems to be advantageous to osteoinduction with BMP2 as BMP2 stimulates the expression of Noggin thereby self-limiting its own osteoinductive activity. Treatment with L51P is the first protein-based approach available to augment BMP2 induced bone regeneration through inhibition of BMP antagonists. The described strategy may help to decrease the amounts of exogenous BMPs currently required to stimulate bone healing.

Runx2 promotes both osteoblastogenesis and novel osteoclastogenic signals in ST2 mesenchymal progenitor cells

We profiled the global gene expression of a bone marrow-derived mesenchymal pluripotent cell line in response to Runx2 expression. Besides osteoblast differentiation, Runx2 promoted the osteoclastogenesis of co-cultured splenocytes. This was attributable to the upregulation of many novel osteoclastogenic genes and the downregulation of anti-osteoclastogenic genes.

INTRODUCTION

In addition to being a master regulator for osteoblast differentiation, Runx2 controls osteoblast-driven osteoclastogenesis. Previous studies profiling gene expression during osteoblast differentiation had limited focus on Runx2 or paid little attention to its role in mediating osteoblast-driven osteoclastogenesis.

METHODS

ST2/Rx2(dox), a bone marrow-derived mesenchymal pluripotent cell line that expresses Runx2 in response to Doxycycline (Dox), was used to profile Runx2-induced gene expression changes. Runx2-induced osteoblast differentiation was assessed based on alkaline phosphatase staining and expression of classical marker genes. Osteoclastogenic potential was evaluated by TRAP staining of osteoclasts that differentiated from primary murine splenocytes co-cultured with the ST2/Rx2(dox) cells. The BeadChip™ platform (Illumina) was used to interrogate genome-wide expression changes in ST2/Rx2(dox) cultures after treatment with Dox or vehicle for 24 or 48 h. Expression of selected genes was also measured by RT-qPCR.

RESULTS

Dox-mediated Runx2 induction in ST2 cells stimulated their own differentiation along the osteoblast lineage and the differentiation of co-cultured splenocytes into osteoclasts. The latter was attributable to the stimulation of osteoclastogenic genes such as Sema7a, Ltc4s, Efnb1, Apcdd1, and Tnc as well as the inhibition of anti-osteoclastogenic genes such as Tnfrsf11b (OPG), Sema3a, Slco2b1, Ogn, Clec2d (Ocil), Il1rn, and Rspo2.

CONCLUSION

Direct control of osteoblast differentiation and concomitant indirect control of osteoclast differentiation, both through the activity of Runx2 in pre-osteoblasts, constitute a novel mechanism of coordination with a potential crucial role in coupling bone formation and resorption.

DLK1 is a novel regulator of bone mass that mediates estrogen deficiency-induced bone loss in mice

Delta-like 1/fetal antigen 1 (DLK1/FA-1) is a transmembrane protein belonging to the Notch/Delta family that acts as a membrane-associated or a soluble protein to regulate regeneration of a number of adult tissues. Here we examined the role of DLK1/FA-1 in bone biology using osteoblast-specific Dlk1-overexpressing mice (Col1-Dlk1). Col1-Dlk1 mice displayed growth retardation and significantly reduced total body weight and bone mineral density (BMD). Micro-computed tomographis (µCT) scanning revealed a reduced trabecular and cortical bone volume fraction. Tissue-level histomorphometric analysis demonstrated decreased bone-formation rate and enhanced bone resorption in Col1-Dlk1 mice compared with wild-type mice. At a cellular level, Dlk1 markedly reduced the total number of bone marrow (BM)-derived colony-forming units fibroblasts (CFU-Fs), as well as their osteogenic capacity. In a number of in vitro culture systems, Dlk1 stimulated osteoclastogenesis indirectly through osteoblast-dependent increased production of proinflammatory bone-resorbing cytokines (eg, Il7, Tnfa, and Ccl3). We found that ovariectomy (ovx)-induced bone loss was associated with increased production of Dlk1 in the bone marrow by activated T cells. Interestingly, Dlk1(-/-) mice were significantly protected from ovx-induced bone loss compared with wild-type mice. Thus we identified Dlk1 as a novel regulator of bone mass that functions to inhibit bone formation and to stimulate bone resorption. Increasing DLK1 production by T cells under estrogen deficiency suggests its possible use as a therapeutic target for preventing postmenopausal bone loss.

Telomerase-deficient mice exhibit bone loss owing to defects in osteoblasts and increased osteoclastogenesis by inflammatory microenvironment

Telomere shortening owing to telomerase deficiency leads to accelerated senescence of human skeletal (mesenchymal) stem cells (MSCs) in vitro, whereas overexpression leads to telomere elongation, extended life span, and enhanced bone formation. To study the role of telomere shortening in vivo, we studied the phenotype of telomerase-deficient mice (Terc(-/-)). Terc(-/-) mice exhibited accelerated age-related bone loss starting at 3 months of age and during 12 months of follow-up revealed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometric (DXA) scanning and by micro-computed tomography (µCT). Bone histomorphometry revealed decreased mineralized surface and bone-formation rate as well as increased osteoclast number and size in Terc(-/-) mice. Also, serum total deoxypyridinoline (tDPD) was increased in Terc(-/-) mice. MSCs and osteoprogenitors isolated from Terc(-/-) mice exhibited intrinsic defects with reduced proliferating cell number and impaired osteogenic differentiation capacity. In addition, the Terc(-/-) -MSC cultures accumulated a larger proportion of senescent β-galactosidase(+) cells and cells exhibiting DNA damage. Microarray analysis of Terc(-/-) bone revealed significant overexpression of a large number of proinflammatory genes involved in osteoclast (OC) differentiation. Consistently, serum obtained from Terc(-/-) mice enhanced OC formation of wild-type bone marrow cultures. Our data demonstrate two mechanisms for age-related bone loss caused by telomerase deficiency: intrinsic osteoblastic defects and creation of a proinflammatory osteoclast-activating microenvironment. Thus telomerization of MSCs may provide a novel approach for abolishing age-related bone loss.

Real-time label-free monitoring of adipose-derived stem cell differentiation with electric cell-substrate impedance sensing

Real-time monitoring of stem cells (SCs) differentiation will be critical to scale-up SC technologies, while label-free techniques will be desirable to quality-control SCs without precluding their therapeutic potential. We cultured adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) on top of multielectrode arrays and measured variations in the complex impedance Z* throughout induction of ADSCs toward osteoblasts and adipocytes. Z* was measured up to 17 d, every 180 s, over a 62.5-64 kHz frequency range with an ECIS Z instrument. We found that osteogenesis and adipogenesis were characterized by distinct Z* time-courses. Significant differences were found (P = 0.007) as soon as 12 h post induction. An increase in the barrier resistance (Rb) up to 1.7 ohm·cm(2) was associated with early osteo-induction, whereas Rb peaked at 0.63 ohm·cm(2) for adipo-induced cells before falling to zero at t = 129 h. Dissimilarities in Z* throughout early induction (<24 h) were essentially attributed to variations in the cell-substrate parameter α. Four days after induction, cell membrane capacitance (Cm) of osteo-induced cells (Cm = 1.72 ± 0.10 μF/cm(2)) was significantly different from that of adipo-induced cells (Cm = 2.25 ± 0.27 μF/cm(2)), indicating that Cm could be used as an early marker of differentiation. Finally, we demonstrated long-term monitoring and measured a shift in the complex plane in the middle frequency range (1 kHz to 8 kHz) between early (t = 100 h) and late induction (t = 380 h). This study demonstrated that the osteoblast and adipocyte lineages have distinct dielectric properties and that such differences can be used to perform real-time label-free quantitative monitoring of adult stem cell differentiation with impedance sensing.

Wnt signalling mediates the cross-talk between bone marrow derived pre-adipocytic and pre-osteoblastic cell populations

The mechanisms underlying the inverse relationship between osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells (MSC) are not known in detail. We have previously established two cell lines from mouse bone marrow that are committed to either osteogenic (osteoblasts and chondrocytes) (mMSC(Bone)) or adipogenic (mMSC(Adipo)) lineage. To identify the molecular mechanism determining the lineage commitment, we compared the basal gene expression profile of mMSC(Bone) versus mMSC(Adipo) using Affymetrix GeneChip® MG430A 2.0 Array. Gene annotation analysis based on biological function revealed an over-representation of skeletal development genes in mMSC(Bone) while genes related to lipid metabolism and immune response were highly expressed in mMSC(Adipo). In addition, there was a significant up-regulation of canonical Wnt signalling genes in mMSC(Bone) compared to mMSC(Adipo) (p<0.006). Dual-luciferase assay and expression analysis of genes related to Wnt signalling demonstrated significant activation of Wnt signalling pathway in mMSC(Bone) compared to mMSC(Adipo). Reduced Wnt activity in mMSC(Adipo) was associated with increased expression of the Wnt inhibitor, secreted frizzled-related protein 1 (sFRP-1) at both mRNA and protein levels in mMSC(Adipo). Interestingly, conditioned medium (CM) collected from mMSC(Adipo) (mMSC-CM(Adipo)) inhibited osteoblast differentiation of mMSC, while depletion of sFRP-1 protein from mMSC-CM(Adipo) abolished its inhibitory effect on osteoblast differentiation. Furthermore, treatment of mMSC with recombinant sFRP-1 resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition of osteoblast and stimulation of adipocyte differentiation. In conclusion, cross-talk exists between different populations of MSC in the bone marrow, and Wnt signalling functions as a molecular switch that determines the balance between osteoblastogenesis and adipogenesis.

Enhanced reporter gene assay for the detection of osteogenic differentiation

Detection of osteogenic differentiation is crucial for bone tissue engineering. Despite established standard end point assays, there is increasing demand for methods allowing noninvasive kinetic differentiation monitoring. Reporter gene assays employing tissue-specific promoters and suitable reporter genes fulfill these requirements. Many promoters, however, exhibit only weak cis-activating potential, thus limiting their application to generate sensitive reporter gene assays. Therefore, the aim of this study was to design a reporter gene assay employing elements of the murine osteocalcin promoter coupled to a viral enhancer for signal amplification. Additionally, the system's practicability was enhanced by introducing a secreted luciferase as a quantifiable reporter gene. The constructs were tested in C2C12 cells stimulated with recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein 2 for osteogenic differentiation in two-dimensional and three-dimensional culture. Osteogenic differentiation was confirmed by standard assays for osteogenesis. The reporter gene signal was detected through a secreted luciferase or fluorescence microscopy for enhanced yellow fluorescent protein. The constructs exhibited strong activation upon treatment with recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein 2. Weak background expression was observable in negative controls, attributed to the pan-active viral enhancer. In conclusion, a novel enhancer/tissue-specific promoter combination allows specific signal-amplified, kinetic monitoring of osteogenic differentiation in a nonsample-destructive manner.

A subset of osteoblasts expressing high endogenous levels of PPARgamma switches fate to adipocytes in the rat calvaria cell culture model

BACKGROUND

Understanding fate choice and fate switching between the osteoblast lineage (ObL) and adipocyte lineage (AdL) is important to understand both the developmental inter-relationships between osteoblasts and adipocytes and the impact of changes in fate allocation between the two lineages in normal aging and certain diseases. The goal of this study was to determine when during lineage progression ObL cells are susceptible to an AdL fate switch by activation of endogenous peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)gamma.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Multiple rat calvaria cells within the ObL developmental hierarchy were isolated by either fractionation on the basis of expression of alkaline phosphatase or retrospective identification of single cell-derived colonies, and treated with BRL-49653 (BRL), a synthetic ligand for PPARgamma. About 30% of the total single cell-derived colonies expressed adipogenic potential (defined cytochemically) when BRL was present. Profiling of ObL and AdL markers by qRT-PCR on amplified cRNA from over 160 colonies revealed that BRL-dependent adipogenic potential correlated with endogenous PPARgamma mRNA levels. Unexpectedly, a significant subset of relatively mature ObL cells exhibited osteo-adipogenic bipotentiality. Western blotting and immunocytochemistry confirmed that ObL cells co-expressed multiple mesenchymal lineage determinants (runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2), PPARgamma, Sox9 and MyoD which localized in the cytoplasm initially, and only Runx2 translocated to the nucleus during ObL progression. Notably, however, some cells exhibited both PPARgamma and Runx2 nuclear labeling with concomitant upregulation of expression of their target genes with BRL treatment.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

We conclude that not only immature but a subset of relatively mature ObL cells characterized by relatively high levels of endogenous PPARgamma expression can be switched to the AdL. The fact that some ObL cells maintain capacity for adipogenic fate selection even at relatively mature developmental stages implies an unexpected plasticity with important implications in normal and pathological bone development.

Thyroid hormone non-genomically suppresses Src thereby stimulating osteocalcin expression in primary mouse calvarial osteoblasts

To provide further insights into non-genomic action of thyroid hormone (T3), we investigated whether Src is under control of T3 in primary calvarial osteoblasts prepared from neonatal mice. Treatment of the cells with T3 rapidly decreased Src Y416 autophosphorylation, followed by the decrease of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinases, suggesting that T3 non-genomically suppresses Src activity. Furthermore, this T3 effect was rapid and persistent, and was associated with the increased expression of osteocalcin (OC). To confirm the contribution of Src to the effect of T3 on OC expression, a constitutively active Src (Y527F) was overexpressed in osteoblasts. In such cells, Y416 phosphorylation was markedly increased even in the presence of T3, and T3-dependent expression of OC was markedly attenuated. The present study demonstrates a novel, non-genomic action of T3 in primary mouse osteoblasts, by which T3 suppresses Src thereby stimulating OC expression.

Nuclear receptor profile in calvarial bone cells undergoing osteogenic versus adipogenic differentiation

Nuclear receptors (NRs) are key regulators of cell function and differentiation. We examined NR expression during osteogenic versus adipogenic differentiation of primary mouse calvarial osteoblasts (MOBs). MOBs were cultured for 21 days in osteogenic or adipogenic differentiation media. von Kossa and Oil Red O staining, and qRT-PCR of marker genes and 49 NRs were performed. PCR amplicons were subcloned to establish correct sequences and absolute standard curves. Forty-three NRs were detected at days 0-21. Uncentered average linkage hierarchical clustering identified four expression clusters: NRs (1) upregulated during osteogenic, but not adipogenic, differentiation, (2) upregulated in both conditions, with greater upregulation during adipogenic differentiation, (3) upregulated equally in both conditions, (4) downregulated during adipogenic, but not osteogenic, differentiation. One-way ANOVA with contrast revealed 20 NRs upregulated during osteogenic differentiation and 12 NRs upregulated during adipogenic differentiation. Two-way ANOVA demonstrated that 18 NRs were higher in osteogenic media, while 9 NRs were higher in adipogenic media. The time effect revealed 16 upregulated NRs. The interaction of condition with time revealed 6 NRs with higher expression rate during adipogenic differentiation and 3 NRs with higher expression rate during osteogenic differentiation. Relative NR abundance at days 0 and 21 were ranked. Basal ranking changed at least 5 positions for 13 NRs in osteogenic media and 9 NRs in adipogenic media. Osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation significantly altered NR expression in MOBs. These differences offer a fingerprint of cellular commitment and may provide clues to the underlying mechanisms of osteogenic versus adipogenic differentiation.

Coexpression of osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation markers in selected subpopulations of primary human mesenchymal progenitor cells

Knowledge of the basic mechanisms controlling osteogenesis and adipogenesis might provide new insights into the prevention of osteoporosis and age-related osteopenia. With the help of magnetic cell sorting and fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS), osteoblastic subpopulations of mesenchymal progenitor cells were characterized. Alkaline phosphatase (AP) negative cells expressed low levels of osteoblastic and adipocytic markers. AP positive cells expressed adipocytic markers more strongly than the AP negative cell populations, thus suggesting that committed osteoblasts exhibit a greater adipogenic potential. AP negative cells differentiated to the mature osteoblastic phenotype, as demonstrated by increased AP-activity and osteocalcin secretion under standard osteogenic culture conditions. Surprisingly, this was accompanied by increased expression of adipocytic gene markers such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma2, lipoprotein lipase and fatty acid binding protein. The induction of adipogenic markers was suppressed by transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) and promoted by bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2). Osteogenic culture conditions including BMP-2 induced both the formation of mineralized nodules and cytoplasmic lipid vacuoles. Upon immunogold electron microscopic analysis, osteoblastic and adipogenic marker proteins were detectable in the same cell. Our results suggest that osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation in human mesenchymal progenitor cells might not be exclusively reciprocal, but rather, a parallel event until late during osteoblast development.

Distinct roles of bone morphogenetic proteins in osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells

Efficacious bone regeneration could revolutionize the clinical management of many bone and musculoskeletal disorders. Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) can regulate the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells into cartilage, bone, tendon/ligament, and fat lineages. Early data documented the osteogenic potential of rhBMP2 and rhBMP7/OP-1. However, prior to this work that summarized several of our recent studies, no comprehensive analysis had been undertaken to characterize relative osteogenic activity of all BMPs. Using recombinant adenoviruses expressing 14 BMPs, we have demonstrated that, besides BMP2 and BMP7, BMP6 and BMP9 exhibit the highest osteogenic activity both in vitro and in vivo. We further demonstrated that several BMPs may exert synergistic effect on osteogenic differentiation, and that osteogenic BMPs produce a distinct set of molecular fingerprints during osteogenic differentiation. The reported work should expand our current understanding of BMP functions during osteogenic differentiation. It is conceivable that osteogenic BMPs (i.e., BMP2, 4, 6, 7, and 9) may be used to formulate synergistic pairs among themselves and/or with other less osteogenic BMPs for efficacious bone regeneration in clinical settings.

Leukemia inhibitory factor influences the fate choice of mesenchymal progenitor cells

Osteoblasts and adipocytes derive from a common mesenchymal precursor, and in at least some circumstances, differentiation along these two lineages is inversely related. For example, we have recently observed that concomitant with inhibition of osteoblast differentiation and bone nodule formation, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) induces genes regulating lipid metabolism in fetal rat calvaria (RC) cell cultures. In this study, we further investigated the adipogenic capacity of LIF-treated RC cells. Quantitative analyses revealed that LIF increased the adipocyte differentiation induced by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma agonist BRL49653 (BRL) in RC cell populations. Gene expression profiling of individual RC cell colonies in untreated cells or cells treated with LIF, BRL, or combined LIF-BRL suggested that some adipocytes arose from bipotential or other primitive precursors, including osteoprogenitors, since many colonies co-expressed osteoblast and adipocyte differentiation markers, whereas some arose from other cell pools, most likely committed preadipocytes present in the population. These analyses further suggested that LIF and BRL do not act at the same stages of the mesenchymal hierarchy, but rather that LIF modifies differentiation of precursor cells, whereas BRL acts later to favor adipocyte differentiation. Taken together, our data suggest that LIF increased adipocyte differentiation at least in part by altering the fate of osteoblastic cells and their precursors.

Transcriptome analysis reveals an osteoblast-like phenotype for human osteotropic breast cancer cells

Metastatic breast cancer cells exhibit the selective ability to seed and grow in the skeleton. We and others have previously reported that human breast tumors which metastasize to the skeleton overexpress bone matrix extracellular proteins. In an attempt to reveal the osteoblast-like phenotype of osteotropic breast cancer cells, we performed a microarray study on a model of breast cancer bone metastasis consisting of the MDA-MB-231 human cell line and its variant B02 selected for its high capacity to form bone metastases in vivo. Analysis of B02 cells transcriptional profile revealed that 11 and 9 out of the 50 most up- and down-regulated mRNAs, respectively, corresponded to genes which expression has been previously associated with osteoblastic differentiation process. Thus, osteoblast specific cadherin 11 which mediates the differentiation of mesenchymal cells into osteoblastic cells is up-regulated in B02. While S100A4, recently described as a key negative regulator of osteoblast differentiation, is the most down-regulated gene in B02 cells. RT-PCR and western blotting experiments allowed the validation of the modulation of several genes of interest. Using immunohistochemistry, performed on human breast primary tumors and their matched liver and bone metastases, we were able to confirm that the osteoblast-like pattern of gene expression observed in our model holds true in vivo. This is the first report demonstrating a gene-expression pattern corresponding to the acquisition of an osteomimetic phenotype by bone metastatic breast cancer cells.

Deletion of a single allele of the Dkk1 gene leads to an increase in bone formation and bone mass

Wnt/beta-catenin signaling has been proven to play a central role in bone biology. Unexpectedly, the Wnt antagonist Dkk2 is required for terminal osteoblast differentiation and mineralized matrix formation. We show that Dkk1, unlike Dkk2, negatively regulates osteoblast differentiation and bone formation.

INTRODUCTION

The Wnt co-receptor LRP5 is a critical regulator of bone mass. Dickkopf (Dkk) proteins act as natural Wnt antagonists by bridging LRP5/6 and Kremen, inducing the internalization of the complex. Wnt antagonists are thus expected to negatively regulation bone formation. However, Dkk2 deficiency results in increased bone, questioning the precise role of Dkks in bone metabolism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, we investigated specifically the role of Dkk1 in bone in vitro and in vivo. Using rat primary calvaria cells, we studied the effect of retroviral expression of Dkk1 on osteoblast differentiation. In addition, the effect of Dkk1 osteoblast was studied in MC3T3-E1 cells by means of recombinant protein. Finally, to address the role of Dkk1 in vivo, we analyzed the bone phenotype of Dkk1(+/-) animals.

RESULTS

Retroviral expression of Dkk1 in rat primary calvaria cells resulted in a complete inhibition of osteoblast differentiation and formation of mineralized nodules, with a marked decrease in the expression of alkaline phosphatase. Dkk1 expression also increased adipocyte differentiation in these cell cultures. Recombinant murine Dkk1 (rmDkk1) inhibited spontaneous and induced osteoblast differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells. To determine the role of Dkk1 in vivo and overcome the embryonic lethality of homozygous deletion, we studied the bone phenotype in heterozygous Dkk1-deficient mice. Structural, dynamic, and cellular analysis of bone remodeling in Dkk1(+/-) mice showed an increase in all bone formation parameters, with no change in bone resorption, leading to a marked increase in bone mass. Importantly, the number of osteoblasts, mineral apposition, and bone formation rate were all increased several fold.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that Dkk1 protein is a potent negative regulator of osteoblasts in vitro and in vivo. Given that a heterozygous decrease in Dkk1 expression is sufficient to induce a significant increase in bone mass, antagonizing Dkk1 should result in a potent anabolic effect.

Osteoblast differentiation stimulating activity of biflavonoids from Cephalotaxus koreana

Six amentoflavone-type biflavonoids, bilobetin (1), ginkgetin (2), 4',7''-di-O-methyl-amentoflavone (3), 7-O-methyl-isoginkgetin (4), sciadopitysin (5), and 7,4',7'',4'''-O-methyl-amentoflavone (6), were isolated from the EtOAc fraction of Cephalotaxus koreana Nakai (Cephalotaxaceae) by bioactivity-guided fractionation technique using primary cultures of mouse osteoblasts as an in vitro assay system. Among the six biflavonoids isolated, bilobetin (1), sciadopitysin (5), and 7,4',7'',4'''-O-methyl-amentoflavone (6) significantly increased osteoblast differentiation as assessed by alkaline phosphatase activity, collagen synthesis, and mineralization. Considering structure-activity relationship, methoxyl groups at 4' and 4''' in the B rings in amentoflavone-type biflavonoid might be important in osteoblast differentiation. Taken together, our present study suggests therapeutic potential of biflavonoids against bone diseases such as osteoporosis.

Regulation of osteoblast differentiation by Nurr1 in MC3T3-E1 cell line and mouse calvarial osteoblasts

The orphan nuclear receptor Nurr1 is primarily expressed in the central nervous system. It has been shown that Nurr1 is necessary for terminal differentiation of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in ventral midbrain. The receptor, however, is also expressed in other organs including bone, even though the role of Nurr1 is not yet understood. Therefore, we investigated the role of Nurr1 in osteoblast differentiation in MC3T3-E1 cells and calvarial osteoblasts derived from Nurr1 null newborn pups. Our results revealed that reduced Nurr1 expression, using Nurr1 siRNA in MC3T3-E1 cells, affected the expression of osteoblast differentiation marker genes, osteocalcin (OCN) and collagen type I alpha 1 (COL1A1), as measured by quantitative real-time PCR. The activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), another osteoblast differentiation marker gene, was also decreased in Nurr1 siRNA-treated MC3T3-E1 cells. In addition, Nurr1 overexpression increased OCN and COL1A1 expression. Furthermore, consistent with these results, during osteoblast differentiation, the expression of osteoblast marker genes was decreased in primary cultured mouse calvarial osteoblasts derived from Nurr1 null mice. Collectively, our results suggest that Nurr1 is important for osteoblast differentiation.

Osteoblast differentiation is impaired in SOCS-1-deficient mice

The suppressor of cytokine signaling-1 (SOCS-1) is a cytokine-inducible intracellular molecule that inhibits excessive activation of the JAK-STAT-mediated signal cascade initiated by various stimuli. The smaller size of SOCS-1 knockout (KO) mice suggests the presence of skeletal abnormality caused by the disruption of the regulatory system in JAK-STAT signaling. In addition to macroscopic examination, peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT), bone histomorphometrical analysis, and in situ hybridization were used to examine the skeletal properties of SOCS-1 KO mice. Moreover, differentiation of primary cultured osteoblasts was investigated. Distinct phosphorylation of STAT1 was detected in the SOCS-1 KO calvarial cells but was hardly detectable in wild-type (WT) mice. Undercalcified areas in the skulls and sternum, as well as comparatively thinner calcified areas of cortical bone, were found in SOCS-1 KO mice. pQCT analysis showed a marked decrease in salt content, whereas the mineralization activity of primary cultured calvarial cells strongly suggested significant impairment in osteoblasts of SOCS-1 KO mice. In situ hybridization analysis demonstrated that these mice expressed the early markers [type I collagen (COL-1) and osteonectin (ON)] and the mid-marker [osteopontin (OP)] at levels comparable with those seen in WT mice. However, a dramatic decrease was observed in the expression level of the late marker [osteocalcin (OC)] of osteoblasts. Our findings thus demonstrate that SOCS-1 regulates osteoblast differentiation in the later stage.

Lrp5-independent activation of Wnt signaling by lithium chloride increases bone formation and bone mass in mice

One of the well characterized cell biologic actions of lithium is the inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta and the consequent activation of canonical Wnt signaling. Because deficient Wnt signaling has been implicated in disorders of reduced bone mass, we tested whether lithium could improve bone mass in mice. We gavage-fed lithium chloride to 8-week-old mice from three different strains (Lrp5(-/-), SAMP6, and C57BL/6) and assessed the effect on bone metabolism after 4 weeks of therapy. Lrp5(-/-) mice lack the Wnt coreceptor low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5 and have markedly reduced bone mass. Lithium, which is predicted to act downstream of this receptor, restored bone metabolism and bone mass to near wild-type levels in these mice. SAMP6 mice have accelerated osteoporosis due to inadequate osteoblast renewal. Lithium significantly improved bone mass in these mice and in wild-type C57BL/6 mice. We found that lithium activated canonical Wnt signaling in cultured calvarial osteoblasts from Lrp5(-/-) mice ex vivo and that lithium-treated mice had increased expression of Wnt-responsive genes in their bone marrow cells in vivo. These data lead us to conclude that lithium enhances bone formation and improves bone mass in mice and that it may do so via activation of the canonical Wnt pathway. Lithium has been used safely and effectively for over half a century in the treatment of bipolar illness. Prospective studies in patients receiving lithium should determine whether it also improves bone mass in humans.

Stimulation of resorption in cultured mouse calvarial bones by thiazolidinediones

Dosage-dependent release of 45Ca was observed from prelabeled mouse calvarial bones after treatment with two thiazolidinediones, troglitazone and ciglitazone. Release of 45Ca by ciglitazone was decreased by the osteoclast inhibitors acetazolamide, calcitonin, 3-amino-1-hydroxypropylidene-1,1-bisphosphonate, and IL-4, but not affected by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma antagonist, GW 9662, the mitotic inhibitor, hydroxyurea, or indomethacin. Enhanced expression of receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB ligand (RANKL) mRNA and protein and decreased osteoprotegerin (OPG) mRNA and protein were noted after ciglitazone treatment of calvariae. Ciglitazone and RANKL each caused increased mRNA expression of osteoclast markers: calcitonin receptor, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, cathepsin K, matrix metalloproteinase-9, integrin beta3, and nuclear factor of activated T cells 2. OPG inhibited mRNA expression of RANKL stimulated by ciglitazone, mRNA expression of osteoclast markers stimulated by ciglitazone and RANKL, and 45Ca release stimulated by troglitazone and ciglitazone. Increased expression of IL-1alpha mRNA by ciglitazone was not linked to resorption stimulated by the thiazolidinedione. Ciglitazone did not increase adipogenic gene expression but enhanced osteocalcin mRNA in calvariae. In addition to exhibiting sensitivity to OPG, data indicate that stimulation of osteoclast differentiation and activity by thiazolidinediones may occur by a nonperoxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma-dependent pathway that does not require cell proliferation, prostaglandins, or IL-1alpha but is characterized by an increased RANKL to OPG ratio.

Sox2 induction by FGF and FGFR2 activating mutations inhibits Wnt signaling and osteoblast differentiation

Activating mutations in fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2) cause several craniosynostosis syndromes by affecting the proliferation and differentiation of osteoblasts, which form the calvarial bones. Osteoblasts respond to FGF with increased proliferation and inhibition of differentiation. We analyzed the gene expression profiles of osteoblasts expressing FGFR2 activating mutations (C342Y or S252W) and found a striking down-regulation of the expression of many Wnt target genes and a concomitant induction of the transcription factor Sox2. Most of these changes could be reproduced by treatment of osteoblasts with exogenous FGF. Wnt signals promote osteoblast function and regulate bone mass. Sox2 is expressed in calvarial osteoblasts in vivo and we show that constitutive expression of Sox2 inhibits osteoblast differentiation and causes down-regulation of the expression of numerous Wnt target genes. Sox2 associates with β-catenin in osteoblasts and can inhibit the activity of a Wnt responsive reporter plasmid through its COOH-terminal domain. Our results indicate that FGF signaling could control many aspects of osteoblast differentiation through induction of Sox2 and regulation of the Wnt–β-catenin pathway.

Interaction between LRP5 and Frat1 mediates the activation of the Wnt canonical pathway

Low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) has been identified as a Wnt co-receptor involved in the activation of the beta-catenin signaling pathway. To improve our understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which LRP5 triggers the canonical Wnt signaling cascade, we have screened for potential partners of LRP5 using the yeast two-hybrid system and identified Frat1 as a protein interacting with the cytoplasmic domain of LRP5. We demonstrate here that LRP5/Frat1 interaction is involved in beta-catenin nuclear translocation and TCF-1 transcriptional activation. The addition of Wnt3a or overexpression of constitutively active truncated LRP5 (LRP5C) induces Frat1 recruitment to the cell membrane. Overexpression of a dominant negative form of disheveled (Dvl) shows that this protein positively affects LRP5/Frat1 interaction. Furthermore, the fact that dominant negative Dvl does not interfere with LRP5C/Frat1 interaction can explain how LRP5C is capable of acting independently of this major Wnt signaling player. Axin, which has been shown to interact with LRP5 and to be recruited to the membrane through this interaction, was found to co-immunoprecipitate with Frat1 and LRP5. We propose that recruitment of Axin and Frat1 to the membrane by LRP5 leads to both Axin degradation and Frat1-mediated inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3. As a consequence, beta-catenin is no longer bound to Axin or phosphorylated by glycogen synthase kinase-3, resulting in TCF-1 activation.

Transcriptional characterization of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)-mediated osteogenic signaling

Bone formation is presumably a complex and well-orchestrated process of osteoblast lineage-specific differentiation. As members of the TGFbeta superfamily, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) play an important role in regulating osteoblast differentiation and subsequent bone formation. Several BMPs are able to induce de novo bone formation. Although significant progress has recently been made about the transcriptional control of osteoblast differentiation, detailed molecular events underlying the osteogenic process remain to be elucidated. In order to identify potentially important signaling mediators activated by osteogenic BMPs but not by non-osteogenic BMPs, we sought to determine the transcriptional differences between three osteogenic BMPs (i.e., BMP-2, BMP-6, and BMP-9) and two inhibitory/non-osteogenic BMPs (i.e., BMP-3 and BMP-12). Through the microarray analysis of approximately 12,000 genes in pre-osteoblast progenitor cells, we found that expression level of 203 genes (105 up-regulated and 98 down-regulated) was altered >2-fold upon osteogenic BMP stimulation. Gene ontology analysis revealed that osteogenic BMPs, but not inhibitory/non-osteogenic BMPs, activate genes involved in the proliferation of pre-osteoblast progenitor cells towards osteoblastic differentiation, and simultaneously inhibit myoblast-specific gene expression. BMP-regulated expression of the selected target genes was confirmed by RT-PCR, as well as by the CodeLink Bioarray analysis. Our findings are consistent with the notion that osteogenesis and myogenesis are two divergent processes. Further functional characterization of these downstream target genes should provide important insights into the molecular mechanisms behind BMP-mediated bone formation.

The Fos-related antigen Fra-1 is an activator of bone matrix formation

Ectopic expression of the transcription factor Fra-1 in transgenic mice leads to osteosclerosis, a bone disorder characterized by increased bone mass. The molecular basis for this phenotype is unknown and Fra-1 functions cannot be studied by a conventional loss-of-function approach, since fra-1-knockout mice die in utero likely due to placental defects. Here we show that the lethality of fra-1-knockout mice can be rescued by specific deletion of Fra-1 only in the mouse embryo and not in the placenta. Mice lacking Fra-1 (fra-1(delta/delta)) are viable and develop osteopenia, a low bone mass disease. Long bones of fra-1(delta/delta) mice appear to have normal osteoclasts but express reduced amounts of bone matrix components produced by osteoblasts and chondrocytes such as osteocalcin, collagen1a2 and matrix Gla protein. The gene for matrix Gla protein seems to be a specific target of Fra-1 since its expression was markedly increased in the long bones of fra-1-transgenic mice. These results uncover a novel function of Fra-1 in regulating bone mass through bone matrix production by osteoblasts and chondrocytes.

Inorganic phosphate as a signaling molecule in osteoblast differentiation

The spatial and temporal coordination of the many events required for osteogenic cells to create a mineralized matrix are only partially understood. The complexity of this process, and the nature of the final product, demand that these cells have mechanisms to carefully monitor events in the extracellular environment and have the ability to respond through cellular and molecular changes. The generation of inorganic phosphate during the process of differentiation may be one such signal. In addition to the requirement of inorganic phosphate as a component of hydroxyapatite mineral, Ca(10)(PO(4))(6)(OH)(2), a number of studies have also suggested it is required in the events preceding mineralization. However, contrasting results, physiological relevance, and the lack of a clear mechanism(s) have created some debate as to the significance of elevated phosphate in the differentiation process. More recently, a number of studies have begun to shed light on possible cellular and molecular consequences of elevated intracellular inorganic phosphate. These results suggest a model in which the generation of inorganic phosphate during osteoblast differentiation may in and of itself represent a signal capable of facilitating the temporal coordination of expression and regulation of multiple factors necessary for mineralization. The regulation of protein function and gene expression by elevated inorganic phosphate during osteoblast differentiation may represent a mechanism by which mineralizing cells monitor and respond to the changing extracellular environment.

PPARgamma insufficiency enhances osteogenesis through osteoblast formation from bone marrow progenitors

Based on the fact that aging is associated with a reciprocal decrease of osteogenesis and an increase of adipogenesis in bone marrow and that osteoblasts and adipocytes share a common progenitor, this study investigated the role of PPARgamma, a key regulator of adipocyte differentiation, in bone metabolism. Homozygous PPARgamma-deficient ES cells failed to differentiate into adipocytes, but spontaneously differentiated into osteoblasts, and these were restored by reintroduction of the PPARgamma gene. Heterozygous PPARgamma-deficient mice exhibited high bone mass with increased osteoblastogenesis, but normal osteoblast and osteoclast functions, and this effect was not mediated by insulin or leptin. The osteogenic effect of PPARgamma haploinsufficiency became prominent with aging but was not changed upon ovariectomy. The PPARgamma haploinsufficiency was confirmed to enhance osteoblastogenesis in the bone marrow cell culture but did not affect the cultures of differentiated osteoblasts or osteoclast-lineage cells. This study demonstrates a PPARgamma-dependent regulation of bone metabolism in vivo, in that PPARgamma insufficiency increases bone mass by stimulating osteoblastogenesis from bone marrow progenitors.

Parathyroid hormone: a double-edged sword for bone metabolism

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is the major hormone regulating calcium metabolism. It is also the only FDA-approved drug for osteoporosis treatment that stimulates bone formation when injected daily. However, continuous infusion of PTH causes severe bone loss in line with its known catabolic effects. Many studies to understand the dual effects of PTH have been carried out, and in recent years a growing number of molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying these effects have emerged. Here, we outline the present knowledge and conclude that the kinetics of administration and subsequent signaling probably account for the divergent actions of the hormone.