The bidirectional pathways between internalizing and externalizing problems and academic performance from 6 to 18 years

Predictors of Academic Performance Trajectories Across Early and Middle Adolescence: Links with Internalizing and Externalizing Problems

Although there is ample evidence linking academic and behavioral domains, few studies have examined the long-term, varied impacts of academic performance trajectories on problem behavior outcomes, particularly in early and middle adolescence. This study examined the different three-year academic performance trajectories, their links with behavioral outcomes, and the demographic and educational predictors that distinguish these patterns. The sample consisted of 10,279 Chinese adolescents (46.43% girls; Mage = 12.97 years, SD = 0.89). Three trajectory groups emerged: Moderate Start with Steady Growth (45.93%), High Start with Accelerated Growth (36.89%), and Low Start with Minimal Growth (17.17%). Demographic and educational factors (i.e., age, parents' education, family income, family size, school climate, rank, and sector) predicted group membership. The High Start with Accelerated Growth group exhibited fewer externalizing problems than the other groups. The results underscored the differences in academic performance trajectories and their associations with the predictors and outcomes of problem behaviors, which has implications for academic and behavioral development.

Prenatal exposure to persistent organic pollutants and emotional and behavioral outcomes from early childhood to adolescence: Rhea Cohort Study in Crete, Greece

Background

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are widespread, hazardous chemicals, but their impact on emotional and behavioral development is not well understood. This study aimed to investigate whether prenatal exposure to POPs influences internalizing, externalizing, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms from early childhood to adolescence.

Methods

We utilized longitudinally collected data from 467 mother-child pairs in the Rhea study. Concentrations of hexachlorobenzene, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, and six polychlorinated biphenyl congeners (PCBs) were determined in maternal serum samples collected during early pregnancy. Mothers reported their children's internalizing, externalizing, and ADHD symptoms at ages 4 (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, ADHD Test), 6, 11, and 15 years (Child Behavior Checklist, Conners' Parent Rating Scale). The associations between prenatal pollutant exposure and longitudinally studied outcomes were assessed using generalized estimating equation models.

Results

In utero exposure to hexachlorobenzene and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene was not associated with emotional or behavioral outcomes. Prenatal exposure to PCBs was associated with decreased internalizing symptoms from childhood through adolescence and reduced ADHD symptoms at age 4 (adjusted β [95% confidence interval]: -0.17 [-0.29, -0.05], and -0.16 [-0.30, -0.02], per doubling of exposure, respectively). Sensitivity analyses confirmed these findings, though the association between PCB exposure and internalizing symptoms was not observed in women with sufficient gestational weight gain.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that prenatal POP exposure does not adversely affect emotional and behavioral development from preschool age through adolescence. Further research is warranted to elucidate the potential impact of gestational POP exposure on developmental trajectories.

Annual Research Review: Cash transfer programs and young people's mental health - a review of studies in the United States

Worldwide, more than one in 10 children or adolescents is diagnosed with a mental disorder. Cash transfer programs, which aim to reduce poverty and improve life outcomes by providing direct cash assistance to families and incentivizing or enabling spending on education, health service use, dietary diversity and savings, have been shown to improve the mental health and well-being of young people in low- and middle-income countries. The goal of this review is to describe cash transfer programs in the United States, to describe potential mechanisms by which cash transfer programs could improve child and adolescent mental health and to summarize any evidence of the impact of cash transfer programs. We conclude that much of the evidence on the relationship between cash transfer programs and child and adolescent mental health in the United States is based on a relatively small set of studies. Although most of these studies find that cash transfer programs are associated with reductions in emotional or behavioural health problems, effect sizes are small. For potential mechanisms of cash transfer effects, the strongest evidence is that cash transfer programs increase child-related expenditures and savings and increase time spent with children. Evidence is mixed on whether cash transfer programs improve maternal mental health, parental disciplinary practices or children's exposure to violence.

Transactional Relations between Study Habits and Behavioral Problem during Middle Childhood: an Actor-Partner analysis in Chinese Friendship Dyads

This longitudinal study examined the transactional relations between study habits and behavioral problems within and between children and the potential gender differences in the above relations during middle childhood in China. The participants were 260 children, drawn from 157 stable friendship dyads, who were initially in third and fourth grades (T1 Mage = 9.84 years). Parents completed internalizing and externalizing problem measures, children completed internalizing/externalizing problem and peer nomination measures and teacher reported study habits at two time points one year apart. The actor-partner analysis revealed that children's internalizing problems negatively predicted their friends' study habits one year later, and their externalizing problems negatively predicted their own and their friends' study habits one year later. However, only girls' study habits negatively and marginally predicted their friends' externalizing problems. The results suggest that instructions integrating study habits and behavioral problems among peers may be an important avenue for enhancing children's academic and social-emotion development in China, but these interventions should be distinct for boys and girls.

Associations between trajectories of depressive symptoms and cognitive performance in Chinese adolescents

Subclinical depressive symptoms and the associated risk of cognitive deficits have been overlooked. We aimed to investigate depressive symptom trajectories and the effect of depressive symptoms on cognitive performance among Chinese adolescents. The research population of our study was 1314 adolescents aged 10-15 years old from the China Family Panel Studies. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale was used to assess the depressive symptoms of adolescents. Vocabulary and mathematics tests were used to test fluid intelligence. Memory and number series tests were used to test crystal intelligence. The 6-year depressive symptom trajectories of adolescents were identified by the latent class mixed model. Linear regression models and Generalized Estimating Equation models were applied to test the associations between depressive symptom trajectories and cognitive performance. We identified three distinct trajectories of depressive symptoms: (a) low depressive symptom trajectory (88.51%), (b) remitting depressive symptom trajectory (5.86%), (c) decreasing depressive symptom trajectory (5.63%). We found that decreasing depressive symptom trajectory predicted worse fluid intelligence (β: -0.51, 95% CI: -0.88, -0.13) and crystal intelligence (β: -2.09, 95% CI: -3.78, -0.41) compared with low depressive symptom trajectory. Gender-stratified analysis showed that the negative association between depressive symptoms trajectory and crystal intelligence was only found in males. Depressive symptom episodes in early adolescence were associated with worse cognitive performance later. Performing mental health screenings, especially during the sensitive windows of cognitive development, is critical to reducing the negative impact of depressive symptoms.

Emotional reactivity mediates and moderates the longitudinal associations between mothers' depressive symptoms and behavioral problems in youth

Despite the well-established link between mothers' depressive symptoms and youth behavioral problems, it remains unclear whether the mechanism by which mothers' depressive symptoms promote behavioral problems may also be related to individual differences in this relation. Following the three-variable system integrating mediation and moderation, this study used an integrative model to simultaneously examine the mediating and moderating role of emotional reactivity in the longitudinal associations between maternal depressive symptoms and internalizing and externalizing problems in youth. Participants were 1060 youth and their mothers from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (49.7% boys, 81.6% white). Mothers reported their own depressive symptoms at nine waves from infancy through the fifth grade. They also rated adolescents' emotional reactivity in the fifth grade and behavioral problems in the fifth and sixth grades. The results showed that emotional reactivity mediated the longitudinal relations between maternal depressive symptoms and internalizing and externalizing problems in youth. The results also supported the moderation of emotional reactivity. That is, mothers' depressive symptoms were associated with high levels of internalizing and externalizing problems, particularly among youth who were high in emotional reactivity. The findings highlight the dual role of emotional reactivity to better understand the associations between mothers' depressive symptoms and offspring behavioral problems, and emphasize the need to target emotional reactivity to alleviate the adverse impacts of maternal depressive symptoms on behavioral adjustment in early adolescence.

Joint developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems from mid-childhood to late adolescence and childhood risk factors: Findings from a prospective pre-birth cohort

There is limited evidence on heterogenous co-developmental trajectories of internalizing (INT) and externalizing (EXT) problems from childhood to adolescence and predictors of these joint trajectories. We utilized longitudinal data from Raine Study participants (n = 2393) to identify these joint trajectories from 5 to 17 years using parallel-process latent class growth analysis and analyze childhood individual and family risk factors predicting these joint trajectories using multinomial logistic regression. Five trajectory classes were identified: Low-problems (Low-INT/Low-EXT, 29%), Moderate Externalizing (Moderate-EXT/Low-INT, 26.5%), Primary Internalizing (Moderate High-INT/Low-EXT, 17.5%), Co-occurring (High-INT/High-EXT, 17%), High Co-occurring (Very High-EXT/High-INT, 10%). Children classified in Co-occurring and High Co-occurring trajectories (27% of the sample) exhibited clinically meaningful co-occurring problem behaviors and experienced more adverse childhood risk-factors than other three trajectories. Compared with Low-problems: parental marital problems, low family income, and absent father predicted Co-occurring and High Co-occurring trajectories; maternal mental health problems commonly predicted Primary Internalizing, Co-occurring, and High Co-occurring trajectories; male sex and parental tobacco-smoking uniquely predicted High Co-occurring membership; other substance smoking uniquely predicted Co-occurring membership; speech difficulty uniquely predicted Primary Internalizing membership; child's temper-tantrums predicted all four trajectories, with increased odds ratios for High Co-occurring (OR = 8.95) and Co-occurring (OR = 6.07). Finding two co-occurring trajectories emphasizes the importance of early childhood interventions addressing comorbidity.

Academic Achievement of Children With Neurofibromatosis Type 1

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Learning difficulties are frequently reported in children with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1), yet little is known about the extent and predictors of their academic functions across ages. We aimed to examine the developmental patterns of academic achievement in these children from childhood to adolescence and how these patterns differ across demographic and NF1-related disease factors.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study integrated data of 1512 children with NF1 (mean age, 11.2 years, SD, 3.62, range, 3-18, 46.5% female patients) from 8 institutions. Academic functioning was assessed with Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement or the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test. Data were analyzed primarily using time-varying effect modeling.

RESULTS

Participants' academic achievement was significantly lower than the normative means across ages, and the gap widened from middle childhood to midadolescence. Academic age trends varied across academic domains and demographic and disease factors. Male patients demonstrated larger deviations in math at midchildhood and in reading and writing between midchildhood and midadolescence. Children with lower parental education demonstrated larger deviations in math, reading, and writing between midchildhood and midadolescence. Children with familial NF1 demonstrated larger deviations in math at midchildhood and mid-to-late-adolescence, and in reading and writing between midchildhood and midadolescence.

CONCLUSIONS

Academic difficulties in children with NF1 emerge early and worsen with age. The findings also highlight the variability within this population across demographic and disease factors. The age-specific estimates of academic functions can serve as the first NF1-specific academic norms, providing useful insights for future research and practice.

Family-level profiles of parental reactions to emotions: Longitudinal associations with multi-informant reports of adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms

Longitudinal study of associations between family-level emotion socialization and adolescent adjustment is limited. When American children (53.5% girls) were in second grade (N = 213; Mage = 7.98; data collected 2002-2003), mothers and fathers (79.8% of mothers and 74.2% of fathers were White) reported on their reactions to children's emotions; in seventh, eighth, and ninth grade (Mage = 13.03, 14.17, 15.29, respectively; data collected 2007-2010), adolescents, mothers, and fathers reported on adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Four family-level profiles of reactions were identified. Profile differences emerged, suggesting that the emotion dismissing profile was longitudinally associated with elevated adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms and that fathering may especially foster child adjustment for families in a divergence profile.

Developmental coordination disorder subtypes also vary in the pattern of behavioral and emotional problems

Background

Behavioral and emotional problems in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) are well documented. However, the heterogeneity of this group has been largely overlooked. Addressing this gap is important to develop individually-tailored interventions.

Aims

Our three aims were to assess: (i) behavioral and emotional problems in children with DCD; (ii) behavioral and emotional problems in subtypes of DCD, and (iii) the context-specificity of these problems (home/school).

Methods and procedure

Data were extracted from the medical records of a large sample of 93 children with DCD (79 boys, mean age 8.3) referred to a rehabilitation center. Behavioral and emotional problems were assessed with the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Teacher Report Form (TRF).

Outcomes and results

Two-third of the children presented with behavioral and emotional problems according to both parents and teachers. The subtypes with generalized motor problems were most affected, while the subtype with gross-motor problems was least affected. Children presented with more problems at home than at school.

Conclusion and implications

Given the frequent occurrence of behavioral and emotional problems, clinicians should tailor their interventions to these problems in DCD. Knowledge of subtypes can inform these decisions.

Relations Between Academic and Behavioral Adaptations: The Antecedent Effects of Executive Function

Using a large sample (n = 1163) from the National Institute of Child Health and Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, the Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model was employed to unpack the between-person and within-person aspects in the relations between children's academic performance and externalizing/internalizing behaviors during primary school and examined the predictive role of early executive function. Results showed that the reciprocal relations between state-level fluctuations in children's behavioral problems and academic performance were largely unsupported. Children with more advanced early executive function were found to have better academic performance and fewer behavioral problems throughout primary school, supporting the antecedent role of early executive function. These findings suggest that fostering executive function skills early on could be a key strategy for improving both academic outcomes and behavioral adjustment in children.

Child's Externalizing and Internalizing Problems and Caregiver Strain: Mediation of Child's Executive Functions

The aim of the study is to explore the role of child's executive functions in the relation between child's externalizing and internalizing problems and caregiver strain in early school age children. The caregiver strain refers to providing nurture and care for a dependent family member. A sample includes 175 caregiver-child dyads and 36 school teachers. Participants completed the Family Strain Index which measures caregiver strain or burden (caregivers), the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire which measures child's externalizing and internalizing problems (teachers), and behavioral tasks that measure executive functions (children). Using structural equation modelling, the analysis resulted in a full mediation of the child's externalizing problems on the caregiver strain by child's executive functions. However, the association of child's internalizing problems with caregiver strain has not been confirmed. These results indicate that better child's executive functions buffer the negative effect of child's externalizing problems on caregiver perceived burden. Based on these results, we can suggest that interventions should be focused on programmes to improve the child's executive functions in the family and educational context, along with caregiver training aimed at providing emotional and social support, or individual therapy.

Linking child externalising problems to psychological distress in parents: Mobile phone use by children as a mediator

Child externalising problems, such as acting out and hostility, have been found to be significant stressors for parents, leading to increased distress levels. This cross-sectional study examined the mediating role of parents' use of mobile phones to soothe or engage children in the association between child externalising problems and distress in parents. Altogether 937 parents of children aged 5-12 reported their child's externalising problems, child's mobile phone use, and their distress through an online survey. The findings indicated that parents of children with high externalising problems are more likely to use mobile phones to soothe their children and keep them engaged in daily activities, which, in turn, is associated with higher distress in parents. Child externalising problems and distress in parents remained significantly and positively associated even after accounting for the mediating effect. The results highlight the child-driven effect on distress in parents through parenting behaviours, indicating the importance of providing alternative parenting strategies to cope with child externalising behaviours, in order to promote parental emotional well-being.

Sleep and internalizing problems in primary school children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

BACKGROUND

Internalizing and externalizing problems have received great attention, and children with ADHD exhibit high rates of comorbid internalizing and externalizing disorders. This study aimed to explore the relationship between sleep and internalizing problems in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and the probable mediating role of externalizing problems.

METHODS

A total of 203 primary school children diagnosed with ADHD for the first time were recruited for this study. Children with ADHD were evaluated by Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ), Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Internalizing problems were represented by emotional symptoms and peer problems of SDQ, and externalizing problems were represented by conduct problems and hyperactivity-inattention problems of SDQ. Multi-step linear regression analysis was used to investigate the mediating effect of externalizing problems on the relationship between sleep and internalizing problems.

RESULTS

Sleep in children with ADHD was associated with emotional problems in internalizing problems, and conduct problems in externalizing problems mediated the association between sleep and emotional problems.

CONCLUSION

For children with ADHD, when it is difficult to identify internalizing problems, especially emotional problems, we can take sleep and externalizing problems as clues to improve our clinical ability to recognize and deal with emotional problems.

IMPACT

1. We first explored the possible mediating role of conduct problems between sleep and emotional problems in primary school children with ADHD. 2. When it is difficult to identify internalizing problems, especially emotional problems, we can take sleep and externalizing problems as clues to improve our clinical ability to recognize emotional problems for children with ADHD. 3. For children with ADHD with potential internalizing problems, especially emotional problems, interventions for their sleep and externalizing problems may be the possible methods to deal with.

Elevated unanticipated acoustic startle reactivity in dyslexia

People with dyslexia, a neurodevelopmental disorder of reading, are highly attuned to the emotional world. Compared with their typically developing peers, children with dyslexia exhibit greater autonomic nervous system reactivity and facial behaviour to emotion- and empathy-inducing film clips. Affective symptoms, such as anxiety, are also more common in children with dyslexia than in those without. Here, we investigated whether the startle response, an automatic reaction that lies at the interface of emotion and reflex, is elevated in dyslexia. We measured facial behaviour, electrodermal reactivity (a sympathetic nervous system measure) and emotional experience in response to a 100 ms, 105 dB unanticipated acoustic startle task in 30 children with dyslexia and 20 comparison children without dyslexia (aged 7-13) who were matched on age, sex and nonverbal reasoning. Our results indicated that the children with dyslexia had greater total facial behaviour and electrodermal reactivity to the acoustic startle task than the children without dyslexia. Across the sample, greater electrodermal reactivity during the startle predicted greater parent-reported anxiety symptoms. These findings contribute to an emerging picture of heightened emotional reactivity in dyslexia and suggest accentuated sympathetic nervous system reactivity may contribute to the elevated anxiety that is often seen in this population.

Longitudinal Association and Mediating Mechanism Between Externalizing and Internalizing Problems Among Children: A Within-Person Analysis

OBJECTIVE

In this multi-informant, 3-year longitudinal study, the bidirectional relations between externalizing and internalizing problems were investigated, along with whether peer victimization and academic achievement mediated their relations after separating between-person effects from within-person effects.

METHOD

A sample of 3238 Chinese children (55.02% boys; Mage T1 = 9.89 years) reported semiannually on peer victimization and both externalizing and internalizing problems, and parents reported on their children's externalizing and internalizing problems. Students' objective academic achievement data (i.e. final exam scores) were obtained from school records.

RESULTS

Random intercepts cross-lagged panel modeling (RI-CLPM) revealed that neither academic achievement nor peer victimization mediated the relations between externalizing and internalizing problems in both self and parent reports at the within-person level. The cross-lagged panel models (CLPM) results supported that peer victimization (but not academic achievement) mediated the relations from internalizing to externalizing problems or externalizing to internalizing problems, whether self-reported or parent-reported. This study also identified meaningful sex differences in focal relations among children.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings illustrate the importance of distinguishing within-person and between- person associations, with within- person findings failing to support the hypothesized mediating pathways of the Dual Failure or Acting Out Models among children.

Continuity of Psychopathology Throughout Adolescence and Young Adulthood

OBJECTIVE

This study tested two opposing hypotheses on the continuity of psychopathology throughout adolescence and young adulthood; differentiation versus dynamic mutualism. Differentiation predicts that co-occurrence decreases, while dynamic mutualism predicts that co-occurrence increases due to causal interactions amongst mental health problems.

METHOD

Using data from the Dutch TRacking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey (n = 2228, 51% female), we studied the development of self-reported internalizing, externalizing, and attention problems at ages 11 to 26 across six waves. Random-intercept cross-lagged panel modeling was employed to distinguish within-person development from stable between-person processes.

RESULTS

Large stable between-person associations indicated that adolescents with internalizing problems tended to have both externalizing and attention problems as well. On a within-person level, mental health problems showed partial stability and strong cross-sectional co-occurrence. Within-wave associations of internalizing with externalizing or attention problems decreased between age 11 and 16 years, after which they increased again. Little heterotypic continuity was found: age 11 externalizing predicted age 13 attention, which in turn predicted age 16 externalizing problems, and internalizing predicted externalizing problems across ages 22 to 26. Findings were similar for males and females.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest co-occurrence decreases during early and middle adolescence, supporting differentiation. While co-occurrence increased again into young adulthood, this could not be labeled as dynamic mutualism because little evidence for heterotypic continuity was found in this phase of life. The strong stable links between internalizing, externalizing, and attention problems stress the importance of targeting these mental health problems and their shared risk factors together.

Bidirectional longitudinal associations of mental health with academic performance in adolescents: DADOS study

BACKGROUND

The dual-factor model of mental health (i.e., the presence of psychological well-being along with the absence of distress) and its association with academic performance over time has been barely studied in the adolescent population, as most of the prior research focuses on psychological well-being or distress indicators in isolation. The current study analyzed the bidirectional longitudinal association between the dual-factor model of mental health and academic performance in adolescents, comprising a longitudinal assessment 2 years apart.

METHODS

A total of 266 secondary school students (13.9 ± 0.3 years at baseline) from Deporte, ADOlescencia y Salud study were assessed. Mental health was assessed through the Behavior Assessment System for Children and Adolescents. Academic performance was assessed through academic grades and the Test of Educational Abilities. A cross-lagged modeling approach was used to examine the bidirectional longitudinal association between mental health and academic performance.

RESULTS

Higher academic performance at baseline was associated with better mental health over time, but not vice versa, since this association was not bidirectional.

CONCLUSION

Results suggest that academic performance is an important target for developing educational interventions, as it shapes adolescents' mental health at 2 years of follow-up.

IMPACT

The overall picture of students' mental health and academic performance was analyzed. Academic performance may be a predictor of adolescents' mental health status. Mental health may not be a predictor of adolescents' academic performance. Good mental health should be promoted among youth with low academic performance.

Investigating behaviour from early- to mid-childhood and its association with academic outcomes in a cohort of children born at risk of neonatal hypoglycaemia

High rates of academic underachievement at 9-10 years have been identified in children born at risk of neonatal hypoglycaemia. This study investigated the stability of behaviour from early to mid-childhood and how this relates to academic outcomes in children born with at least one risk factor of neonatal hypoglycaemia in Aotearoa, New Zealand. Behaviour data was collected using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Child Behaviour Checklist 1.5-5, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire for 466 children (52 % male; 27 % Māori, 60 % New Zealand European, 2 % Pacific, 11 % Other) at multiple timepoints between ages 2 and 10 years. Academic data was collected at 9-10 years using the e-asTTle online learning and assessment tool. Findings revealed a link between early childhood behaviour and academic outcomes could be detected as early as age 2, suggesting that identifying and addressing early behavioural issues in children at risk of neonatal hypoglycaemia could aid in targeted interventions.

Relations among parenting, academic performance, and psychopathology: An investigation of developmental cascades and their interplay with maternal and paternal parenting

Little effort has been made to integrate developmental cascades with maternal/paternal parenting in a single investigation. The present study seeks to test cascading effects among academic and internalizing/externalizing symptoms and their associations with maternal/paternal parenting across three time points from 8 to 10 years. Data for this investigation came from a nationally representative prospective cohort study of children born in April through July of 2008 in South Korea who were followed up annually. The sample included 1,598 families (48.5% girls). Parents rated their parenting and teachers rated children's internalizing/externalizing problems and academic performance. Structural equation modeling showed that externalizing problems were negatively related to academic performance. Academic performance was negatively related to internalizing problems and positively related to maternal/paternal authoritative parenting, which in turn led to children's higher academic performance. Bidirectional relations were found between academic performance and externalizing problems and between paternal authoritative parenting and children's internalizing problems. Findings suggested cascading effects and their associations with parenting were not attributable to child gender, intelligence, or socioeconomic differences. These findings lend support to adjustment erosion and academic incompetence models and underscore the need for greater attention to the role that fathering may play in children's development and mothering.

Pathways from Polyvictimization to Offline and Online Sexual Harassment Victimization Among South Korean Adolescents

This study aimed to investigate the association between polyvictimization and offline and online sexual harassment and whether the association might be mediated by internalizing problems, low school satisfaction, and dropping out of school. The analytic sample was derived from the Children and Youth Rights Survey in South Korea. It consisted of 6353 adolescents' responses to the sexual harassment question and a set of other questions in the middle and high school questionnaires. The findings showed a direct association between polyvictimization and offline and online sexual harassment. Adolescents who were polyvictimized were more likely to be victims of both forms of sexual harassment. Furthermore, polyvictimization was positively related to dropping out of school, which was positively associated with offline sexual harassment. The findings from the study have significant implications for future research and practice.

Educational level, attention problems, and externalizing behaviour in adolescence and early adulthood: the role of social causation and health-related selection-the TRAILS study

Social causation and health-related selection may contribute to educational differences in adolescents' attention problems and externalizing behaviour. The social causation hypothesis posits that the social environment influences adolescents' mental health. Conversely, the health-related selection hypothesis proposes that poor mental health predicts lower educational attainment. From past studies it is unclear which of these mechanisms predominates, as attention problems and externalizing behaviour have the potential to interfere with educational attainment, but may also be affected by differences in the educational context. Furthermore, educational gradients in mental health may reflect the impact of 'third variables' already present in childhood, such as parental socioeconomic status (SES), and IQ. We investigated both hypotheses in relation to educational differences in externalizing behaviour and attention problems throughout adolescence and young adulthood. We used data from a Dutch cohort (TRAILS Study; n = 2229), including five measurements of educational level, externalizing behaviour, and attention problems from around age 14-26 years. First, we evaluated the directionality in longitudinal associations between education, externalizing behaviour, and attention problems with and without adjusting for individual differences using fixed effects. Second, we assessed the role of IQ and parental SES in relation to attention problems, externalizing behaviour, and educational level. Attention problems predicted decreases in education throughout all of adolescence and young adulthood. Differences in parental SES contributed to increases in externalizing behaviour amongst the lower educational tracks in mid-adolescence. Childhood IQ and parental SES strongly predicted education around age 14. Parental SES, but not IQ, also predicted early adolescent attention problems and externalizing behaviour. Our results provide support for the health-related selection hypothesis in relation to attention problems and educational attainment. Further, our results highlight the role of social causation from parental SES in determining adolescent educational level, attention problems, and externalizing behaviour.

Developmental cascades of behavior problems and cognitive ability from toddlerhood to middle childhood: A 9-year longitudinal study

Little is known about the direction, ordering, and uniqueness of longitudinal associations between behavior problems and cognitive ability, from toddlerhood to middle childhood. A developmental cascade model was tested in the present study to examine the transactional processes in 103 Chinese children at the ages of 1, 2, 7, and 9 years. Behavior problems were assessed using the maternal reported Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment at the ages of 1, 2 and parental reported Children Behavior Checklist at the ages of 7, 9. Cognitive ability was measured using Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development at the ages of 1, 2 and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children at the ages of 7, 9. The results revealed the stability of behavior problems and cognitive ability from age 1 to age 9 years and concurrent associations between externalizing and internalizing problems. Unique longitudinal associations were identified between (1) age 1 cognitive ability and age 2 internalizing problems, (2) age 2 externalizing problems and age 7 internalizing problems, (3) age 2 externalizing problems and age 7 cognitive ability, (4) age 7 cognitive ability and age 9 externalizing problems. The results indicated essential targets for future interventions aimed at reducing children's behavior problems at 2 years old and promoting cognitive ability at 1 year old and 7 years old.

Effectiveness of Group Parent-Child Interaction Therapy on Problem Behaviors in Chinese Kindergartners

Problem behaviors in early childhood may put young children at risk for negative behavioral and psychosocial problems. This study examined the effectiveness of group PCIT on Chinese young children's externalizing and internalizing problems. The participants were 58 mothers with their children aged 2-3 years (M = 2.95 years, SD = 0.22), assigned to an immediate treatment (n = 26) group or to a waitlist (n = 32) control group. The program involved comprehensive group intervention and featured weekly 60-90-min sessions, totaling ten sessions over three months. Results indicate that group PCIT not only significantly improved teacher-reported problem behaviors in children, but also improved observed maternal parenting behavior. These findings support the use of group PCIT in Chinese children and provide mothers with an evidence-based tool to address problem behaviors in a non-clinical population.

Externalizing problems mediate the relation between teacher and peer violence and lower school performance

BACKGROUND

The association between children's exposure to family violence and poor academic outcomes is well-established. Less is known about how exposure to violence in the school context, i.e., by teachers and by peers, affects academic functioning. Moreover, the role of children's mental health problems in this link has hardly been examined.

OBJECTIVES

We examined direct and indirect associations between children's experiences of violence by teachers and peers and children's mental health and school functioning while controlling for children's experiences of parental violence.

PARTICIPANTS

Using a multistage random sampling approach, we obtained a representative sample of 914 students (50.5 % girls, M_age = 12.58 years) from 12 primary schools in Tanzania.

METHODS

In structured interviews, students' experiences of violence and mental health problems were assessed. Students' academic performance and absenteeism were documented using school records. Associations were examined using structural equation modeling.

RESULTS

Experiences of more teacher and peer violence were each significantly associated with higher externalizing problems (teachers: β = 0.27 [95 %-CI: 0.12, 0.47]; peers: β = 0.17, [95 %-CI: 0.07, 0.32]). Higher externalizing problems were significantly associated with poorer academic performance (β = -0.13, [95 %-CI: -0.23, -0.02]), implying significant indirect associations between students' experiences of teacher violence (β = -0.04, [95 %-CI: -0.08, -0.01]) and peer violence (β = -0.02, [95 %-CI: -0.05, -0.01]) and their academic performance via externalizing problems.

CONCLUSION

Exposure to violence at school may impair children's academic performance indirectly by increasing attention and behaviour problems. Further investigations in longitudinal studies and implementation of interventions to reduce violence in schools are indicated.

Learning outcomes in primary school children with emotional problems: a prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Academic difficulties are common in adolescents with mental health problems. Although earlier childhood emotional problems, characterised by heightened anxiety and depressive symptoms are common forerunners to adolescent mental health problems, the degree to which mental health problems in childhood may contribute independently to academic difficulties has been little explored.

METHODS

Data were drawn from a prospective cohort study of students in Melbourne, Australia (N = 1239). Data were linked with a standardised national assessment of academic performance at baseline (9 years) and wave three (11 years). Depressive and anxiety symptoms were assessed at baseline and wave two (10 years). Regression analyses estimated the association between emotional problems (9 and/or 10 years) and academic performance at 11 years, adjusting for baseline academic performance, sex, age and socioeconomic status, and hyperactivity/inattention symptoms.

RESULTS

Students with depressive symptoms at 9 years of age had lost nearly 4 months of numeracy learning two years later after controlling for baseline academic performance and confounders. Results were similar for anxiety symptoms. Regardless of when depressive symptoms occurred there were consistent associations with poorer numeracy performance at 11 years. The association of depressive symptoms with reading performance was weaker than for numeracy if they were present at wave two. Persistent anxiety symptoms across two waves led to nearly a 4 month loss of numeracy learning at 11 years, but the difference was not meaningful for reading. Findings were similar when including hyperactivity/inattention symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Childhood anxiety and depression are not only forerunners of later mental health problems but predict academic achievement. Partnerships between education and health systems have the potential to not only improve childhood emotional problems but also improve learning.

The Association between Peer Victimization and Risk-Taking Behavior among Chinese Adolescents: Testing a Moderated Mediation Model

Peer victimization has been considered a main source of risk-taking behavior among adolescents, but little is known about the mechanisms underlying this association. Based on the social-cognitive theory and the person-environment interactions model, the current study built a moderated mediation model to explore whether self-control mediated the link between peer victimization and adolescent risk-taking behavior and whether positive parenting moderated this link. We used a 2-time longitudinal design (6 months apart) to investigate 488 adolescents (M_age = 15.63 years, SD = 1.64) from 3 middle schools in Guangzhou. The results were as follows: (1) There were significant correlations among peer victimization, adolescent risk-taking behavior, self-control, and positive parenting when controlling for demographic variables. (2) Peer victimization not only influenced risk-taking behavior directly, but also indirectly through self-control. (3) Positive parenting moderated the influence of self-control on risk-taking behavior. In other words, positive parenting could enhance the inhibitory effect of self-control on risk-taking behavior. The results help reveal the mechanism by which adolescent risk-taking behavior forms and may help inform interventions against adolescent risk-taking behavior.

Paternal mind-mindedness and infant-toddler social-emotional problems

A growing body of evidence suggests that paternal behaviors are influential in child development. However, few studies have focused on paternal mind-mindedness, that is, the tendency of fathers to view their child as having mental agency, which is manifested as a propensity to name the child's mental states while they are interacting with the child. The purpose of this study was to better understand the role of paternal mind-mindedness in the development of social-emotional problems during infancy. 131 families (father-mother-child) were recruited from the community and assessed when children were 6, 12, and 18 months old. Paternal and maternal mind-mindedness was assessed through observation of father-child and mother-child dyads at 6 months. Children's social-emotional problems were measured with a questionnaire completed by both parents at 12 and 18 months. Results indicate that maternal mind-mindedness at 6 months predicts fewer social-emotional problems at 12 months, while fathers' mind-mindedness at 6 months predicts fewer social-emotional problems at 18 months. This study highlights the unique contribution of paternal mind-mindedness to children's early social-emotional development.

Transactions between Problem Behaviors and Academic Performance in Early Childhood

This study aimed to further the understanding of transactional relationships that exist between problem behaviors and academic performance in early childhood. Early academic and behavior difficulties increase the risk of school disengagement, academic failure, and dropout. Although children’s academic and behavioral difficulties have been shown to be intercorrelated, little research has focused on how the relationship reciprocates and progresses in early childhood. This study investigated how problem behaviors (i.e., externalizing and internalizing) influence and are influenced by academic performance (i.e., poor reading and math) from kindergarten to third grade. Participants included 18,135 students (51.22% boys) derived from a nationally representative sample in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2011 (ECLS-K: 2011). Teacher ratings of children’s internalizing (low self-esteem, anxiety, loneliness, or sadness) and externalizing (fighting, arguing, showing anger, impulsively acting, and disruptive behaviors) problem behaviors, as well as direct assessments of children’s academic performance (reading and math), were collected yearly. Cross-lagged panel modeling (CLPM) was employed to examine reciprocal relationships between problem behaviors and academic performance over time from kindergarten to third grade. The results supported the transactional relationships in early childhood, with higher externalizing as well as internalizing problem behaviors predicting lower academic performance and lower academic performance predicting higher externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors. The implications for research, prevention, and early intervention regarding the progression of academic and behavioral problems are discussed.

Sports- and physical activity-related concussion and mental health among adolescents: Findings from the 2017 and 2019 Youth Risk Behavior Survey

This study examined the association between self-reported sports- or physical activity-related concussion and symptoms of depression and suicidal behaviors (suicidal ideation, having a suicide plan, and suicide attempts). This study used data from the 2017 and 2019 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), a biennial, school-based, nationally representative survey of U.S. students in grade levels 9 to 12 (N = 14,496). Multivariate logistical regression models assessed the association between self-reported sports-or physical activity-related concussions and suicidal behaviors among students, controlling for a range of demographic and psychosocial variables. Altogether, 13.6% of students reported a sports-or physical activity related concussion in the past 12 months. Among youth, sports-or physical activity related concussions were significantly associated with greater odds of symptoms of depression, suicidal ideation, making a suicide plan, and suicide attempts compared to other youth who did not experience sports- or physical activity-related concussion. Findings highlight increased risk for adverse mental health outcomes among students with sports-or physical activity related concussions. Providing resources for students to engage in physical activity and sports teams may help prevent the onset of depression and suicidal behaviors; however, resources must also be available to monitor any concussions related to these activities to provide support for student emotional well-being.

School performance in children at the time of new-onset seizures and at long-term follow-up: A retrospective cohort study

Objective

School-performance difficulties (SPD) are common in children with epilepsy. The objectives of this study were to determine if the rate of SPD in children with seizures change from seizure-onset to follow-up and differ from children with psychiatric disorders.

Methods

School-aged children who required an initial electroencephalography (EEG) test in 2016 were reviewed and separated into two groups based on the presence or absence of seizures. Developmental delay and SPD were compared between groups at initial assessment and SPD was assessed after 2–4 years of follow-up. Analysis was also performed on a sub-set of patients with psychiatric disorders.

Results

At baseline, the rate of SPD was similar between the seizure (n = 146) and non-seizure (n = 332) groups [26% vs. 27%]. At follow-up, the seizure (n = 119) group had a significantly higher rate of SPD than the non-seizure (n = 215) group (54% vs. 43%). There was no difference in the rate of SPD between the seizure (n = 119) and psychiatric (n = 69) groups at baseline (31% vs. 43%) or follow-up (54% vs. 55%).

Conclusion

Over time, children with recurrent seizures experience more SPD than children without seizures, but similar SPD to children with psychiatric disorders.

The impact of psychopathology on academic performance in school-age children and adolescents

Psychiatric symptoms have consistently been associated with negative educational outcomes. However, possible confounding variables, such as comorbid mental and environmental conditions, have not been well addressed. This study examined whether mental health problems were significantly linked to academic performance in a Spanish school-based sample, after adjustment for co-occurring psychiatric symptoms and multiple contextual factors. Parents completed a questionnaire regarding child's sociodemographic characteristics (i.e., gender, age, type of school, socioeconomic status, ethnicity), stressful events (i.e., adoption, parental divorce/separation, grade retention) and lifestyle (i.e., diet, sleep, screen time), along with the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Academic performance was obtained from school records. The sample comprised 7036 students aged 5-17 with full data on the CBCL. Mixed-effects ordinal logistic regression analyses were conducted to investigate the association between psychopathology and academic achievement, controlling for potential confounders. When examined separately, higher scores on the CBCL scales were related to lower grades, regardless of sociodemographic factors. However, after controlling for the presence of other psychiatric symptoms, we found that students who reported more anxious/depressed and thought problems were less likely to perform poorly, while those with increased levels of attention problems and delinquent behavior had higher risk for academic underachievement. These associations remained mainly the same once stressful events and lifestyle were taken into account. This investigation demonstrates that anxious/depressed symptoms, thought problems, attention problems, and delinquent behavior are independently associated with academic performance, which emphasize the need for preventive and treatment interventions targeted at students' mental health to improve their psychological well-being and functioning at school.

Cognitive performance in children and adolescents with psychopathology traits: A cross-sectional multicohort study in the general population

Psychopathology and cognitive development are closely related. Assessing the relationship between multiple domains of psychopathology and cognitive performance can elucidate which cognitive tasks are related to specific domains of psychopathology. This can help build theory and improve clinical decision-making in the future. In this study, we included 13,841 children and adolescents drawn from two large population-based samples (Generation R and ABCD studies). We assessed the cross-sectional relationship between three psychopathology domains (internalizing, externalizing, dysregulation profile (DP)) and four cognitive domains (vocabulary, fluid reasoning, working memory, and processing speed) and the full-scale intelligence quotient. Lastly, differential associations between symptoms of psychopathology and cognitive performance by sex were assessed. Results indicated that internalizing symptoms were related to worse performance in working memory and processing speed, but better performance in the verbal domain. Externalizing and DP symptoms were related to poorer global cognitive performance. Notably, those in the DP subgroup had a 5.0 point lower IQ than those without behavioral problems. Cognitive performance was more heavily affected in boys than in girls given comparable levels of psychopathology. Taken together, we provide evidence for globally worse cognitive performance in children and adolescents with externalizing and DP symptoms, with those in the DP subgroup being most heavily affected.

Adolescent Mental Health Problems and Adult Human Capital: Findings From the South African Birth to Twenty Plus Cohort at 28 Years of Age

PURPOSE

We investigated associations between adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems and adult human capital in a non-Western setting. Little is known about adolescent mental health problems and adult outcomes in low- and middle-income countries, many of which are characterized by high levels of adversities.

METHODS

Data came from the Birth to Twenty Plus cohort, started in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa, in 1990. We estimated associations of internalizing and externalizing problems at the age of 14 years with self-reported educational, employment, welfare receipt, psychosocial (psychological distress, criminality, substance use), interpersonal (social isolation, intimate partner violence, partnership status), and HIV outcomes at the age of 28 years.

RESULTS

Adolescents with high internalizing problems were less likely to have completed secondary school or be formally employed and more likely to report psychological distress. Those with high levels of externalizing problems were more likely to report adulthood criminal activity and substance use. We found significant associations between internalizing and externalizing problems and intimate partner violence. There was no association between adolescent mental health problems and welfare receipt, HIV, social isolation, or partnership status. Men were more likely to report incomplete secondary education, no formal employment, criminality and substance use, social isolation, and no serious relationship, whereas women were more likely to experience psychological distress and be in receipt of welfare.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescent mental health problems are associated with long-term negative adult functioning under varying socioeconomic conditions. Interventions to recognize and address youth mental health problems in low- and middle-income countries are needed to avert serious adverse adult and societal consequences.

Examining Longitudinal Associations between Externalizing and Internalizing Behavior Problems at Within- and Between-Child Levels

Externalizing and internalizing behavior problems are known to often co-occur, but mechanisms underlying this co-occurrence remain unclear: whether the associations are due to causal influences of one domain on the other or due to common risk processes influencing both domains. This study aimed to better understand the sources of co-occurring behavior problems by disentangling within- and between-child levels of associations between the two across the five years of childhood, from pre-kindergarten to Grade 3. We analyzed a longitudinal sample of 1060 children from non-urban settings in the U.S. using random-intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPMs) as an alternative to the commonly-used standard CLPMs. Results indicate that co-occurring externalizing and internalizing problems can be explained partly by a unidirectional influence from externalizing to internalizing problems operating within children and partly by stable differences between children that influence both domains of problems. Further analyses indicate that an executive function deficit in early childhood is an important shared risk factor for both problems, suggesting the utility of executive function interventions in preventing or addressing externalizing and internalizing problems in childhood.

The association between anxiety and academic performance in children with reading disorder: A longitudinal cohort study

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between anxiety and overall academic performance (AP) in children with reading disorder (RD). This two-year longitudinal cohort study included 128 participants (aged 7-14 years) with RD. Anxiety symptoms were evaluated using the School Anxiety Scale - Teacher Report for the first year and the eight-item Spence Children's Anxiety Scale for the second year. AP was assessed by teacher ratings of progress in academic content areas, including reading, writing and math. Teachers completed evaluations every 3 months. We standardized all scores (to z scores). Multivariate linear regression models (adjusting for age, sex and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms) assessed the association cross-sectionally at each timepoint of survey completion. Repeated measures analysis using mixed models assessed the relationship longitudinally. Results from both univariate and multivariate analyses showed anxiety being significantly negatively associated with AP in children with RD, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Importantly, increased anxiety was significantly associated with reduced AP over time within an individual (adjusted β = -0.22, p = .002). This lends support to screening for anxiety disorders in children with RD. Future research should examine the directionality of this relationship, potential mediators in the pathway and whether interventions to reduce anxiety increase AP.

Intimate Partner Violence and Food Insecurity Predict Early Behavior Problems Among South African Children over 5-years Post-Birth

Households experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV) and food insecurity are at high risk of lifelong physical and behavioral difficulties. Longitudinal data from a perinatal home-visiting cluster-randomized controlled intervention trial in South Africa townships were used to examine the relationships between household settings and mothers' histories of risk and children's behavior problems at 3 and 5 years of age. IPV, food insecurity, maternal depressed mood, and geriatric pregnancy (at age of 35 or older) were consistently associated with children's internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Aggressive behavior was more prevalent among 3- and 5-year olds boys, and was associated with maternal alcohol use. The effects of these factors on child behavior were more prominent than maternal HIV status. There is a continuing need to reduce IPV and household food insecurity, as well as supporting older, depressed, alcohol using mothers in order to address children's behavioral needs.

Mental health and academic performance: a study on selection and causation effects from childhood to early adulthood

PURPOSE

An inverse relationship between mental health and academic achievement is a well-known phenomenon in the scientific literature. However, how and when this association develops is not fully understood and there is a lack of longitudinal, population-based studies on young children. Early intervention is important if associations are to be found already during childhood. The aim of the present study was to investigate the development of the association between mental health and academic performance during different developmental periods of childhood and adolescence.

METHODS

Data from a longitudinal birth cohort study of 1700 children were used. Child mental health was assessed through mother's reports at age 3, and self-reports at age 12 and 20. Academic performance was assessed through teacher reports on educational results at age 12 and final grades from compulsory school (age 15-16) and upper secondary school (age 18-19). The association between mental health and academic performance was assessed through regression models.

RESULTS

The results indicate that social selection mechanisms are present in all three periods studied. Behavioral and emotional problems at age 3 were associated with performing below grade at age 12. Similarly, mental health problems at age 12 were associated with lack of complete final grades from compulsory school and non-eligibility to higher education. Academic performance at ages 15 and 19 did not increase the risk for mental health problems at age 20.

CONCLUSION

Mental health problems in early childhood and adolescence increase the risk for poor academic performance, indicating the need for awareness and treatment to provide fair opportunities to education.

Depressive symptoms and academic achievement in UK adolescents: a cross-lagged analysis with genetic covariates

BACKGROUND

The relationship between adolescent depressive symptoms and academic achievement remains poorly understood. The aim of this study was to help clarify the nature and directionality of this association.

METHODS

We used a sample of 13,599 British adolescents (main sample of N=3,809 participants). We fitted cross-lagged panel models using four repeated measures of self-reported depressive symptoms and four measures of academic achievement based on British national records between 11-18 years, separately for male and female adolescents and considering polygenic risk scores (PRS) for educational attainment and depression, alongside other child and parental covariates.

RESULTS

We found evidence of an overall negative association that was stronger in boys (R=-0.21, 95% CI -0.31 to -0.11) than in girls (-0.13, -0.31 to 0.05). Higher depressive symptoms were associated with lower academic achievement at a later stage up to the end of compulsory education (16 years), when the direction of the association reversed, although girls with lower achievement also appeared vulnerable to depressive symptoms at previous stages. The genetic variables derived for this study showed stronger associations for academic achievement, but the PRS for depression also showed a negative association with academic achievement in girls. Child intelligence quotient and peer victimization also showed relevant associations.

LIMITATIONS

Observational design, variation around measurement times, missing data.

CONCLUSIONS

Depressive symptoms and academic achievement should be considered jointly when designing school-based programmes for children and adolescents, alongside gender, child ability and school experience. Including genetic information in research can help to disentangle average from time-varying effects.

Higher aggression is related to poorer academic performance in compulsory education

BACKGROUND

To conduct a comprehensive assessment of the association between aggression and academic performance in compulsory education.

METHOD

We studied aggression and academic performance in over 27,000 individuals from four European twin cohorts participating in the ACTION consortium (Aggression in Children: Unraveling gene-environment interplay to inform Treatment and InterventiON strategies). Individual level data on aggression at ages 7-16 were assessed by three instruments (Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment, Multidimensional Peer Nomination Inventory, Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire) including parental, teacher and self-reports. Academic performance was measured with teacher-rated grade point averages (ages 12-14) or standardized test scores (ages 12-16). Random effect meta-analytical correlations with academic performance were estimated for parental ratings (in all four cohorts) and self-ratings (in three cohorts).

RESULTS

All between-family analyses indicated significant negative aggression-academic performance associations with correlations ranging from -.06 to -.33. Results were similar across different ages, instruments and raters and either with teacher-rated grade point averages or standardized test scores as measures of academic performance. Meta-analytical r's were -.20 and -.23 for parental and self-ratings, respectively. In within-family analyses of all twin pairs, the negative aggression-academic performance associations were statistically significant in 14 out of 17 analyses (r = -.17 for parental- and r = -.16 for self-ratings). Separate analyses in monozygotic (r = -.07 for parental and self-ratings), same-sex dizygotic (r's = -.16 and -.17 for parental and self-ratings) and opposite-sex dizygotic (r's = -.21 and -.19 for parental and self-ratings) twin pairs suggested partial confounding by genetic effects.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a robust negative association between aggression and academic performance in compulsory education. Part of these associations were explained by shared genetic effects, but some evidence of a negative association between aggression and academic performance remained even in within-family analyses of monozygotic twin pairs.

Psychosocial Correlates and Consequences of Adolescents' Self-Generated Academic Goals and Appraisals

The current study examined whether characteristics of adolescents (i.e., externalizing problems) and their environments (i.e., social support, adverse childhood experiences) relate to academic goal setting, appraisals, and outcomes. Adolescents (n = 99; 87% Black/African American) 13-16 years old completed baseline interviews, and 80% also completed follow-up interviews. Adolescents with more externalizing problems set fewer academic goals, and youth with social networks characterized by greater support (and less strain) appraised their academic goals as more supported and achievable. Adolescents' appraisals of their academic goals, but not how many academic goals they had, predicted grades at follow-up. Increasing social support (and reducing social strain) may foster adolescents' positive appraisals of their academic goals, which may promote academic achievement.

Transdiagnostic Associations Among Parental Causal Locus Attributions, Child Behavior and Psychosocial Treatment Outcomes: A Systematic Review

Parents' interpretations of the cause of their children's behavior, i.e., parental attributions, are linked to parenting behavior and child development. However, it is not yet known whether parental attributions are systematically associated with children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms and behavior or psychosocial treatment engagement and outcomes across diagnostic categories. This systematic review aimed to fill this knowledge gap using a transdiagnostic perspective to synthesize the literature on the associations between parent-causal and child-responsible attributions and children's internalizing and externalizing behavior, treatment engagement, and treatment outcomes for parents and children. A total of 67 studies were identified. Overall, biased child-responsible attributions were associated with elevated child internalizing and externalizing symptoms and behavior across diagnoses, while findings on the association between parent-causal attributions and child behavior were inconsistent. The link between parental attributions and treatment engagement was also mixed, varying across treatment type, child diagnosis, and focus of attributions. Regarding treatment outcomes, less biased parent-causal and child-responsible attributions were linked to post-treatment improvements in children's behaviors, while mixed findings were reported on post-treatment improvements in parental attributions. Findings are discussed with a focus on approaches to enhance the effectiveness of assessment and psychosocial treatment approaches across diagnostic categories with consideration of parental attributions.

The codevelopment of internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms, and cognitive ability across childhood and adolescence

Cognitive ability, externalizing symptoms, and internalizing symptoms are correlated in children. However, it is not known why they combine in the general child population over time. To address this, we used data on 17,318 children participating in the UK Millennium Cohort Study and followed-up five times between ages 3 and 14 years. We fitted three parallel-process latent growth curve models to identify the parallel unfolding of children's trajectories of internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms, and cognitive ability across this period. We also examined the effects of time-invariant (ethnicity, birth weight, maternal education and age at birth, and breastfeeding status) and time-varying covariates (maternal psychological distress and socioeconomic disadvantage) on the growth parameters of the trajectories. The results showed that the intercepts of the trajectories of cognitive ability and, particularly, externalizing symptoms were inversely correlated. Their linear slopes were also inversely correlated, suggesting parallel development. Internalizing symptoms were correlated positively with externalizing symptoms and inversely (and more modestly) with cognitive ability at baseline, but the slope of internalizing symptoms correlated (positively) only with the slope of externalizing symptoms. The covariates predicted 9% to 41% of the variance in the intercepts and slopes of all domains, suggesting they are important common risk factors. Overall, it appears that externalizing symptoms develop in parallel with both cognitive ability and internalizing symptoms from early childhood through to middle adolescence. Children on an increasing trajectory of externalizing symptoms are likely both increasing in internalizing symptoms and decreasing in cognitive skills as well, and are thus an important group to target for intervention.