Determination of benzotriazole corrosion inhibitors from aqueous environmental samples by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry

Occurrence, removal, and fate of benzothiazoles (BTHs) and benzotriazoles (BTRs) in two wastewater treatment plants in New York State, USA

Benzothiazoles (BTHs) and benzotriazoles (BTRs) are widely used in various consumer products. However, their occurrence and fate in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the United States remain poorly understood. In this study, wastewater and sludge samples were collected from two WWTPs from the Albany area of New York State (WWTPA and WWTPB) and the concentrations of three BTH derivatives (BTH, 2-OH-BTH, and 2-Me-S-BTH) and five BTR derivatives (1-OH-BTR, XTR, 4-OH-BTR, TTR, and BTR) were determined. The geometric mean (GM) concentrations of Σ(BTHs) and Σ(BTRs) in influent were in the range of 7550-8690 and 4590-6240 ng/L, whereas those in effluent were 6650-7150 and 4620-6800 ng/L, respectively. In the influent of two WWTPs, BTH, BTR, and TTR were identified as the major chemicals at respective GM concentrations of 8440, 4200, and 1280 ng/L in WWTPA, and 7300, 1180, and 2090 ng/L in WWTPB. The removal efficiencies of BTHs and BTRs following activated sludge treatment were < 80 %, and Σ(BTRs) showed a negative removal in both WWTPs. The respective mass loadings of Σ(BTHs) and Σ(BTRs) were 7240 and 5200 mg/d/1000 individuals in WWTPA, and 3530 and 2140 mg/d/1000 individuals in WWTPB. The environmental emissions of Σ(BTHs) and Σ(BTRs) from WWTP discharges were estimated at 3110-6030 and 2160-5700 mg/d/1000 individuals, respectively. Overall, BTHs and BTRs are not efficiently removed in WWTP processes. This study provides baseline information regarding the loading, fate, and discharge of BTHs and BTRs from WWTPs in the USA.

Fate of persistent and mobile chemicals in the water cycle: From municipal wastewater discharges to river bank filtrate

Persistent and mobile (PM) chemicals are considered detrimental for drinking water resources as they may pass through all barriers protecting these resources against pollution. However, knowledge on the occurrence of PM chemicals in the water cycle, that make their way into drinking water resources, is still limited. The effluents of six municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs, n = 38), surface water of two rivers (n = 32) and bank filtrate of one site (n = 15) were analyzed for 127 suspected PM chemicals. In the rivers, median concentrations of 92 detected analytes ranged from 0.3 ng/L to 2.6 µg/L (tetrafluoroborate, BF4). Lower than average dilution from WWTP effluent to surface water of 43 PM chemicals suggests significant discharge from other sources. Many of these compounds were industrial chemicals, including cyanoguanidine, trifluoromethanesulfonic acid and BF4. River bank filtration (RBF) reduced the total concentration of 40 quantified compounds by 60 % from 19.5 µg/L in surface water to 8.4 µg/L in bank filtrate, on average. Of these, 20 compounds showed good removal (> 80 %), 14 intermediate (80 - 20 %) and 6 no removal (≤ 20 %), among them carbamazepine, hexafluorophosphate, and 2-pyrrolidone. 13 substances occurred at concentrations ≥ 0.1 µg/L in bank filtrate; for six of them toxicological data were insufficient for a health-based risk assessment. The regulatory definition of P and M chemicals, if used together with existing data on environmental half-lives (P) and Koc (M), showed little power to discriminate between chemicals well removed in RBF and those that were hardly removed. This comprehensive field study shows that RBF is a useful but incomplete barrier to retain PM chemicals from surface water. Thus, PM chemicals are, indeed, a challenge for a sustainable water supply.

Associations between urinary concentrations of benzothiazole, benzotriazole, and their derivatives and lung cancer: A nested case-control study

Benzothiazole (BTH), benzotriazole (BTR), and their respective derivatives (BTHs and BTRs) are emerging environmental pollutants with widespread human exposure and oncogenic potential. Studies have demonstrated adverse effects of exposure to certain BTHs and BTRs on the respiratory system. However, no study has examined the associations between exposure to BTHs and BTRs and lung cancer risk. We aimed to examine the associations between urinary concentrations of BTHs and BTRs and the risk of lung cancer in the general population from Quzhou, China. We conducted a nested case-control study in an ongoing prospective Quzhou Environmental Exposure and Human Health (QEEHH) cohort, involving 20, 694 participants who provided urine samples during April 2019-July 2020. With monthly follow-up until November 2022, 212 lung cancer cases were recruited and 1:1 matched with healthy controls based on age and sex. We estimated odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of lung cancer risk associated with urinary BTHs and BTRs concentrations using conditional logistic regression models after controlling for potential covariates. We also examined effect modification by several covariates, including sex, socioeconomic status, smoking status, alcohol consumption, and dietary habit. Creatinine-corrected urinary BTH and 2-hydroxy-benzothiazole (2-OH-BTH) levels were significantly associated with the risk of lung cancer, after adjusting for a variety of covariates. Participants in the highest quartile of BTH had a 95% higher risk of lung cancer, compared with those in the lowest quartile (adjusted OR = 1.95, 95% CI: 1.08-3.49; p for trend = 0.01). Participants with higher levels of urinary 2-OH-BTH had an 83% higher risk of lung cancer than those with lower levels (adjusted OR = 1.83, 95% CI: 1.16-2.88; p for trend = 0.01). Exposure to elevated levels of BTH and 2-OH-BTH may be associated with an increased risk of lung cancer. These associations were not modified by socio-demographic characteristics.

Treatment of real laundry wastewater using vertical flow constructed wetland planted with the ornamental climbing plant Trachelospermum jasminoides: assessing the removal of conventional pollutants and benzotriazoles

This study investigates the effectiveness of vertical flow constructed wetlands (VFCWs) planted with a climbing ornamental plant for on-site treatment of real laundry wastewater. Specifically, the presence or absence of Trachelospermum jasminoides was evaluated for the removal performance of conventional pollutants (turbidity, TSS, COD, TP) and benzotriazoles (BTRs): 1H-benzotriazole (BTR), 5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole (5-TTR), 5-chlorobenzotriazole (CBTR), and xylytriazole (XTR). Results revealed that high removal efficiencies ranging from 92 to 98% were presented in both planted and unplanted systems for turbidity, TSS, and COD. Moreover, high removal rates were observed for CBTR and XTR, which were the only compounds found in real laundry wastewater, in both VFCW systems (planted: 100%; 94%; unplanted: 87%; 92%, respectively). The contribution of plants to the pollutant's removal was not statistically significant for all examined parameters. However, T. jasminoides demonstrated the ability to survive and grow without any visible symptoms under the harsh conditions of laundry wastewater, enabling the development of green facade. According to the findings, the application of VFCWs for on-site laundry wastewater treatment in buildings seems to be a highly promising solution, not only for primarily removing conventional pollutants but also for addressing emerging contaminants, specifically BTRs.

Occurrence of traffic related trace elements and organic micropollutants in tunnel wash water

Substantially polluted tunnel wash water (TWW) is produced during road tunnel maintenance. Previous literature has reported the presence of trace elements and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). However, it was hypothesized that other organic pollutants are present, and more knowledge is needed to prevent environmental harm. This study reveals for the first time the presence of four short- and 17 long-chained per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), three benzothiazoles (BTHs), six benzotriazoles (BTRs), four bisphenols, and four benzophenones in TWW from a Norwegian road tunnel over a period of three years. Concentrations of PAHs, PFASs, BTHs, and BTRs were higher than previously reported in e.g., road runoff and municipal wastewater. Trace elements and PAHs were largely particulate matter associated, while PFASs, BTHs, BTRs, bisphenols, and benzophenones were predominantly dissolved. 26 of the determined contaminants were classified as persistent, mobile, and toxic (PMT) and are of special concern. It was recommended that regulations for TWW quality should be expanded to include PMT contaminants (such as PFPeA, PFBS, BTR, and 4-OH-BzP) and markers of pollution (like 2-M-BTH, 2-OH-BTH, and 2-S-BTH from tire wear particles). These findings highlight the need to treat TWW before discharge into the environment, addressing both, particulate matter associated and dissolved contaminants.

Benzotriazole UV stabilizers (BUVs) as an emerging contaminant of concern: a review

Benzotriazole UV stabilizers (BUVs) are a group of industrial chemicals used in various consumer products and industrial applications. Due to its large-scale production and use, BUVs have been detected in all environmental matrices. Humans are exposed to BUVs from environmental media, food, personal care products (PCPs), and consumer products. As a result, BUVs are detected in human breast milk, attracting researchers and regulatory bodies worldwide. BUVs such as UV-328 exhibit the characteristics of persistent organic pollutants (POPs); hence, it has been recently listed under Stockholm Convention POP list. The current review focuses on the occurrence of BUVs in the environment with emphasis on persistency, bioaccumulation, and toxicity (PBT). Scarcity of scientific data on BUVs' properties, environmental occurrence, exposure levels, and effects on organisms poses significant challenges to the policymakers and regulatory bodies in adopting management strategies. The need for a science-based integrated framework for risk assessment and management of BUVs is recommended. Considering the potential threat of BUVs to human health and the environment, it is recommended that BUVs should be taken as a subject of priority research. Studies on the degradation and transformation route of BUVs need to be explored for the sound management of BUVs.

Comparative toxicogenomics of benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers at environmental concentrations in Asian clam (Corbicula fluminea): Insight into molecular networks and behavior

Benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers (BUVSs) are widespread emerging pollutants, which can pose exposure risks to benthic organisms. However, the toxicity and mechanisms of BUVSs congeners in benthic clams are far from elucidated. In this study, Asian clams (Corbicula fluminea) were exposed to one of UV-234, UV-326, UV-329, or UV-P at environmentally relevant levels (0.1, 1, and 10 μg/L) for 21 days. Filtration rate (FR) was increased in clams exposed to all BUVSs and there were notable histopathologic changes, including irregular digestive lumen, lipid droplet vacuolation, and degraded epithelial cells. To determine the molecular underpinnings following BUVSs exposure, the transcriptome responses in digestive glands were compared. Differentially expressed genes shared among BUVSs treatments were associated with focal adhesion, TNF-α/NF-κB proinflammatory pathways, and apoptosis. Following this, biochemical analysis of biomarkers related to apoptosis were conducted to further validate response. Exposure to BUVSs inhibited anti-oxidant enzyme activity and induced oxidative stress. Heat shock proteins were also triggered with exposure, and there was an induction of caspase-3 and caspase-9 activity. Molecular responses were not identical in the digestive gland of C. fluminea when comparing responses to BUVSs; nevertheless conserved mechanism (impairment of the oxidative defense system, immune system disruption, and induction of apoptosis) among BUVSs congeners was noted. This study provides novel insight into the toxicity and hazards of BUVSs in benthic organisms.

Prenatal exposure to benzotriazoles and benzothiazoles and child neurodevelopment: A longitudinal study

Benzotriazoles (BTRs) and benzothiazoles (BTHs) are emerging benzo-heterocyclic compounds that may induce neurotoxicity. However, the effect of prenatal exposure to BTs (BTRs and BTHs) on child neurodevelopment has not been elucidated. We aimed to explore the associations between maternal urinary concentrations of BTs in single or in mixture with child neurodevelopment at the age of two. This study recruited 513 mother-child pairs based on a birth cohort from 2014 to 2015 in Wuhan. Maternal urinary concentrations of eight BTs (four BTRs and four BTHs) in the first, second, and third trimesters were measured. The mental development index (MDI) and psychomotor development index (PDI) of children, as two indexes of neurodevelopment, were assessed at two years old by the Bayley Scales. In the analyses of single BTs, prenatal average tolyltriazole (TTR) exposure level was associated with decreased boys' MDI scores (β = -2.84, 95 % CI: -5.11, -0.57) and prenatal average 1-H-benzotriazole (1-H-BTR) exposure level was associated with decreased boys' PDI scores (β = -1.44, 95 % CI: -2.70, -0.17), respectively. Maternal urinary concentrations of benzothiazole (BTH) in the 1^st trimester (β = -1.79, 95 % CI: -2.78, -0.80), 2^nd trimester (β = -1.14, 95 % CI: -2.19, -0.09), and the prenatal average exposure (β = -2.15, 95 % CI: -3.69, -0.61) were also negatively associated with boys' PDI scores. However, no significantly negative association was observed among girls. In the further mixture analysis, the quantile g-computation model found a significant negative association between prenatal average concentrations of BTs in mixture and boys' PDI scores [β = -4.80 (95 % CI: -9.08, -0.52)], and BTH weighted the highest in the negative association. As far as we know, this is the first research to estimate the effect of prenatal exposure to BTs on child neurodevelopment. The findings showed that prenatal exposure to BTs was negatively associated with neurodevelopment among boys, suggesting that the associations may be modified by infant sex.

Exposure to high-performance benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers: Advance in toxicological effects, environmental behaviors and remediation mechanism using in-silica methods

Benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers (BUVSs), as light stabilizers, have attracted widespread attention because of their easy migration in the environment and their acute toxicity and biological toxicity effects, such as immunotoxicity and hepatotoxicity. Accordingly, the treatment and remediation mechanisms of high-performance, environmentally friendly, and low human health risk BUVS substitutes were analyzed. Firstly, the weights and the comprehensive effect (CE) values of migration and toxicity of BUVSs were determined by Topsis assisted by the coefficient of variation (CV) method. From this, a three-dimensional quantitative structure activity relationship (3D-QSAR) model based on the CE values of the 13 BUVSs was constructed. Secondly, EPI software was used to predict the functionality and environmental friendliness of BUVS substitutes, and a partial least squares regression machine learning (ML-PLSR) model was used to analyze the mechanism. Then, ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, toxicity), TOPKAT, and exposure dose models were used to evaluate the ecological and human health risks of BUVSs and their substitutes. Finally, the key charge information affecting the UV-326 substitutes was deduced by time dependent density functional theory (TDDFT). Using UV-326 as an example, 15 UV-326 substitutes with reduced CE values were designed (reductions of 2.61%-23.18%). Compared with ML-PLSR models of acute toxicity, immunotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity, it was found that the decrease of DM and Q_yy values and the increase of Q_zz value could further decrease the toxicity of the UV-326 substitutes. Ecological and human health risk assessment showed that the exposure risks of the six UV-326 substitutes were within acceptable limits. TDDFT showed that the change of electron distribution and electron excitation type were the key factors affecting the performance of the UV-326 substitutes, and a charge transfer excitation type was more conducive to obtaining high-performance, environmentally friendly UV-326 substitutes. This study aims to alleviate the toxic damage to the ecological environment and human health caused by BUVS exposure.

Simultaneous evaluation of benzotriazoles, benzothiazoles and benzenesulfonamides in water samples from the impacted urban Jacarepaguá Lagoon System (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) by liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray tandem mass spectrometry

Benzotriazoles, benzothiazoles, and benzenesulfonamides are emerging pollutants stable in aquatic media emitted by anthropogenic sources. Selected compounds of these classes were evaluated in the impacted urban Jacarepaguá Lagoon System (JLS) located in a tropical coastal region of Rio de Janeiro City, Brazil that has experienced a rapid expansion of urban occupation and environmental degradation in recent decades, and it represents a pioneering study of these compounds carried out in Brazilian areas. A method of solid phase extraction followed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray tandem mass-spectrometry was implemented to evaluate water samples collected in different water bodies (rivers, lagoons, and channels) of the JLS from March 2017 to May 2018. Limits of quantification (LOQs) ≤ 10.0 ng L^-1, method linearity up to 1000 μg L^-1, and recoveries between 62 and 121 % at three different levels were obtained. Individual concentrations varied from < LOQ to 5260 ng L^-1 (benzotriazole, in May 2018) which also predominated in all river samples. 2-mercaptobenzothiazole predominated in samples taken in lagoons and channels in March 2017, and 2-aminobenzothiazole was never detected. River samples showed total concentrations up to 30 times larger in all sampling campaigns, except March 2017 when the sample taken at Tijuca Lagoon showed the largest total concentration of the compounds studied due to the largest concentration of 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (2505 ng L^-1) found in this study. Principal component analysis (PCA) using only composition data was unable to distinguish samples from rivers, and lagoons and channels, but a PCA combining composition data and environmental parameters (pH, Eh, dissolved O₂ concentration, temperature, salinity, and conductivity) discriminated the samples according to two groups: rivers and lagoons and channels. The Joá Channel flows directly to the open sea and our data allowed a (preliminary) estimation of the total mass flows of the studied compounds to the open sea, which would vary between 1702 g day^-1 (March 2017) to 106 g day^-1 (May 2018) and allowed a preliminary estimative based on the geometric mean of input of 87.9 kg year^-1, indicating the importance of the drainage area to the contamination of the coastal area, and consequently to ocean pollution.

Occurrence and removal of benzotriazole and benzothiazole in drinking water treatment plants

The occurrence and removal of four benzotriazoles (BTRs) and five benzothiazoles (BTHs) in drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) and bottled water were investigated. The mean total BTR and BTH concentrations were 390 and 117 ng/L in raw water, 51.2 and 66.5 ng/L in treated water, and 0.758 and 48.4 ng/L in bottled water, respectively. Different distribution patterns were observed according to the water type, with the dominant BTR being 1H-BTR (mean: 57.8%) in raw water and a predominance of BTH in bottled water (mean: 84.6%). In the DWTPs, the mean removal of BTRs (90.9%) was better than that of BTHs (29.3%). The BTRs were efficiently removed in DWTPs, and in particular during adsorption processes. 5Cl-BTR had a high removal efficiency (75.7%) in the adsorption processes, followed by 5M-BTR (70.0%), 5,6-di-MeBTR (58.4%), and 1H-BTR (50.1%). By contrast, BTHs were not efficiently removed in DWTPs, although relatively high removal efficiencies were achieved with an ozonation process (43.1%) compared to other treatment processes. In treated drinking and bottled water, the hazard quotients (HQs) of the representative BTRs and BTHs were acceptable (defined as HQ < 1), with a safety margin of 2-5 orders of magnitude.

Aquatic environmental fates and risks of benzotriazoles, benzothiazoles, and p-phenylenediamines in a catchment providing water to a megacity of China

Wearing of vehicle parts could release many chemical additives into the environment, such as benzotriazoles (BTRs), benzothiazoles (BTHs), and p-phenylenediamines (PPDs), which are potentially toxic to wildlife and humans. This study investigated the occurrence, source, and risks of BTRs, BTHs, and PPDs in a source catchment providing water to Guangzhou, a megacity in South China, covering groundwater, surface water, and stormwater. The results showed that BTRs and BTHs were predominant in surface water and groundwater. Unexpectedly, the BTR and BTH concentrations were lower in surface water than groundwater in a third of the paired samples. For the first time, 6PPD-quinone, a toxic ozonation product of N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-1,4-phenylenediamine (6PPD), was extensively detected in source waters. Stormwater decreased the BTR concentrations but increased the 6PPD-quinone concentrations in surface water owing to their affiliation to suspended particles. From natural to urban segments of Liuxi river, a downstream increasing trend in BTR and BTH concentrations was observed, confirming that they are indicative of urban anthropogenic activities. Strong correlations between industrial activities and BTR or BTH concentrations in surface water indicated that industrial activities were their main sources. Six compounds were prioritized as potentially persistent, mobile, and toxic (PMT) chemicals, combing our monitoring results and REACH criterion. This study improves our understanding of the environmental fates and risks of water-soluble tire-wear chemicals, which provides important information for chemical management, and indicates attention should be paid to the risk posed by 6PPD-quinone in the source water.

1,2,3-benzotriazole adversely affects early-life stage of Oryzias latipes

1,2,3-benzotriazole (BT) is used in large amounts around the world and is one of the substances derived from household chemicals that are of concern for risk when discharged to aquatic environments. Therefore, several studies have been conducted on the aquatic toxicity effects of BT, but the chronic impact assessment studies to evaluate the developmental effects on the early-life stage of fish are insufficient. In this study, the acute toxicity test and subchronic toxicity test (fish, early-life stage toxicity test, ELS test) using embryos of Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) were performed to evaluate the acute toxicity, developmental toxicity, growth (indicated by total length and weight at the end of the test), and histopathological effect of BT. In the short-term toxicity test on embryo and sac-fry stage, toxicity value was calculated to be 41 mg/L (NOEC). Based on this value, the exposure concentration of the ELS test was determined as 0.04, 0.4, 4 and 40 mg/L, and total exposure duration was 42 days. At the highest concentration group (40 mg/L), failure of swim bladder inflation and decrease of survival and size (total length and weight) were observed. Moreover, in the histopathological analysis, abnormal findings were detected in swim bladders from the 40 mg/L group such as inflammation and tumor changes. On the other hands, condition index (weight-length relationships, CI) was statistically significantly lower in all exposed groups compared to the control group. NOEC for the survival of BT was calculated to be 4 mg/L. LOEC for CI was 0.04 mg/L, which means BT inhibited weight gain relative to its length on larvae of medaka.

Trace Organic Contaminant Transfer and Transformation in Bioretention Cells: A Field Tracer Test with Benzotriazole

Bioretention cells can effectively infiltrate stormwater runoff and partly remove conventional water contaminants. A field tracer injection experiment in a conventionally designed bioretention cell was used to investigate the fate of benzotriazole, a model trace organic contaminant, during and between runoff events. Moderate (29%) benzotriazole load reductions were measured during the 6 h long injection experiment. The detection of 1-methyl benzotriazole, hydroxy benzotriazole, and methoxy benzotriazole provided in situ evidence of some rapid benzotriazole microbial transformation during the tracer test and more importantly between the events. The detection of benzotriazole alanine and benzotriazole acetyl alanine also showed fast benzotriazole phytotransformation to amino acid conjugates during the tracer test and suggests further transformation of phytotransformation products between events. These data provide conclusive full-scale evidence of benzotriazole microbial and phytotransformation in bioretention cells. Non-target chemical analysis revealed the presence of a diverse range of trace organic contaminants in urban runoff and exiting the bioretention cell, including pesticides and industrial, household, and pharmaceutical compounds. We have demonstrated the in situ potential of urban green infrastructure such as bioretention cells to eliminate polar trace organic contaminants from stormwater. However, targeted design and operation strategies, for example, hydraulic control and the use of soil amendments, should be incorporated for improved bioretention cell performance for such compounds.

Anthropogenic contaminants in freshwater from the northern Antarctic Peninsula region

This study aimed to evaluate the presence of ultraviolet filters (UV-Fs), benzotriazoles, pyrethroids and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in freshwater and wastewater from the northern Antarctic Peninsula region. All water samples analyzed contained UV-Fs residues and high concentrations were detected in anthropogenic impacted sites (< LOD up to 1300 ng/L). Likewise, benzotriazoles were detected in all water samples (< LOQ-920 ng/L). Regarding suspended particulate matter, almost all UV-Fs and all benzotriazoles were measured at concentrations ranging from < LOQ to 33 µg/g dry weight. Pyrethroids were also detected (< LOQ-250 ng/L) and their presence implies the existence of a gateway to the Antarctica Peninsula from other regions. The data confirmed the presence of PFASs (< LOD-7500 ng/L) in this area, in agreement with previous studies. In light of these results, extended monitoring in Antarctica should be carried out to perform a reliable environmental risk assessment leading to propose recommendations to minimize the anthropic impact.

Photo transformation of 5-methylbenzotriazole and 5-chlorobenzotriazole by UV irradiation: Influences of pH, salinity, metal species and humic acid

5-methylbenzotriazole (5-TTri) and 5-chlorobenzotriazole (CBT) are two benzotriazole derivatives widely used in various industrial and domestic applications. This paper reports on the photochemical behaviour of 5-TTri and CBT in aqueous solutions under UV radiation at 254 nm and the influences of pH, salinity, metal species and humic acid (HA) on their photo-transformation processes. The photolysis of 5-TTri and CBT under the exposure to UV light were found to follow the first-order reaction kinetic in all cases with half-lives ranging from 7.1 h to 24.3 h for 5-TTri and 5.1 h-20.5 h for CBT in various aqueous solutions containing metal ions and HA. The photolysis rates for both 5-TTri and CBT were strongly dependent on the solution pH value, and decreased with increasing solution pH. Salinity, metal species Cu²⁺ and Fe³⁺, and especially HA had inhibitory effects on the photolysis of 5-TTri and CBT under UV light irradiation at 254 nm. We proposed the tentative photo transformation schemes for both 5-TTri and CBT, which involved two photoproducts (4-methylaniline and N, N-diethylaniline- p-toluidine) and three photoproducts (4-chloroaniline, Aniline and 2,6-diethylaniline), respectively, via N-N and N-NH bond scission and dechlorination process.

Comparison of preconcentration methods for nontargeted analysis of natural waters using HPLC-HRMS: Large volume injection versus solid-phase extraction

Nontargeted analysis of water samples using liquid chromatography combined with high‐resolution mass spectrometers is an emerging approach for surface water monitoring and evaluation of water treatment processes. In this study, sample preconcentration via direct, large volume injection with 500 μL and 1000 μL injection volumes was compared to SPE regarding analytical performance parameters in targeted and nontargeted workflows. In targeted analysis, the methods were evaluated in terms of LOD and intrabatch precision of the selected compounds, whereas in nontargeted analysis, the number of detected unknown compounds, the method's intra‐batch precision, and the retention time versus molecular mass pattern of the detected unknowns were evaluated. In addition, a novel intensity drift correction method was developed that is not based on quality control samples and makes use of the signals obtained for continuously infused reference compounds, which are conventionally utilized for online mass drift correction. It could be demonstrated that the new correction method significantly reduced the bias introduced by instrumental drift and is important for the reliable intercomparison of different nontargeted methods. Intercomparison of results showed that the 1000 μL large volume injection method revealed the best performance in terms of precision under repeatability conditions of measurement as well as lower LODs for targeted compound analysis. In nontargeted analysis, the SPE method detected a higher number of unknown compounds but exhibited also a higher uncertainty of measurement caused by matrix effects.

Photocatalytic Transformations of 1H-Benzotriazole and Benzotriazole Derivates

Benzotriazoles are a new class of organic emerging pollutants ubiquitously found in the environment. The increase of their concentration to detectable values is the consequence of the inability of the Conventional Waste Water Plants (CWWPs) to abate these products. We subjected 1H-benzotriazole (BTz), tolyltriazole (TTz), and Tinuvin P (TP, a common UV plastic stabilizer) to photocatalytic degradation under UV-irradiated TiO2 in different conditions. The principal photoformed intermediates, the relationship between the degradation rate and the pH, the degree of mineralization, and the fate of the organic nitrogen were investigated. Under the adopted experimental conditions, all the studied substrates were rapidly photocatalytically transformed (the maximum degradation rates for BTz and TTz were (3.88 ± 0.05) × 10-2 and (2.11 ± 0.09) × 10-2 mM min-1, respectively) and mineralized (the mineralization rate for BTz and TTz was 4.0 × 10-3 mM C min-1 for both substrates). Different from the 1,2,4-triazole rings that are not completely mineralized under photocatalytic conditions, 1H-benzotriazole and tolyltriazole were completely mineralized with a mechanism that involved a partial conversion of organic nitrogen to N2. The photocatalytic process activated by UV-irradiated TiO2 is an efficient tool to abate 1H-benzotriazole and its derivatives, avoiding their release in the environment.

Four typical personal care products in a municipal wastewater treatment plant in China: Occurrence, removal efficiency, mass loading and emission

The occurrence, removal efficiency, mass loading and environmental emission of four categories (benzotriazoles; parabens; antimicrobials; benzophenones) of personal care products were simultaneously determined along the whole process line through an integrated approach (involving both dissolved and adsorbed phase) at a typical wastewater treatment plant in Hunan Province, Southern China. The results showed the prevalence of 13 and 11 target compounds in wastewater and suspended particulate matter, respectively. Twelve substances were detected in the sludge with the mean concentrations ranging from 0.12 to 591.23 ng/g dry weight. Benzotriazoles were the dominant compounds existing in water and antimicrobials were readily being absorbed onto suspended particulate matter and sludge. The overall removal efficiencies of compounds in the total treatment were -84.06%-98.53%. Mass balance results revealed that 85.17%-98.73% of the parabens and benzophenones were removed by degradation, while antimicrobials were removed by being adsorbed onto sludge. However, benzotriazoles could not be efficiently removed and the mass loss was lower than 61.03%. Although ultraviolet radiation played a limited role in removing most target compounds, it still had an impact on removing antimicrobials, 5,6-dimethyl-1H-benzotriazole and 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone. The total mass loading and emission of personal care products were 506.35 mg/d/1000 people and 357.56 mg/d/1000 people, respectively. This work would help understand the removal approaches and real pollution of personal care products in the water environment.

Characterization and quantification of methyl-benzotriazoles and chloromethyl-benzotriazoles produced from disinfection processes in wastewater treatment

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are one of the major sources of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in the environment. Benzotriazole corrosion inhibitors are a class of CECs that are resistant to biodegradation and have been reported in waters varying from WWTP effluent to groundwater and drinking water. This study examined wastewater influent and effluent grab samples over three years using Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography (GC × GC) to discover six target benzotriazoles, four of which have never been properly characterized in water prior to this work. The six benzotriazoles were two methyl isomers (4-methyl-1H-benzotriazole and 5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole) as well as four chloromethyl isomers (previously unidentified). Using targeted analysis, the benzotriazoles were quantified and semi-quantified in the wastewater. In all seasons sampled but one, the concentration of three of the four chloromethyl-benzotriazoles increased from the influent to effluent waters. For the first time, it was observed that the 4 and 5-methyl-benzotriazoles interact with the sodium hypochlorite in the tertiary treatment step of the WWTP leading to the formation of the four chloromethyl-benzotriazoles. This was confirmed with lab scale synthesis of the reaction where the products were chromatographically analyzed and matched mass spectral and retention time data of the water samples. Assisted by the mass spectral fragmentation information, the four chloromethyl-benzotriazole isomers were tentatively identified as 4-chloromethyl-2H-benzotriazole, 5-chloromethyl-1H-benzotriazole, 4-chloromethyl-1H-benzotriazole, and 5-chloromethyl-2H-benzotriazole, in order of elution. No analytical standards are available for the chloromethyl-benzotriazole compounds and this is the first attempted identification of them in waters. The yearly mass loadings of total benzotriazoles were estimated to average between 148.86 and 394.64 kg/year at this particular facility. The WWTP studied reuses all effluent water for irrigation of crop and forested land so this high value of benzotriazoles entering the environment is concerning and the impacts need to be further studied.

Occurrence, toxicity and transformation of six typical benzotriazoles in the environment: A review

Benzotriazoles (BTs) are a group of heterocyclic compounds which have been widely applied in industrial activities and domestic life mainly as corrosive inhibitors. BTs have been ubiquitously detected in receiving environments and cause potential toxicity to non-target organisms. This paper reviews the occurrence and fate of six selected benzotriazole compounds in different environmental and biological matrices, as well as the transformation and toxicity. Due to their high hydrophilicity and insufficient removal in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), these compounds were widely detected in aquatic environments with concentrations mainly from tens ng/L to tens μg/L. Considerable residual levels of BTs in plant, fish, air, tap water and human urine have implied the potential risks to various organsims. The reported acute toxicity of BTs are generally low (EC₅₀ in mg/L level). Some observed sublethal effects including endocrine disrupting effects, hepatotoxicity and neurotoxicity, as well as the ability to promote the development of endometrial carcinoma still raise a concern. BTs are found often more recalcitrant to biodegradation compared to photolysis and ozonation. Environmental factors including pH, temperature, irradiation wavelength, redox condition as well as components of matrix are proved crucial to the removal of BTs. Further studies are needed to explore the precise environment fate and toxicity mechanism of BTs, and develop advanced treatment technologies to reduce the potential ecological risks of BTs.

Toxicological effects benzotriazole to the marine scallop Chlamys nobilis: a 2-month exposure study

Benzotriazole and its associated derivatives (BTs) are widely used as ultraviolet stabilizers and corrosion inhibitors. They have been extensively found in marine environments and are bioaccumulative through the food chain. However, the toxicities of BTs to marine organisms are seldom identified and no assessment has been conducted for filter-feeding bivalves. In this study, a marine scallop Chlamys nobilis was exposed to 0, 0.01, 0.1, and 1.0 mg/L of BT for 60 days. Effects of BT on endocrine system, cytochrome P450 activity, antioxidant activity, and neural activity of C. nobilis were examined. The results showed that BT exerted significant estrogenic effects on both male and female scallops and inhibited EROD activities of C. nobilis even at 0.01 mg/L level. BT at ≥ 0.01 mg/L levels also caused significant oxidative stress on C. nobilis. Moreover, most of the adverse effects of BT to C. nobilis were found from day 35 and 0.01 mg/L was the lowest concentration with observed effects, showing the long-term toxic effects of BT to C. nobilis. Thus, the adverse effects of BT and its derivatives to marine benthic communities deserve more attention in future research.

Personal care products reconnaissance in EVROTAS river (Greece): Water-sediment partition and bioaccumulation in fish

Twenty-six common ingredients of personal care products (PCPs) in water, sediment and fish from the Evrotas River (Greece) were investigated. Water sample analysis revealed the occurrence of twenty PCPs at concentrations ranging from 2.8 to 2031.0 ng l^-1, the maximum corresponding to the endocrine disrupting UV filter benzophenone 3 (BP3). In sediment samples, six compounds were found to be adsorbed, the highest concentration being that of 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4MBC, 1400.4 ng g^-1 dw). Evrotas cyprinid fish (Squalius keadicus) showed a high accumulation potential for these chemicals, 100% detection frequency with maximum concentration that of benzophenone 2 (BP2, 41.9 ng g^-1 dw). These data allowed estimating the distribution coefficients sediment-water (DCs-w) and the bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) of the pollutants investigated. Calculated rates revealed that benzophenone 1 (BP1), 4-hydroxybenzophenone (4HB) and ethyl-4-(dimethyl-amino)benzoate (EtPABA) have a strong tendency to adsorb onto the sediments, showing high DCs-w, i.e. 8.2E + 4 l g^-1, 6.7E + 4 l g^-1 and 5.7E + 3 l g^-1, respectively. BFAs were only estimated for 5-methyl benzotriazole (MeBT), the compound having paired data from fish and water. The obtained values (range 2.0E + 2 l g^-1-3.8E + 3 l g^-1), indicated MeBT's strong bioaccumulation. Risk assessment of the investigated compounds for several aquatic organisms indicated a high ecological risk (HQ > 1) for BP3 and medium ecological risk (HQ ~ 0.5) for ODPABA.

Solid-Phase Extraction of Polar Benzotriazoles as Environmental Pollutants: A Review

Polar benzotriazoles are corrosion inhibitors with widespread use; they are environmentally characterized as emerging pollutants in the water system, where they are present in low concentrations. Various extraction methods have been used for their separation from various matrices, ranging from classical liquid–liquid extractions to various microextraction techniques, but the most frequently applied extraction technique remains the solid-phase extraction (SPE), which is the focus of this review. We present an overview of the methods, developed in the last decade, applied for the determination of benzotriazoles in aqueous and solid environmental samples. Several other matrices, such as human urine and plant material, are also considered in the text. The methods are reviewed according to the determined compounds, sample matrices, cartridges and eluents used, extraction recoveries and the achieved limits of quantification. A critical evaluation of the advantages and drawbacks of the published methods is given.

Prospective environmental risk assessment of mixtures in wastewater treatment plant effluents - Theoretical considerations and experimental verification

The aquatic environment is continually exposed to a complex mixture of chemicals, whereby effluents of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are one key source. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether environmental risk assessments (ERAs) addressing individual substances are sufficiently protective for such coincidental mixtures. Based on a literature review of chemicals reported to occur in municipal WWTP effluents and mode-of-action considerations, four different types of mixtures were composed containing human pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and chemicals regulated under REACH. The experimentally determined chronic aquatic toxicity of these mixtures towards primary producers and the invertebrate Daphnia magna could be adequately predicted by the concept of concentration addition, with up to 5-fold overestimation and less than 3-fold underestimation of mixture toxicity. Effluents of a municipal WWTP had no impact on the predictability of mixture toxicity and showed no adverse effects on the test organisms. Predictive ERAs for the individual mixture components based on here derived predicted no effect concentrations (PNECs) and median measured concentrations in WWTP effluents (MC_eff) indicated no unacceptable risk for any of the individual chemicals, while MC_eff/PNEC summation indicated a possible risk for multi-component mixtures. However, a refined mixture assessment based on the sum of toxic units at species level indicated no unacceptable risks, and allowed for a safety margin of more than factor 10, not taking into account any dilution of WWTP effluents by surface waters. Individual substances, namely climbazole, fenofibric acid and fluoxetine, were dominating the risks of the investigated mixtures, while added risk due to the mixture was found to be low with the risk quotient being increased by less than factor 2. Yet, uncertainty remains regarding chronic mixture toxicity in fish, which was not included in the present study. The number and identity of substances composing environmental mixtures such as WWTP effluents is typically unknown. Therefore, a mixture assessment factor is discussed as an option for a prospective ERA of mixtures of unknown composition.

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and artificial sweeteners (ASs) in surface and ground waters and their application as indication of wastewater contamination

We systematically investigated the occurrence and distribution of 93 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and 5 artificial sweeteners (ASs) in surface water and groundwater of Dongjiang River basin in south China. In surface water, 52 compounds were detected with median concentrations ranging from 0.06ng/L to 504ng/L, while in groundwater, 33 compounds were detected with concentrations up to 4580ng/L for acesulfame. PPCPs and ASs were widely detected in the surface water and groundwater samples, which indicated contamination by domestic wastewater in the surface water and groundwater of Dongjiang River basin. Temporal and spatial variations of the detected chemicals were observed in surface water. Acesulfame, sucralose and cyclamate can be used as wastewater indicators to imply contamination in groundwater caused by domestic wastewater due to their hydrophilicity, anthropogenic sources and ubiquity in groundwater. Moreover, the detection of the readily degradable ASs, cyclamate, was a strong indication of untreated wastewater in groundwater. Sucralose was found to be a suitable wastewater indicator to reflect domestic wastewater contamination in surface water and groundwater qualitatively and quantitatively, and it can be used to evaluate wastewater burden in surface water and groundwater of Dongjiang River basin. The wastewater burden data from this survey implied serious contamination in surface water and groundwater by domestic wastewater at Shima River, a tributary of the Dongjiang River. The findings from this study suggest that the selected labile and conservative chemicals can be used as indication of wastewater contamination for aquatic environments qualitatively and quantitatively.

The persistence and photostabilizing characteristics of benzotriazole and 5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole reduce the photochemical behavior of common photosensitizers and organic compounds in aqueous environments

Benzotriazole (BT) and 5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole (5-MeBT) are broadly used in industrial applications, such as anti-icing fluids and dishwashing detergent, and act as the primary building blocks for UV absorbers and photostabilizers. This study examined the occurrence of these two compounds in the environment and their unique photochemical behavior affecting photosensitizers and other micro-organic pollutants in aqueous environments. BT and 5-MeBT were detected in all river water samples from the major rivers in Taipei City in the concentration ranges of 147 to 1560 ng/L and 22 to 235 ng/L, respectively, and both compounds persisted through a conventional wastewater treatment plant. The direct photolysis half-lives of BT and 5-MeBT were 56.9 and 14.0 h, respectively. The half-life of photolysis in river water for BT was 44.2 h, whereas the half-life of 5-MeBT was 24.7 h. The long half-lives in real-water matrices resulted in their prevalence in water bodies, and these compounds were also found to minimize the photosensitizing ability of nitrate and dissolved organic matter (DOM) and increase the persistence of other micro-organic pollutant. With BT present, the production of ·OH in nitrate photolysis was reduced, the degradation of DOM under sunlight was hindered, and the photodegradation of pharmaceutical residues in surface water, such as methotrexate, was completely impeded. This study suggests that in cases in which BT and 5-MeBT are highly concentrated, the effectiveness of natural attenuation process, i.e., photodegradation, in the aqueous environment is diminished, which increases the persistence of the pollutants as well as the risk of exposure.

Occurrence of and exposure to benzothiazoles and benzotriazoles from textiles and infant clothing

Benzothiazoles (BTHs) and benzotriazoles (BTRs) are used in a wide range of applications, including rubber vulcanization and corrosion inhibition. Limited studies have reported the occurrence of BTHs and BTRs in textiles, including children's clothing. In this study, 79 textile samples (raw as well as tailored) collected in Albany, New York, USA, were analyzed to determine the occurrence of BTH, BTR and their seven common derivatives. BTH, 2-methylthio-benzothiazole (2-Me-S-BTH) and 2-hydroxy-benzothiazole (2-OH-BTH) were found in textiles at a detection rate (DR) of 86%, 54% and 19%, respectively. The DRs of tolyltriazole (TTR), BTR and 5-chloro-benzotriazole (5-Cl-BTR) in textiles were below 20%. Although BTH was the most frequently detected compound, BTR levels were elevated in certain textiles and the overall mean concentrations of BTR in textiles were higher than those of BTH. The concentrations of BTH in textiles ranged from 6.1 to 1120ng/g. The highest concentration of BTR (14,000ng/g) was found in a printed graphic of infant's bodysuit. On the basis of the measured concentrations, we calculated dermal exposure doses to BTHs and BTRs by infants. The dermal exposure doses were high from the use of socks (244 to 395pg/kg·bw/d), and the exposure doses of BTHs and BTRs from textiles were as high as 3740pg/kg·bw/d. Printed graphics on clothes, as well as socks, accounted for a major proportion of the exposure doses to BTHs and BTRs.

Assessing the Source-to-Stream Transport of Benzotriazoles during Rainfall and Snowmelt in Urban and Agricultural Watersheds

While benzotriazoles (BTs) are ubiquitous in urban waters, their sources and transport remain poorly characterized. We aimed to elucidate the origin and hydrological pathways of BTs in Toronto, Canada, by quantifying three BTs, electrical conductivity, and δ¹⁸O in high-frequency streamwater samples taken during two rainfall and one snowmelt event in two watersheds with contrasting levels of urbanization. Average concentrations of total BTs (∑BT) were 1.3 to 110 times higher in the more urbanized Mimico Creek watershed relative to the primarily agricultural and suburban Little Rouge Creek. Strong correlations between upstream density of major roads and total BT concentrations or BT composition within all events implicate vehicle fluids as the key source of BTs in both watersheds. Sustained historical releases of BTs within the Mimico Creek watershed have likely led to elevated ∑BT in groundwater, with elevated concentrations observed during baseflow that are diluted by rainfall and surface runoff. In contrast, relatively constant concentrations, caused by mixing of equally contaminated baseflow and rainfall/surface runoff, are observed in the Little Rouge Creek throughout storm hydrographs, with an occasional first flush occurring at a subsite draining suburban land. During snowmelt, buildup of BTs in roadside snowpiles and preferential partitioning of BTs to the liquid phase of a melting snowpack leads to early peaks in ∑BT in both streams, except the sites in the Little Rouge Creek with low levels of vehicle traffic. Overall, a history of BT release and land use associated with urbanization have led to higher levels of BTs in urban areas and provide a glimpse into future BT dynamics in mixed use, (sub)urbanizing areas.

Transcriptomic, cellular and life-history responses of Daphnia magna chronically exposed to benzotriazoles: Endocrine-disrupting potential and molting effects

Benzotriazoles (BZTs) are ubiquitous aquatic contaminants used in a wide range of industrial and domestic applications from aircraft deicers to dishwasher tablets. Acute toxicity has been reported in aquatic organisms for some of the BZTs but their mode of action remains unknown. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the transcriptomic response of D. magna exposed to sublethal doses of 1H-benzotriazole (BTR), 5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole (5MeBTR) and 5-chloro-1H-benzotriazole (5ClBTR) using RNA-sequencing and quantitative real-time PCR. Cellular and life-history endpoints (survival, number of neonates, growth) were also investigated. Significant effects on the molting frequency were observed after 21-d exposure to 5MeBTR and 5ClBTR. No effects on molting frequency were observed for BTR but RNA-seq results indicated that this BZT induced the up-regulation of genes coding for cuticular proteins, which could have compensated the molting disruption. Molting in cladocerans is actively controlled by ecdysteroid hormones. Complementary short-term temporal analysis (4- and 8-d exposure) of the transcription of genes related to molting and hormone-mediated processes indicated that the three compounds had specific modes of action. BTR induced the transcription of genes involved in 20-hydroxyecdysone synthesis, which suggests pro-ecdysteroid properties. 5ClBTR exposure induced protein activity and transcriptional levels of chitinase enzymes, associated with an impact on ecdysteroid signaling pathways, which could explain the decrease in molt frequency. Finally, 5MeBTR seemed to increase molt frequency through epigenetic processes. Overall, results suggested that molting effects observed at the physiological level could be linked to endocrine regulation impacts of BZTs at the molecular level.

Chlorination of benzothiazoles and benzotriazoles and transformation products identification by LC-HR-MS/MS

The fate of four benzotriazoles [1-H-benzotriazole (1-H-BTRi), tolyltriazole (TTRi), xylyltriazole (XTRi) and 1-hydroxy-benzotriazole (1-OH-BTRi)] and three benzothiazoles [benzothiazole (BTH), 2-hydroxy-benzothiazole (2-OH-BTH) and 2-amino-benzothiazole (2-amino-BTH)], during chlorination batch experiments was investigated. In the first step, their degradation under different experimental conditions (applied molar ratio of NaOCl and the target contaminant (m.r.), reaction's contact time, pH value of the reaction's solution and the influence of total suspended solids (TSS) presence) was investigated and their removal kinetics parameters (k_obs and t_1/2) were determined. In the second step, LC-QTOFMS/MS was used for the detection and identification of transformation products (TPs) formed during chlorination, through the application of suspect and non-target screening approaches. Four and five TPs of XTRi and 2-amino-BTH, respectively, were detected and tentatively identified, while 1-H-BTRi was proven to be formed by the chlorination of 1-OH-BTRi. Moreover, since the identified TPs were also detected in spiked wastewater samples, after lab-scale chlorination experiments, toxicity assessment was carried out by ECOSAR calculations for the environmental relevance of their occurrence. The proposed chlorinated TPs were proven to be more toxic than their parent compounds.

Degradation of benzotriazole and benzothiazole in treatment wetlands and by artificial sunlight

Laboratory-scale experiments were performed using unsaturated subsurface-flow treatment wetlands and artificial sunlight (with and without TiO₂) to study the efficiency of benzotriazole and benzothiazole removal and possible integration of these treatment methods. Transformation products in the effluent from the treatment wetlands and the artificial sunlight reactor were identified by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. The removal of benzothiazole in the vegetated treatment wetlands was 99.7%, whereas the removal of benzotriazole was 82.8%. The vegetation positively affected only the removal of benzothiazole. The major transformation products in the effluents from the treatment wetlands were methylated and hydroxylated derivatives of benzotriazole, and hydroxylated derivatives of benzothiazole. Hydroxylation was found to be the main process governing the transformation pathway for both compounds in the artificial sunlight experiment (with and without TiO₂). Benzotriazole was not found to be susceptible to photodegradation in the absence of TiO₂. The integration of the sunlight-induced processes (with TiO₂) with subsurface-flow treatment wetlands caused further elimination of the compounds (42% for benzotriazole and 58% for benzothiazole). This was especially significant for the elimination of benzotriazole, because the removal of this compound was 96% in the coupled processes.

A false positive finding in liquid chromatography/triple quadrupole mass spectrometry analysis by a non-isobaric matrix component: the case of benzotriazole in urine for human biomonitoring

RATIONALE

Multi-residual methods employing liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) with selected reaction monitoring (SRM) are attractive also for human biomonitoring (HBM). A new process is determined that can lead to false positive findings by matrix components that are not isobaric to the analyte of interest.

METHODS

Benzotriazole (1H-BT) was false positively detected in 87 human urine samples analyzed by ultra-high-performance-(UHP)-LC/MS/MS. The quantifier/qualifier ratio (Q/q ratio) did not match. This was further confirmed by negative results with an optimized gradient. Investigations were performed by UHPLC/high-resolution (HR)MS and model compounds to reveal the identity of the disturbing matrix compound and the way that it interfered with 1H-BT detection.

RESULTS

A formula of C7 H5 NO (m/z 120.0444) was found at the retention time of 1H-BT (m/z 120.0556) belonging to an in-source product ion of a heavier co-eluting compound. Product ion spectra and Q/q ratios of model compounds indicated a benzene sub-structure with a carbonyl and amine functional group in the ortho- or para-position. Finally, folic acid was confirmed as the disturbing urine component, exhibiting an in-source fragment with the nominal mass of 1H-BT and the same product ions as used in the SRM mode for UHPLC/MS/MS monitoring.

CONCLUSIONS

Interferences in SRM detection need not be due to co-eluting isobaric matrix compounds, but can originate from in-source fragmentation of heavier ions. Rigid quality control measures are recommended for LC/MS/MS analysis, especially for small molecules in complex sample matrices to overcome the selectivity limits of SRM. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Sunlight photolysis of benzotriazoles - Identification of transformation products and pathways

Benzotriazoles (BTs) are widely used corrosion inhibitors, incompletely removed in municipal wastewater treatment. The photochemical fate of the three BTs 1H-benzotriazole (1H-BT), 4-methyl-1H-benzotriazole (4Me-BT) and 5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole (5Me-BT) and of three microbial metabolites, was studied under simulated sunlight (290-800 nm) at neutral pH in aqueous solution for 24 h. The half-life, the quantum yield and the reaction rate were determined and a total of 36 photolysis products were detected and identified using liquid chromatography-high resolution-mass spectrometry. The half-lives of all six BTs were in the range of 6-24 h under the experimental conditions. Though the quantum yields were comparatively low (0.0007-0.0021), the environmental half-lives ranged from 2.4 to 8 d, suggesting that sunlight photolysis is still a relevant degradation process of BTs in surface waters. The photolysis pathway of 1H-BT under simulated sunlight differed from that suggested for UV-radiation, in that aminophenol is formed directly rather than via aniline. Similar pathways were found for the other BTs, except for 4-hydroxy-1H-benzotriazole (4OH-BT). Most identified transformation products of the BTs showed a high reactivity and appear not to persist in the environment. Upon co-photolysis of BTs with dissolved organic matter (DOM), however, series of reaction products were determined by Fourier transform - ion cyclotron resonance - mass spectrometry (FTICR-MS) which are formed by reaction of photolysis intermediates of the BTs with DOM.

Study of the retention of benzotriazoles, benzothiazoles and benzenesulfonamides in mixed-mode solid-phase extraction in environmental samples

In the present study, the capabilities of strong cation-exchange and strong anion-exchange sorbents for solid-phase extraction (SPE) have been evaluated for the selective retention of benzotriazoles (BTRs), benzothiazoles (BTs) and benzenesulfonamides (BSAs), which are a group of neutral analytes with interesting properties such as high polarity and the capability of delocalizing electron density. The retention of these analytes has been compared in both sorbents for the first time, using a SPE procedure specially designed to promote ionic retention of the analytes with the objective of including a washing step with an organic solvent to eliminate interferences retained by hydrophobic interactions. As a result, ionic interactions between the analytes and both sorbents were observed, which allowed the successful introduction of a washing step using methanol in the SPE procedure even when most of the analytes were in their neutral state under SPE conditions. Consequently, a method was developed and further validated for each sorbent using liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Apart from the development of an improved method, special attention was paid to the discussion of the interactions present between the sorbents and each group of analytes to explain how these analytes in their neutral state might develop ionic interactions with the sorbents. At the end, the use of these sorbents helped to simplify previous developed methods where hydrophobic/hydrophilic sorbents were used, obtaining enhanced results when evaluated in river water and effluent and influent wastewaters.

The washout effect during laundry on benzothiazole, benzotriazole, quinoline, and their derivatives in clothing textiles

In two previous papers, the authors have shown that benzothiazole, benzotriazole, quinoline, and several of their derivatives are widespread in clothing textile articles. A number of these compounds exhibit allergenic and irritating properties and, due to their octanol-water partition coefficient, are prone to be absorbed by the skin. Moreover, they are slightly soluble in water, which could make washing of clothes a route of emission into the environment. In the present study, the washout effect of benzothiazole, benzotriazole, quinoline, and some of their derivatives has been investigated. Twenty-seven textile samples were analyzed before, as well as after five and ten times of washing. The most abundant analyte was found to be benzothiazole, which was detected in 85 % of the samples with an average concentration of 0.53 μg/g (median 0.44 μg/g), followed by quinoline, detected in 81 % of the samples with an average concentration of 2.42 μg/g (median 0.21 μg/g). The average decrease in concentration for benzothiazoles was 50 % after ten times washing, while it was around 20 % for quinolines. The average emission to household wastewater of benzothiazoles and quinolines during one washing (5 kg of clothes made from polyester materials) was calculated to 0.5 and 0.24 g, respectively. These results strongly indicate that laundering of clothing textiles can be an important source of release of these compounds to household wastewater and in the end to aquatic environments. It also demonstrates a potential source of human exposure to these chemicals since considerable amounts of the compounds remain in the clothes even after ten times of washing.

Detection and Quantification of Benzothiazoles in Exhaled Breath and Exhaled Breath Condensate by Real-Time Secondary Electrospray Ionization-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry and Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography

2-Subtituted benzothiazoles are widely used industrial chemicals whose occurrence in environmental samples has been shown to be ubiquitous. However, knowledge about human exposure to these compounds and their excretion route is still scarce. Here, we demonstrate for the first time the detection of benzothiazole derivatives in exhaled breath. Real-time analysis of breath was carried out by means of secondary electrospray ionization coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry. This coupling allowed not only the detection of these compounds in breath with a sensitivity in the pptv range but also their robust identification by comparing tandem high-resolution mass spectra from breath and standards. For further confirmation, benzothiazoles were also determined in exhaled breath condensate samples by means of ultra high-performance liquid chromatography. This approach strengthened the identification as a result of excellent matches in retention times and also allowed quantification. An estimated total daily exhalation of ca. 20 μg day(-1) was calculated for the six benzothiazole derivatives found in breath.

Aquatic photochemical kinetics of benzotriazole and structurally related compounds

Benzotriazole corrosion inhibitors are not completely removed during wastewater treatment and are frequently detected in surface waters. Here, the photochemical kinetics of benzotriazoles and structurally related compounds were assessed for natural aqueous environments. The direct photochemical half-lives during exposure to simulated sunlight ranged from 1.3 to 1.8 days for benzotriazole and its derivatives (4-methyl-, 5-methyl-, 4-hydroxy-substituted benzotriazoles). Benzotriazole is more resistant to direct photodegradation than indazole (0.28 days) and indole (0.09 days), while benzimidazole showed no significant decay. Hydroxyl radicals (1.6 × 10(-16) M) and singlet oxygen (2.5 × 10(-13) M) are formed during simulated sunlight exposure in the presence of dissolved organic matter (13 mgC L(-1)). All tested compounds reacted rapidly with hydroxyl radicals near the diffusion-controlled limit (8.3 to 12 × 10(9) M(-1) s(-1)). Only 4-hydroxybenzotriazole and indole showed significant reactivity towards singlet oxygen and their photochemical half-lives in the presence of organic matter were shorter (0.1 days for both) than for benzotriazole and its methylated derivatives (1.4-1.5 days). The photochemical half-lives determined here are relatively long and support the persistence of benzotriazoles in the environment. At the same time, these results suggest that photochemical transformation can be supplementary to microbial degradation. While the presented study focused on environmental photodegradation kinetics, the relevance of transformation products remains to be investigated.

Benzothiazole, benzotriazole, and their derivates in clothing textiles--a potential source of environmental pollutants and human exposure

Textiles play an important role in our daily life, and textile production is one of the oldest industries. In the manufacturing chain from natural and/or synthetic fibers to the final clothing products, the use of many different chemicals is ubiquitous. A lot of research has focused on chemicals in textile wastewater, but the knowledge of the actual content of harmful chemicals in clothes sold on the retail market is limited. In this paper, we have focused on eight benzothiazole and benzotriazole derivatives, compounds rated as high production volume chemicals. Twenty-six clothing samples of various textile materials and colors manufactured in 14 different countries were analyzed in textile clothing using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Among the investigated textile products, 11 clothes were for babies, toddlers, and children. Eight of the 11 compounds included in the investigation were detected in the textiles. Benzothiazole was present in 23 of 26 investigated garments in concentrations ranging from 0.45 to 51 μg/g textile. The garment with the highest concentration of benzothiazole contained a total amount of 8.3 mg of the chemical. The third highest concentration of benzothiazole (22 μg/g) was detected in a baby body made from "organic cotton" equipped with the "Nordic Ecolabel" ("Svanenmärkt"). It was also found that concentrations of benzothiazoles in general were much higher than those for benzotriazoles. This study implicates that clothing textiles can be a possible route for human exposure to harmful chemicals by skin contact, as well as being a potential source of environmental pollutants via laundering and release to household wastewater.

Bisphenol A, nonylphenols, benzophenones, and benzotriazoles in soils, groundwater, surface water, sediments, and food: a review

Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) are not commonly monitored in the environment, but they can enter the environment from a variety of sources. The most worrying consequence of their wide use and environmental diffusion is the increase in the possible exposure pathways for humans. Moreover, knowledge of their behavior in the environment, toxicity, and biological effects is limited or not available for most CECs. The aim of this work is to edit the state of the art on few selected CECs having the potential to enter the soil and aquatic systems and cause adverse effects in humans, wildlife, and the environment: bisphenol A (BPA), nonylphenol (NP), benzophenones (BPs), and benzotriazole (BT). Some reviews are already available on BPA and NP, reporting about their behavior in surface water and sediments, but scarce and scattered information is available about their presence in soil and groundwater. Only a few studies are available about BPs and BT in the environment, in particular in soil and groundwater. This work summarizes the information available in the literature about the incidence and behavior of these compounds in the different environmental matrices and food. In particular, the review focuses on the physical-chemical properties, the environmental fate, the major degradation byproducts, and the environmental evidence of the selected CECs.

Fate of benzotriazole and 5-methylbenzotriazole in recycled water recharged into an anaerobic aquifer: column studies

The fate of benzotriazole (BTri) and 5-methylbenzotriazole (5-MeBT) was investigated under anaerobic conditions at nano gram per litre concentrations in large-scale laboratory columns to mimic a managed aquifer recharge replenishment strategy in Western Australia. Investigations of BTri and 5-MeBT sorption behaviour demonstrated mobility of the compounds with retardation coefficients of 2.0 and 2.2, respectively. Degradation processes over a period of 220 days indicated first order biodegradation of the BTri and 5-MeBT under anaerobic aquifer conditions after a biological lag-time of approximately 30-60 days. Biodegradation half-lives of 29 ± 2 and 26 ± 1 days for BTri and 5-MeBT were respectively observed, with no threshold effect to biodegradation observed at the 200 ng L(-1). The detection of degradation products provided further evidence of BTri and 5-MeBT biodegradation. These results suggested that if BTri and 5-MeBT were present in recycled water recharged to the Leederville aquifer, biodegradation during aquifer passage is likely given sufficient aquifer residence times or travel distances between recycled water injection and groundwater extraction.

Benzotriazole and 5-methylbenzotriazole in recycled water, surface water and dishwashing detergents from Perth, Western Australia: analytical method development and application

A simplified and sensitive liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method without requiring sample pre-concentration was successfully developed for detecting the occurrence of ultra-low (ng L(-1)) concentrations of benzotriazole (BTri), and its derivative 5-methyl benzotriazole (5-MeBT) in various Western Australian environmental water samples. The method detection limit was 2 ng L(-1), providing similar detection limits to other more process intensive methods where pre-concentration using solid phase extraction (SPE) was employed. The method was used to assess the occurrence of BTri and 5-MeBT in wastewater and surface water samples. Over a period of 12 months, BTri and 5-MeBT concentrations in secondary treated wastewater were measured, with the highest BTri and 5-MeBT concentrations observed during winter months at 78 ng L(-1) and 21 ng L(-1), respectively. The method was also used to assess the removal efficiency of BTri and 5-MeBT through an advanced water recycling plant (AWRP). While BTri was more persistent than 5-MeBT, both compounds were removed from the AWRP to <10 ng L(-1) (BTri) and <2 ng L(-1) (5-MeBT), with reverse osmosis (RO) providing the most effective treatment process for their removal.