Cellular Process of Polystyrene Nanoparticles Entry into Wheat Roots

Mechanism of nano-plastics induced inflammation injury in vascular endothelial cells

Nano-plastics, emerging pollutants in the environment, have raised global concern due to their widespread presence in daily life and the potential toxicity to human health. Upon entering human body, nano-plastics can readily interact with vascular endothelial cells within the bloodstream, potentially leading to endothelial dysfunction. However, our understanding of the toxic impact of nano-plastics on vascular endothelial cells remains insufficient, and the underlying mechanism are yet to be elucidated. This study investigated the toxicological effects of nano-plastics on EA.hy 926 endothelial cells. Exposure to different types of nano-plastics such as polystyrene (PS), amino-modified PS or carboxyl-modified PS, resulted in suppress cell activity, damage to the cell membrane, oxidative stress and significantly inhibit cell migration. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and small RNA-seq analyses revealed that numbers of genes and miRNAs were differentially expressed after nano-plastics treatment. CEBPB, a gene within the inflammation-related tumor necrosis factor signaling pathway, was confirmed to be a target of miR-1908-5p, indicating that nano-plastics induced activation of CEBPB might promote inflammatory injury to vascular endothelial cells. These results enhance our understanding of the biological effects of nano-plastics and their potential impact on inflammation injury.

Organic fertilizer mitigated the oxidative stress of tomato induced by nanoplastics through affecting rhizosphere soil microorganisms and bacteriophage functions

Nanoplastics (NPs), which are widely present in agricultural soils, are difficult to remove and are potentially harmful to plant growth and development. However, few studies have focused on how to mitigation the oxidative stress in plants induced by soil NPs exposure. Therefore, in this study, the effects of organic and chemical fertilizers on the oxidative stress of tomato under exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) in soil were investigated. Compared with chemical fertilizer under exposure to PS-NPs, the organic fertilizer reduced the reactive oxygen species (ROS) content by 25.63 % and the H2O2 content by 34.58 % in tomato stems, whereas no significant effects were observed with respect to the amount of PS-NP internalized in tomato. Additionally, organic fertilizer increased the accumulation of the phytohormones salicylic acid (SA) and abscisic acid (ABA) by 76.53 % and 22.54 %, respectively, and these factors are key for reducing the ROS and H2O2 contents in stems. In the rhizosphere microbiome of organic fertilizer group under exposure to PS-NPs, enrichment in Actinomycetes and an increased abundance of terpenoids and polyketides metabolism were the main factors affecting the accumulation of ABA and SA. Moreover, bacteriophage activity in the rhizosphere indirectly contributed to the increase in this function. These changes ultimately resulted in a reduction in oxidative stress in tomato stems and protected tomato growth. The results of this study will provide a better understanding of the interaction between plants and nanoplastics in soil and provide a new reference for alleviating the oxidative stress caused by nanoplastics in plants.

Bipartite trophic levels cannot resist the interference of microplastics: A case study of submerged macrophytes and snail

Some studies frequently focus on the toxic effects of compound pollution formed by microplastics and other pollutants on individual organisms, but it is still unclear how multi-trophic level organisms in compound communities resist the stress of microplastics. Thus, this research used a dose-response experiment (0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1 mg L-1) to illustrate the influences that microplastics might have on two symbiotic freshwater organisms Vallisneria natans and Sinotaia quadrata. The results showed the reduction of V. natans biomass in 0.5 and 1 mg L-1 groups (28-38 %), and disturbances on the photosynthetic system, reduced the chlorophyll content (15-85 %) and maximum quantum yields (10-31 %). In the case of S. quadrata, which subsisted by scraping leaf biofilms, there was a disruption in the functioning of the antioxidant system. Concurrently, the activities of digestive and neurotransmitter enzymes were affected, potentially leading to detrimental impacts on the organism's essential physiological processes. The introduction of microplastics significantly enhanced the relative abundance of specific microbial taxa, such as Proteobacteria within the biofilm of V. natans leaves and chloroflexi in the rhizosphere, thereby altering the microbial community assembly process. This means the potential ecological functions with microbes as the carrier was influenced. These results indicated that microplastic in aquatic environments can impact the metabolism, autotrophic, and heterotrophic behavior of double-end trophic organisms through symbiotic activities. Therefore, our study reveals how polystyrene microplastics affect the growth of submerged aquatic plants and snails, and from the perspective of community integrity and health, the introduction of these pollutants into freshwater environments may cause disruptive effects.

Nanoplastics enhance tebuconazole toxicity in lettuce by promoting its accumulation and disrupting phenylalanine metabolism: Importance of Trojan horse effect

Nanoplastics (NPs) are ubiquitous in agricultural environments and may exacerbate environmental risks of pesticides. This study investigates how NPs influence the toxicity of tebuconazole in lettuce. In a hydroponic model, NPs (10 and 50 mg/L) enhanced tebuconazole accumulation in roots and exacerbated its toxicity. To elucidate the underlying mechanisms, a combination of in vivo, in vitro, and in silico models was employed. The results indicated that NPs were taken up by roots through apoplast pathway, predominantly accumulating in roots (35.6-40.7 %) due to aggregation in root sap and adhesion to cell wall. Tebuconazole adsorbs onto NPs with a high adsorption capacity (123.7 mg/g), enabling NPs to serve as carriers that facilitate tebuconazole entry into roots. Once in the root sap, tebuconazole desorbed from NPs and accumulated in cell walls, leading to higher residue in the roots (7.19-9.85 mg/kg). Furthermore, tebuconazole bound to key proteins involved in auxin biosynthesis (e.g., YUC) and signaling (e.g., TIR), thereby inhibiting tryptophan-dependent auxin biosynthesis pathway and disrupting TIR1/AFB-mediated auxin signaling. Additionally, tebuconazole suppressed the phenylalanine pathway, reducing antioxidant secondary metabolites such as flavonols. When NPs are present, co-exposure intensified the inhibition of auxin and phenylalanine pathways, thereby amplifying the toxicity of tebuconazole, as evidenced by impaired plant phenotypes (e.g., biomass, root tips) and disrupted antioxidant systems. This study reveals threats posed by NPs and tebuconazole in agricultural systems and highlights the novel carrier effect of NPs in enhancing tebuconazole toxicity, emphasizing the urgent need to assess the fate and toxicity of NPs and coexisting pollutants.

Translocation of polystyrene nanoplastics in distinct plant species: Novel insight from a split-root system and transcriptomic analysis

Nanoplastics (NPs) can be absorbed by crop roots and translocated to shoots, but whether the process follows a unidirectional pathway in different plant species remains unclear. This study investigated the translocation and accumulation of europium-labeled polystyrene NPs in cucumber (dicot) and maize (monocot) seedlings using a split-root system. The results showed that NP accumulation was highest in exposed roots (E-R), followed by unexposed roots (UE-R), and then shoots in both plants. In cucumber, NP accumulation in E-R was 26.84 % higher than in maize; while in maize, the translocation factor from shoot to UE-R was 4.45 times greater than in cucumber. TEM images confirmed NP transport from root to shoot via xylem, while confocal images showed the redistribution of NPs from shoot to root via phloem. AgNO3 treatment (5-50 μmol L-1) revealed aquaporin-mediated regulation of NP accumulation, with concentration-dependent increases of 30.37-220.7 % in cucumber roots and 36.38-53.65 % in maize shoots. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that NP accumulation interacted with aquaporin gene expression, where differential regulation of tonoplast intrinsic, plasma membrane intrinsic, and nodulin 26-like intrinsic proteins drove translocation differences. This study offers critical insights into the "root-to-shoot-to-root" translocation of NPs, informing crop safety assessments amid global plastic pollution.

Functionalization-dependent toxicity of MIL-101 metal-organic frameworks to phytoplankton Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

The MIL-101 series metal-organic frameworks have attracted significant attention in water remediation, leading to their inevitable release into the aquatic environments. However, research on the toxic effects of MIL-101 on aquatic organisms is in its infancy, and the responses of freshwater algae to MIL-101 and its amino-functionalized counterpart, MIL-101-NH2, are poorly understood. In this study, the freshwater green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (C. reinhardtii) were exposed to varying concentrations of MIL-101 or MIL-101-NH2 (0.1-50 mg/L) for 7 d The impacts of MIL-101 and MIL-101-NH2 on algal viability and photosynthesis activity were systematically evaluated. Additionally, non-targeted metabolomics was employed to obtain an overview of the physiological status of the algae under MIL-101/MIL-101-NH2 exposure. Exposure to 50 mg/L of MIL-101 or MIL-101-NH2 resulted in reduced algal viability, suppressed photosynthetic activity, and significant metabolic reprogramming. In contrast, low concentrations (0.1 mg/L) of either MIL-101 or MIL-101-NH2 did not induce any detectable physiological alterations. The observed algal toxicity was primarily due to the direct physical interactions with the particles rather than release of metal ions. The divergent metabolic impacts caused by MIL-101/MIL-101-NH2 suggested the contribution of functionalization to MOF's biological outcomes. These findings provide valuable insights into the ecological impacts of MOFs in aquatic ecosystems and reveal the importance of functionalization in MOFs-associated environmental impacts.

Ultrasound-enhanced extraction unlocks superior functional properties and bioactive profles in Fucus vesiculosus proteins: A comprehensive characterization study

This study examined protein extraction from Fucus vesiculosus using both conventional and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) methods, highlighting this seaweed's potential as a sustainable protein source. Both methods achieved optimal protein yields at 6 % alkali concentration, with UAE (43.98 % ± 0.49 %) producing a significantly higher yield compared to conventional extraction (39.29 % ± 1.66 %). UAE produced higher quality techno-functional properties proteins, as evidenced by several key findings. SDS-PAGE analysis showed protein distribution from 10 to 150 kDa, with conventional extraction yielding stronger bands than UAE across major molecular weight regions. Amino acid analysis showed a well-balanced profile with high concentrations of glutamic and aspartic acids and all essential amino acids. UAE significantly enhanced protein functionality by improving solubility across a broader pH range (9.41 % at pH 4 compared to 0.86 % for conventional extraction) and producing smaller, more stable particles (173.61-259.01 nm). Structural analyses using FTIR, fluorescence, and circular dichroism revealed that UAE induced partial protein unfolding and increased β-sheet content, which contributed to improved solubility, interfacial properties, and ultimately enhanced emulsifying and foaming properties. It also yielded higher levels of bioactive compounds, including phenolics (69.75 mg PGE/g) and antioxidants, with enhanced radical scavenging activities. While mineral content was higher in UAE samples, elevated arsenic levels require further investigation. Confocal laser scanning microscopy confirmed UAE's superior extraction efficiency through more uniform distribution of smaller protein particles. These findings demonstrate that UAE offers significant advantages over conventional methods for developing seaweed-based products with enhanced applications in food and pharmaceutical industries.

Tiny pollutants, big consequences: investigating the influence of nano- and microplastics on soil properties and plant health with mitigation strategies

The impact of nanoplastics (NPs) and microplastics (MPs) on ecosystems and human health has recently emerged as a significant challenge within the United Nations Agenda 2030, drawing global attention. This paper provides a critical analysis of the influence of plastic particles on plants and soils, with the majority of data collected from recent studies, primarily over the past five years. The absorption and translocation mechanisms of NPs/MPs in plants are first described, followed by an explanation of their effects-especially particles like PE, PS, PVC, PLA, and PES, as well as those contaminated with heavy metals-on plant growth, physiology, germination, oxidative stress, and nutrient uptake. The study also links the characteristics of plastics (size, shape, concentration, type, degradability) to changes in the physical, chemical, and microbial properties of soils. Various mitigation strategies, including physical, chemical, and biological processes, are explored to understand how they address these changes. However, further research, including both laboratory and field investigations, is urgently needed to address knowledge gaps, particularly regarding the long-term effects of MPs, their underlying mechanisms, ecotoxicological impacts, and the complex interactions between MPs and soil properties. This research is crucial for advancing sustainability from various perspectives and should contribute significantly toward achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs).

Effects of nanoplastics and compound pollutants containing nanoplastics on plants, microorganisms and rhizosphere systems: A review

Nanoplastics (NPs) are the most widespread and least detectable type of plastic pollutant due to their extremely small particle size. The root system of plants has become an important pathway for NPs to enter the food chain from the natural environment. By combining with heavy metals or organic pollutants, NPs can exhibit greater biological toxicity compared to single pollutants. Although many studies have focused on the phytotoxicity and microbial toxicity of NPs separately, to the best of our knowledge, no review summarizes the toxicity of NPs from the perspective of the plant rhizosphere system with a combination of pollutants. By summarizing samples from 2015 to 2025, this review highlights that NPs can affect photosynthesis, gene transcription, and enzyme activity in both plants and microorganisms. NPs with large particle size can also disrupt the chemical balance of the rhizosphere environment and intensify competition for nutrients between plants and microorganisms, ultimately affecting the geochemical cycle. NPs of different particle sizes and concentrations can poison various biological structures, from surface layers to genetic material. In compound pollutants, where NPs combine with other contaminants, they can further disrupt elemental cycles in plants, reduce microbial community diversity, and increase the accumulation of other pollutants in the rhizosphere system compared to single pollutants. These findings provide new insights into the biotoxicity of NPs and the degradation of compound pollutants containing NPs. In addition, combined with the research results of this review, some research prospects on the relationship between NPs and rhizosphere systems are given.

Size-dependent uptake of chromium colloids in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Chromium (Cr) contamination in agricultural soils poses a significant threat to food safety. In paddy soil, Cr tends to exist as colloidal Cr, instead of soluble Cr. However, little is known regarding the absorption capability of colloidal Cr in rice. Therefore, this study explores the differential absorption of soluble and colloidal Cr in rice through hydroponic experiments, further investigating size-dependent uptake of Cr colloids, focusing on the role of endocytosis and the effects of adding endocytosis inhibitors. The results demonstrate the accumulation of Cr in rice roots for treatments with 100 μM soluble Cr (Cr-EDTA), 28 nm Cr colloid, and 62 nm Cr colloid were 40.0, 797, and 2033 mg/kg, respectively. The reason for this phenomenon is that colloidal Cr is more likely to be adsorbed onto the cell wall, which increases the potential for rice to absorb colloidal Cr, particularly the larger Cr colloids. When endocytosis in rice was inhibited by wortmannin, the absorption of Cr colloid with small size was reduced by 7.30%-26.6%, thereby highlighting the important role of endocytosis in the uptake of 28 nm particles in rice. In contrast, the uptake of soluble Cr and larger colloids were less affected by endocytosis inhibition. This study underscores the importance of considering colloidal Cr and its particle size when assessing the risks associated with heavy metal pollution in agriculture. The findings have significant implications for managing soil contamination and ensuring food safety.

Micro/Nanoplastics in plantation agricultural products: behavior process, phytotoxicity under biotic and abiotic stresses, and controlling strategies

With the extensive utilization of plastic products, microplastics/nanoplastics (MPs/NPs) contamination not only poses a global hazard to the environment, but also induces a new threat to the growth development and nutritional quality of plantation agricultural products. This study thoroughly examines the behavior of MPs/NPs, including their sources, entry routes into plants, phytotoxicity under various biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g., salinity, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heavy metals, antibiotics, plasticizers, nano oxide, naturally occurring organic macromolecular compounds, invasive plants, Botrytis cinerea mycorrhizal fungi.) and controlling strategies. MPs/NPs in agricultural systems mainly originate from mulch, sewage, compost fertilizer, municipal solid waste, pesticide packaging materials, etc. They enter plants through endocytosis, apoplast pathways, crack-entry modes, and leaf stomata, affecting phenotypic, metabolic, enzymatic, and genetic processes such as seed germination, growth metabolism, photosynthesis, oxidative stress and antioxidant defenses, fruit yield and nutrient quality, cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. MPs/NPs can also interact with other environmental stressors, resulting in synergistic, antagonistic, or neutral effects on phytotoxicity. To address these challenges, this review highlights strategies to mitigate MPs/NPs toxicity, including the development of novel green biodegradable plastics, plant extraction and immobilization, exogenous plant growth regulator interventions, porous nanomaterial modulation, biocatalysis and enzymatic degradation. Finally, the study identifies current limitations and future research directions in this critical field.

The wheel of time: The environmental dance of aged micro- and nanoplastics and their biological resonance

The aging of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) significantly affects their environmental behavior and ecological impacts in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. This review explored the known effects of aging on MNPs and identified several key perspectives. Firstly, aging can alter the environmental fate and transport of MNPs due to changes in their surface properties. This alteration accelerates their accumulation in specific habitats like oceans and soils, resulting in increased bioaccumulation by organisms. In addition, aged MNPs interact differently with living organisms than their pristine counterparts by influencing the attachment of biofilms and other microorganisms in aquatic ecosystems. Moreover, the aging processes of MNPs exhibit adverse effects on aquatic and terrestrial organisms via increasing the bioavailability and potential toxicity of MNPs as degradation products are released. Last but not least, the biodegradation potential of MNPs can be altered by the aging process, thus affecting their degradation rates and pathways in the environment. However, there are still knowledge gaps regarding the natural aging behaviors of MNPs, such as the aging mechanisms of different types of plastic, the influence of environmental factors, the release of pollutants, and even the effects of aging on their transformation in different ecosystems. Therefore, a great contribution can be made to sustainable plastic use and environmental preservation by studying the natural aging of common MNPs and their subsequent biological effects.

Investigation of potential toxic effects of nano- and microplastics on human endometrial stromal cells

Nanoplastics (NPs) and microplastics (MPs) have become a global concern in recent years. Most current research on the impact of plastics on obstetrics has focused on their accumulation in specific tissues in animal models and the disease-causing potential of MPs. However, there is a relative lack of research on the cellular changes caused by the accumulation of MPs. In this study, we aimed to establish a proper in vitro exposure protocol for polystyrene (PS)-NPs and MPs and to investigate possible cytotoxic effects of PS-NPs and MPs on human endometrial stromal cells (ESCs) using different plastic sizes and concentrations. The results showed that smaller plastics, specifically 100 nm PS-NPs and 1 μm PS-MPs, had a higher cellular uptake propensity than larger particles, such as 5 μm PS-MPs, with significant morphological changes and cell death observed at concentrations above 100 μg/mL a 24-h period. In addition, confocal microscopy and real-time imaging confirmed the accumulation of these particles in the nucleus and cytoplasm, with internalization rates correlating with particle size. Also, 100 nm PS-NPs reduced cell proliferation and induced apoptosis. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that exposure to 100 nm PS-NPs and 1 μm PS-MPs leads to dynamic accumulation in ESCs, resulting in cell death or decreased proliferation at specific concentrations, which highlights the potential cellular toxicity of NPs or MPs.

Positively Charged Nanoplastics Destruct the Structure of the PCK1 Enzyme, Promote the Aerobic Gycolysis Pathway, and Induce Hepatic Tumor Risks

The production and weathering processes of nanoparticles (NPs) introduce charged functional groups on their surface. Previous studies have found that the surface charge properties of NPs play a critical role in their toxic effects and the mechanisms are generally attributed to their different accumulations and transmembrane potentials. Currently, we still lack sufficient knowledge about effects, owing to the unique structures of these polymers. In this study, positively charged NPs (PS-NH2, 50 nm) at 0.05-0.5 μg mL-1 promoted the proliferation of hepatic tumors in oncogenic KrasG12V zebrafish larvae and they also increased the viability of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells, whereas negatively charged NPs (PS-COOH, 50 nm) did not. We present evidence indicating that the potential carcinogenicity of PS-NH2 is related to the special polymer-molecular interactions caused by its positive surface charge. The affinity of PS-COOH chains for peptides typically enhances enzyme stability and upregulates its expression. However, PS-NH2 strongly competes with hydrogen bonds of the first rate-limiting enzyme PCK1 in gluconeogenesis, thus downregulating the expression of PCK1 and promoting the aerobic glycolysis pathway, which most tumor cells prefer. This study indicates that positive-charge modified NPs in the environment may bring additional carcinogenic risks.

Controlled Nitrogen Release by Hydroxyapatite Nanomaterials in Leaves Enhances Plant Growth and Nitrogen Uptake

Nitrogen fertilizer delivery inefficiencies limit crop productivity and contribute to environmental pollution. Herein, we developed Zn- and Fe-doped hydroxyapatite nanomaterials (ZnHAU, FeHAU) loaded with urea (∼26% N) through hydrogen bonding and metal-ligand interactions. The nanomaterials attach to the leaf epidermal cuticle and localize in the apoplast of leaf epidermal cells, triggering a slow N release at acidic conditions (pH 5.8) that promote wheat (Triticum aestivum) growth and increased N uptake compared to conventional urea fertilizers. ZnHAU and FeHAU exhibited prolonged N release compared to urea in model plant apoplast fluid pH in vitro (up to 2 days) and in leaf membranes in plants (up to 10 days) with a high N retention (32% to 53%) under simulated high rainfall events (50 mm). Foliar N delivery doses of up to 4% as ZnHAU and FeHAU did not induce toxicity in plant cells. The foliar-applied ZnHAU and FeHAU enhanced fresh and dry biomass by ∼214% and ∼161%, and N uptake by ∼108% compared to foliar-applied urea under low soil N conditions in greenhouse experiments. Controlled N release by leaf-attached nanomaterials improves N delivery and use efficiency in crop plants, creating nanofertilizers with reduced environmental impact.

Unveiling the mechanism of micro-and-nano plastic phytotoxicity on terrestrial plants: A comprehensive review of omics approaches

Micro-and-nano plastics (MNPs) are pervasive in terrestrial ecosystems and represent an increasing threat to plant health; however, the mechanisms underlying their phytotoxicity remain inadequately understood. MNPs can infiltrate plants through roots or leaves, causing a range of toxic effects, including inhibiting water and nutrient uptake, reducing seed germination rates, and impeding photosynthesis, resulting in oxidative damage within the plant system. The effects of MNPs are complex and influenced by various factors including size, shape, functional groups, and concentration. Recent advancements in omics technologies such as proteomics, metabolomics, transcriptomics, and microbiomics, coupled with emerging technologies like 4D omics, phenomics, spatial transcriptomics, and single-cell omics, offer unprecedented insight into the physiological, molecular, and cellular responses of terrestrial plants to MNPs exposure. This literature review synthesizes current findings regarding MNPs-induced phytotoxicity, emphasizing alterations in gene expression, protein synthesis, metabolic pathways, and physiological disruptions as revealed through omics analyses. We summarize how MNPs interact with plant cellular structures, disrupt metabolic processes, and induce oxidative stress, ultimately affecting plant growth and productivity. Furthermore, we have identified critical knowledge gaps and proposed future research directions, highlighting the necessity for integrative omics studies to elucidate the complex pathways of MNPs toxicity in terrestrial plants. In conclusion, this review underscores the potential of omics approaches to elucidate the mechanisms of MNPs-phytotoxicity and to develop strategies for mitigating the environmental impact of MNPs on plant health.

Understanding the possible cellular responses in plants under micro(nano)-plastic (MNPs): Balancing the structural harmony with functions

The harmful impacts of micro(nano)-plastics (MNPs) on plants have gained significant attention in the last decades. Plants have a greater tendency to aggregate positively charged (+ve) MNPs on leaf surfaces and root tips, and it can be more challenging to enter the plant body than the negatively charged (-ve) MNPs. MNPs <20 nm can directly cross the cell wall and enter mainly via leaf stomata and root crack portion. Additionally, plants with aerenchyma tissue or higher water requirement might be more vulnerable to MNPs as well as environmental factors also affected MNPs uptake like porosity and structure (i.e. crack of soil) of soil, wind speed, etc. The subsequent translocation of MNPs hamper regular morphological, physiological, and biochemical functions by causing oxidative stress, altering several plant metabolic pathways, reducing the rate of photosynthesis and nutrient intake, etc. These induce cellular toxicity and chromosomal alteration; as a result, the total biomass and productivity reduce vigorously. However, there is a knowledge gap regarding MNPs' uptake by plants and related variables affecting phytotoxicity at the omics levels. So, the present literature review represents a comprehensive theoretical framework that includes genomics, transcriptomics, miRNAomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and ionomics/metallomics, which is established to understand the effects of MNPs on plants at the molecular level. As well as it will also help in further studies of the research community in the future because this field is still in the preliminary stages due to a lack of study.

Unmasking the Invisible Threat: Biological Impacts and Mechanisms of Polystyrene Nanoplastics on Cells

Polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs), a pervasive component of plastic pollution, have emerged as a significant environmental and health threat due to their microscopic size and bioaccumulative properties. This review systematically explores the biological effects and mechanisms of PS-NPs on cellular systems, encompassing oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, DNA damage, inflammation, and disruptions in autophagy. Notably, PS-NPs induce multiple forms of cell death, including apoptosis, ferroptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis, mediated through distinct yet interconnected molecular pathways. The review also highlights various factors that influence the cytotoxicity of PS-NPs, such as particle size, surface modifications, co-exposure with other pollutants, and protein corona formation. These complex interactions underscore the extensive and potentially hazardous impacts of PS-NPs on cellular health. The findings presented here emphasize the need for continued research on the mechanisms underlying PS-NP toxicity and the development of effective strategies for mitigating their effects, thereby informing regulatory frameworks aimed at minimizing environmental and biological risks.

Accumulation modes and effects of differentially charged polystyrene nano/microplastics in water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica F.)

There is widespread concern about the risk of nano/microplastics (N/MPs) entering the food chain through higher plants. However, the primary factors that influence the absorption of N/MPs by higher plants remain largely unclear. This study examined the impact of Europium-doped N/MPs with different particle sizes and surface charges by water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica F.) to address this knowledge gap. N/MPs were visualized and quantitatively analyzed using laser confocal microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. N/MPs with different surface charges were absorbed by the roots, with the apoplastic pathway as the major route of transport. After 28 days of exposure to 50 mg L-1 N/MPs, N/MPs-COOH caused the highest levels of oxidative stress and damage to the roots. The plants accumulated NPs-COOH the most (average 1640.16 mg L-1), while they accumulated NPs-NH2 the least (average 253.70 mg L-1). Particle size was the main factor influencing the translocation of N/MPs from the root to the stem, while the Zeta potential mainly influenced particle entry into the roots from the hydroponic solution as well as stem-to-leaf translocation. Different charged N/MPs induced osmotic stress in the roots. A small amount of N/MPs in the leaves significantly stimulated the production of chlorophyll, while excessive N/MPs significantly reduced its content. These results provide new insights into the mechanism of interaction between N/MPs and plants.

Accumulation of nanoplastics by wheat seedling roots: Both passive and energy-consuming processes

Nanoplastics can transfer from the environment to plants and potentially harm organisms. However, the mechanisms on how crop root systems absorb and transport nanoplastics are still unclear. Here, original and fluorescent labeled polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride nanoparticles (PS-NPs, PVC-NPs; 30 nm; 10 mg L-1) were employed to study the distribution and internalization pathways in wheat seedling roots. In the study, nanoplastics accumulated more in the root tip and surface, with PVC-NPs more prevalent than PS-NPs. After being treated with inhibitors (Na3VO4, chlorpromazine and amiloride), the nanoplastics mean fluorescence intensities were reduced by 4.0-51.1 %. During the uptake, both passive and energy-consuming pathways occurred. For the energy-consuming uptake pathway, macropinocytosis contributed more to cytoplasm than clathrin-mediated endocytosis. H+ influx was observed during nanoplastic transport into the cytoplasm, and the reduction in plasma membrane ATPase activity led to a decrease in nanoplastic internalization. These results elucidate the pathways of nanoplastics absorption and transport in wheat roots, provide crucial evidence for assessing nanoplastics' ecological risks and support the development of technologies to block nanoplastics absorption by crop roots, ensuring agricultural and ecosystem safety.

Single and combined effect of polyethylene microplastics (virgin and naturally aged) and cadmium on pakchoi (Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis) under different growth stages

To protect agro-systems and food security, study on the effect of microplastics and heavy metals on edible plants is of great significance. Existing studies mostly used virgin microplastics to evaluate their effects on plants, effects of naturally aged microplastics and their combined effects with heavy metals are rarely explored. In this study, single and combined effect of polyethylene microplastics (PE, both virgin and naturally aged) and cadmium (Cd) on pakchoi under seedling and mature stages were analyzed from perspectives of growth inhibition, oxidative damage, nutrition content and soil enzyme activities. Results showed that inhibiting effects of naturally aged PE (PEa) on the growth of pakchoi were stronger than virgin PE (PEv), whereas co-contamination of PEa and Cd was less toxic than that of PEv and Cd. The co-contamination of PE and Cd could inhibit pakchoi dry biomass by over 85 %. Both single and combined contamination of PE and Cd promoted soil fluorescein diacetate hydrolase (FDA) activities, which were 1.11 to 2.04 times of that in control group. Soluble sugar contents under co-contamination of PEa and Cd were 14 % to 22 % higher than those in control group. PEa and PEv showed different effects on oxidative damage of pakchoi. Compared with PEv, catalase (CAT) activities were more sensitive with PEa, whereas PEa had lower effect on superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities. The response of pakchoi to PE and Cd changed with growth stage. Chlorophyll contents in pakchoi under seedling stage were generally higher than those under mature stage. For Cd contaminated soils, PE benefited pakchoi growth under seedling stage, i.e. antagonistic effect between Cd and PE but hindered their growth under mature stage, i.e. synergistic effect. The results unraveled here emphasized PE, especially PEa, could trigger negative effects on agro-systems, whereas PE could be beneficial for heavy metal contaminated agro-systems under specific situations.

Adsorption and uptake of functionalized nanoplastics (NPs) by wetland plant (Sphagnum): A unique pathway for polystyrene-NPs reduction in non-vascular plants

Wetlands are sources and sinks for nanoplastics (NPs), where adsorption and uptake by plants constitute a crucial pathway for NPs accumulation. This study found that Sphagnum exhibited a high potential (~89.75 %) to intercept NPs despite the lack of root systems and stomata. Two pathways for 100nm polystyrene NPs accumulation in Sphagnum were located: (i) Spiral interception and foliar adsorption. Efficient adsorption is credited to the micro/nano-interlocked leaf structure, which is porous, hydrophilic and rough. (ii) Intracellular enrichment through pores. Fluorescence tracking indicates pseudo-leaves (lateral > cephalic branches) as primary organs for internalization. Accumulation of differently functionalized NPs was characterized: PS-Naked-NPs (PS), PS-COOH-NPs (PC) and PS-NH2-NPs (PN) were all largely retained by pathway (i), while pathway (ii) mainly uptake PN and PC. Unlike PS aggregation in transparent cells, PC enrichment in chloroplast cells and PN in intercellular spaces reduced pigment content and fluorescence intensity. Further, the effects of the accumulated NPs on the ecological functions of Sphagnum were evaluated. NPs reduce carbon flux (assimilation rate by 57.78 %, and respiration rate by 33.50%), significantly decreasing biomass (PS = 13.12 %, PC = 26.48 %, PN = 35.23 %). However, toxicity threshold was around 10 μg/mL, environmental levels (≤1 μg/mL) barely affected Sphagnum. This study advances understanding of the behavior and fate of NPs in non-vascular plants, and provides new perspectives for developing Sphagnum substrates for NPs interception.

Differential uptake and translocation of perfluoroalkyl substances by vegetable roots and leaves: Insight into critical influencing factors

Crop contamination of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) may threaten human health, with root and leaves representing the primary uptake pathways of PFASs in crops. Therefore, it is imperative to elucidate the uptake characteristics of PFASs by crop roots and leaves as well as the critical influencing factors. In this study, the uptake and translocation of PFASs by roots and leaves of pak choi and radish were systematically explored based on perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). Additionally, the roles of root Casparian strips, leaf stomata, and PFAS structures in the aforementioned processes were elucidated. Compared with pak choi, PFASs are more easily transferred to leaves after root uptake in radish, resulting from the lack of root Casparian strips. In pak choi root, the bioaccumulation of C4-C8 perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) showed a U-shaped trend with the increase of their carbon chain lengths, and the translocation potentials of individual PFASs from root to leaves negatively correlated with their chain lengths. The leaf uptake of PFOA in pak choi and radish mainly depended on cuticle sorption, with the evidence of a slight decrease in the concentrations of PFOA in exposed leaves after stomatal closure induced by abscisic acid. The leaf bioaccumulation of C4-C8 PFCAs in pak choi exhibited an inverted U-shaped trend as their carbon chain lengths increased. PFASs in exposed leaves can be translocated to the root and then re-transferred to unexposed leaves in vegetables. The longer-chain PFASs showed higher translocation potentials from exposed leaves to root. PFOS demonstrated a higher bioaccumulation than PFOA in crop roots and leaves, mainly due to the greater hydrophobicity of PFOS. Planting root vegetables lacking Casparian strips is inadvisable in PFAS-contaminated environments, in view of their higher PFAS bioaccumulation and considerable human intake.

Synergy between nanoplastics and benzo[a]pyrene promotes senescence by aggravating ferroptosis and impairing mitochondria integrity in Caenorhabditis elegans

Micro-nano plastics have been reported as important carriers of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) for long-distance migration in the environment. However, the combined toxicity from long-term chronic exposure beyond the vehicle-release mechanism remains elusive. In this study, we investigated the synergistic action of Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and Polystyrene nanoparticles (PS) in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) as a combined exposure model with environmental concentrations. We found that the combined exposure to BaP and PS, as opposed to single exposures at low concentrations, significantly shortened the lifespan of C. elegans, leading to the occurrence of multiple senescence phenotypes. Multi-omics data indicated that the combined exposure to BaP and PS is associated with the disruption of glutathione homeostasis. Consequently, the accumulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) cannot be effectively cleared, which is highly correlated with mitochondrial dysfunction. Moreover, the increase in ROS promoted lipid peroxidation in C. elegans and downregulated Ferritin-1 (Ftn-1), resulting in ferroptosis and ultimately accelerating the aging process of C. elegans. Collectively, our study provides a new perspective to explain the long-term compound toxicity caused by BaP and PS at real-world exposure concentrations.

The fate and impact of Co3O4 nanoparticles in the soil environment: Observing the dose effect of nanoparticles on soybeans

The widespread presence and distribution of metal-based nanoparticles (NPs) in soil is threatening crop growth and food security. However, little is known about the fate of Co3O4 NPs in the soil-soybean system and their phytotoxicity. The study demonstrated the effects of Co3O4 NPs on soybean growth and yield in soil after 60 days and 140 days, and compared them with the phytotoxic effects of Co2+. The results showed that Co3O4 NPs (10-500 mg/kg) had no significant toxic effect on soybeans. Soil available Co content was significantly increased under 500 mg/kg Co3O4 NPs treatment. Compared with Co2+, Co3O4 NPs mainly accumulated in roots and had limited transport to the shoots, which was related to the particle size, surface charge and chemical stability of Co3O4 NPs. The significant accumulation of Co3O4 NPs in roots further led to a significant decrease in root antioxidant enzyme activity and changes in functional gene expression. Co3O4 NPs reduced soybean yield after 140 days, but interestingly, at specific doses, it increased grain nutrients (Fe content increased by 17.38% at 100 mg/kg, soluble protein and vitamin E increased by 14.34% and 16.81% at 10 mg/kg). Target hazard quotient (THQ) assessment results showed that consuming soybean seeds exposed to Co3O4 NPs (≥100 mg/kg) and Co2+ (≥10 mg/kg) would pose potential health risks. Generally, Co3O4 NPs could exist stably in the environment and had lower environmental risks than Co2+. These results help to better understand the environmental behavior and plant effect mechanisms of Co3O4 NPs in soil-plant systems.

The effects of polypropylene microplastics on the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus from water by Acorus calamus, Iris tectorum and functional microorganisms

Polypropylene microplastics (PP-MPs), an emerging pollutant, adversely affect the ability of aquatic plants to restore water bodies, thereby compromising the functionality and integrity of wetland ecosystems. This study examines the effects of microplastic stress on the nitrogen and phosphorus removal capacities of Acorus calamus and Iris tectorum, as well as on functional microorganisms within the aquatic system. The findings indicate that under PP-MP stress, the nitrogen and phosphorus absorption capabilities of both plants were diminished. Additionally, there was a significant reduction in the metabolic enzyme activities related to nitrogen and phosphorus in the plants, alongside a notable decrease in leaf nitrogen content. PP-MPs hinder the nutrient uptake of plants, affecting their growth and indirectly reducing their ability to utilize nitrogen and phosphorus. Specifically, in the 10 mg L-1 treatment group, A. calamus and I. tectorum showed reductions in leaf nitrogen content by 23.1% and 31.0%, respectively, and by 14.8% and 27.7% in the 200 mg L-1 treatment group. Furthermore, I. tectorum had higher leaf nitrogen levels than A. calamus. Using fluorescent tagging, the distribution of PP-MPs was traced in the roots, stems, and leaves of the plants, revealing significant growth impairment in both species. This included a considerable decline in photosynthetic pigment synthesis, enhanced oxidative stress responses, and increased lipid peroxidation in cell membranes. PP-MP exposure also significantly reduced the abundance of functional microorganisms involved in denitrification and phosphorus removal at the genus level in aquatic systems. Ecological function predictions revealed a notable decrease in nitrogen cycling functions such as nitrogen respiration and nitrite denitrification among water microorganisms in both treatment groups, with a higher ecological risk potential in the A. calamus treatment group. This study provides new insights into the potential stress mechanisms of PP-MPs on aquatic plants involved in water body remediation and their impacts on wetland ecosystems.

Tracing the entry process of submicrometre plastics in soybean sprouts by leaf-derived fluorescent carbon dots

As a global emerging contaminant, microplastics (MPs) in water or soil can accumulate in vegetables, making them easily ingested through the diet. With excellent and tunable optical properties, carbon dots (CDs) are highly advantageous for tracing the entry process of MPs. Originally, long-wavelength CDs were synthesized from leaf-derived extracts, and fluorescent submicrometer plastics (CDs-MPs) with clean surfaces and concentrated particle sizes were obtained by soap-free microemulsion polymerization. The concentration of CDs-MPs exhibits a significant linear relationship with long-wavelength fluorescence intensity (λEx/λEm: 415/676 nm). Soybean sprouts (SBS), as an important type of food, are susceptible to contamination of MPs due to their soft epidermis and rapidly growing biomass. The results showed that CDs-MPs could be embedded into the cortex of SBS and enter the plant with cell division and elongation, leading to an increase in pore size on the cell wall surface. After entering the root system, CDs-MPs will pass through the Casparian strip and migrate in the vessels. Then, CDs-MPs enter the leaves through vascular bundles, and the distribution and size of epicuticular wax on leaves have changed. Furthermore, SBS showed resistant growth and increased levels of oxidative response when exposed to MPs/CDs-MPs. It is the first study to demonstrate the application of leaf-derived CDs in the prevention of MPs pollution by revealing the migration behavior of submicrometre plastics in SBS.

Nematode Uptake Preference toward Different Nanoplastics through Avoidance Behavior Regulation

Expounding bioaccumulation pathways of nanoplastics in organisms is a prerequisite for assessing their ecological risks in the context of global plastic pollution. Invertebrate uptake preference toward nanoplastics is a key initial step of nanoplastic food chain transport that controls their global biosafety, while the biological regulatory mechanism remains unclear. Here, we reveal a preferential uptake mechanism involving active avoidance of nanoplastics by Caenorhabditis elegans and demonstrate the relationship between the uptake preference and nanoplastic characteristics. Nanoplastics with 100 nm in size or positive surface charges induce stronger avoidance due to higher toxicity, causing lower accumulation in nematodes, compared to the 500 nm-sized or negatively charged nanoplastics, respectively. Further evidence showed that nematodes did not actively ingest any types of nanoplastics, while different nanoplastics induced defense responses in a toxicity-dependent manner and distinctly stimulated the avoidance behavior of nematodes (ranged from 15.8 to 68.7%). Transcriptomics and validations using mutants confirmed that the insulin/IGF signaling (IIS) pathway is essential for the selective avoidance of nanoplastics. Specifically, the activation of DAF-16 promoted the IIS pathway-mediated defense against nanoplastics and stimulated the avoidance behavior, increasing the survival chances of nematodes. Considering the genetical universality of this defense response among invertebrates, such an uptake preference toward certain nanoplastics could lead to cascaded risks in the ecosystem.

Critical Review: Uptake and Translocation of Organic Nanodelivery Vehicles in Plants

Nanodelivery vehicles (NDVs) are engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) that, within the agricultural sector, have been investigated for their ability to improve uptake and translocation of agrochemicals, control release, or target specific tissues or subcellular compartments. Both inorganic and organic NDVs have been studied for agrochemical delivery in the literature, but research on the latter has been slower to develop than the literature on the former. Since the two classes of nanomaterials exhibit significant differences in surface chemistry, physical deformability, and even colloidal stability, trends that apply to inorganic NDVs may not hold for organic NDVs, and vice versa. We here review the current literature on the uptake, translocation, biotransformation, and cellular and subcellular internalization of organic NDVs in plants following foliar or root administration. A background on nanomaterials and plant physiology is provided as a leveling ground for researchers in the field. Trends in uptake and translocation are examined as a function of NDV properties and compared to those reported for inorganic nanomaterials. Methods for assessing fate and transport of organic NDVs in plants (a major bottleneck in the field) are discussed. We end by identifying knowledge gaps in the literature that must be understood in order to rationally design organic NDVs for precision agrochemical nanodelivery.

Tracking and imaging nano-plastics in fresh plant using cryogenic laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

Tracking and imaging of nano-plastics are extremely challenging, especially in fresh biological samples. Here, we propose a new strategy in which polystyrene (PS) was doped with the europium chelate Eu (DBM)3bpy to quantify, track, and in situ image nano-plastics in fresh cucumber based on inherent metals using cryogenic laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (cryo-LA-ICP-MS). The cryogenic conditions provide a stable condition for imaging fresh cucumber, suppressing the evaporation of water in fresh plants, and maintaining the original structure of plants with respect to room temperature imaging in LA-ICP-MS. The plants were cultivated in two types of nano-plastics solutions with low (50 mg/L) and high (200 mg/L) concentrations for 9 days. The results showed that nano-plastics mainly enrich the roots and have negative effects, which decrease the trace elements of Zn, Mn, and Cu in cucumber. Smaller PS particles are able to penetrate the plant more easily and inflict serious damage. Novel imaging method provides a novel insight into the tracking and imaging of nano-plastics in fresh plant samples. The results illustrated that nano-plastics deposition on plants has the potential to have direct ecological effects as well as consequences for potential health.

Can "Risk-Sharing" Mechanisms Help Clonal Aquatic Plants Mitigate the Stress of Nanoplastics?

Most aquatic plants applied to ecological restoration have demonstrated a clonal growth pattern. The risk-spreading strategy plays a crucial role in facilitating clonal plant growth under external environmental stresses via clonal integration. However, the effects of different concentrations of nanoplastics (NPs) on the growth traits of clonal aquatic plants are not well understood. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the impact of NPs exposure on seedlings of parent plants and connected offspring ramets. A dose response experiment (0.1, 1, and 10 mg L-1) showed that the growth of Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) was affected by 100 nm polystyrene nanoplastics after 28 days of exposure. Tracer analysis revealed that NPs are accumulated by parent plants and transferred to offspring ramets through stolon. Quantification analysis showed that when the parent plant was exposed to 10 mg L-1 NPs alone for 28 days, the offspring ramets contained approximately 13 ± 2 μg/g NPs. In the case of connected offspring ramets, leaf and root biomass decreased by 24%-51% and 32%-51%, respectively, when exposed to NP concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 10 mg L-1. Excessive enrichment of NPs had a detrimental effect on the photosynthetic system, decreasing the chlorophyll content and nonphotochemical quenching. An imbalance in the antioxidant defense systems, which were unable to cope with the oxidative stress caused by NP concentrations, further damaged various organs. The root system can take up NPs and then transfer them to the offspring through the stolon. Interference effects of NPs were observed in terms of root activity, metabolism, biofilm composition, and the plant's ability to purify water. However, the risk-spreading strategy employed by parent plants (interconnected offspring ramets) offered some relief from NP-induced stress, as it increased their relative growth rate by 1 to 1.38 times compared to individual plants. These findings provide substantial evidence of the high NP enrichment capacity of E. crassipes for ecological remediation. Nevertheless, we must also remain aware of the environmental risk associated with the spread of NPs within the clonal system of E. crassipes, and contaminated cloned individuals need to be precisely removed in a timely manner to maintain normal functions.

Screening the phytotoxicity of micro/nanoplastics through non-targeted metallomics with synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence and deep learning: Taking micro/nano polyethylene terephthalate as an example

Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) are global pollutants with emerging concerns. Methods to predict and screen their toxicity are crucial. Elemental dyshomeostasis can be used to assess toxicity of environmental pollutants. Non-targeted metallomics, combining synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence (SRXRF) and machine learning, has successfully differentiated cancer patients from healthy individuals. The whole idea of this work is to screen the phytotoxicity of nano polyethylene terephthalate (nPET) and micro polyethylene terephthalate (mPET) through non-targeted metallomics with SRXRF and deep learning algorithms. Firstly, Seed germination, seedling growth, photosynthetic changes, and antioxidant activity were used to evaluate the toxicity of mPET and nPET. It was showed that nPET, at 10 mg/L, was more toxic to rice seedlings, inhibiting growth and impairing chlorophyll content, MDA content, and SOD activity compared to mPET. Then, rice seedling leaves exposed to nPET or mPET was examined with SRXRF, and the SRXRF data was differentiated with deep learning algorithms. It was showed that the one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D-CNN) model achieved 98.99% accuracy without data preprocessing in screening mPET and nPET exposure. In all, non-targeted metallomics with SRXRF and 1D-CNN can effectively screen the exposure and phytotoxicity of nPET/mPET and potentially other emerging pollutants. Further research is needed to assess the phytotoxicity of different types of MPs/NPs using non-targeted metallomics.

Comprehensive understanding of the aging and biodegradation of polystyrene-based plastics

The extensive utilization and inadequate handling of plastics have resulted in severe environmental ramifications. In particular, plastics composed solely of a carbon-carbon (C-C) backbone exhibit limited degradation due to the absence of hydrolyzable functional groups. Plastics with enduring longevity in the natural environment are susceptible to environmental factors and their intrinsic properties, subsequently undergoing a series of aging processes that culminate in biodegradation. This article focuses on polystyrene (PS), which constitutes 20% of total plastic waste, as a case study. Initially, the application of PS in life and the impacts it poses are introduced. Following that, the key factors influencing the aging of PS are discussed, primarily encompassing its properties (e.g., surface characteristics, additives) and environmental factors (e.g., water matrices, biofilms). Lastly, an overview of microbial degradation of PS is provided, including potential microorganisms involved in PS degradation (bacteria, fungi, algae, and insects), four processes of microbial degradation (colonization, bio-fragmentation, assimilation, and mineralization), and potential mechanisms of microbial degradation. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted influences affecting the aging and biodegradation mechanisms of PS, thereby contributing valuable insights for the future management of plastic pollution.

Toxicity Mechanisms of Nanoplastics on Crop Growth, Interference of Phyllosphere Microbes, and Evidence for Foliar Penetration and Translocation

Despite the increasing prevalence of atmospheric nanoplastics (NPs), there remains limited research on their phytotoxicity, foliar absorption, and translocation in plants. In this study, we aimed to fill this knowledge gap by investigating the physiological effects of tomato leaves exposed to differently charged NPs and foliar absorption and translocation of NPs. We found that positively charged NPs caused more pronounced physiological effects, including growth inhibition, increased antioxidant enzyme activity, and altered gene expression and metabolite composition and even significantly changed the structure and composition of the phyllosphere microbial community. Also, differently charged NPs exhibited differential foliar absorption and translocation, with the positively charged NPs penetrating more into the leaves and dispersing uniformly within the mesophyll cells. Additionally, NPs absorbed by the leaves were able to translocate to the roots. These findings provide important insights into the interactions between atmospheric NPs and crop plants and demonstrate that NPs' accumulation in crops could negatively impact agricultural production and food safety.

Internalization, physiological responses and molecular mechanisms of lettuce to polystyrene microplastics of different sizes: Validation of simulated soilless culture

Microplastics (MPs) exists widely in the environment, and the resulting pollution of MPs has become a global environmental problem. Plants can absorb MPs through their roots. However, studies on the mechanism of the effect of root exposure to different size MPs on vegetables are limited. Here, we use Polystyrene (PS) MPs with different particle sizes to investigate the internalization, physiological response and molecular mechanism of lettuce to MPs. MPs may accumulate in large amounts in lettuce roots and migrate to the aboveground part through the vascular bundle, while small particle size MPs (SMPs, 100 nm) have stronger translocation ability than large particle size MPs (LMPs, 500 nm). MPs can cause physiological and biochemical responses and transcriptome changes in lettuce. SMPs and LMPs resulted in reduced biomass (38.27 % and 48.22 % reduction in fresh weight); caused oxidative stress (59.33 % and 47.74 % upregulation of SOD activity in roots) and differential gene expression (605 and 907 DEGs). Signal transduction, membrane transport and alteration of synthetic and metabolic pathways may be the main causes of physiological toxicity of lettuce. Our study provides important information for understanding the behavior and fate of MPs in edible vegetables, especially the physiological toxicity of MPs to edible vegetables, in order to assess the potential threat of MPs to food safety and agricultural sustainable development.

Bibliometric analysis and systematic review of the adherence, uptake, translocation, and reduction of micro/nanoplastics in terrestrial plants

Micro/nanoplastics are emerging agricultural pollutants globally. Micro/nanoplastics can adhere to terrestrial plant surfaces, be absorbed and transported by plants, and accumulate in the edible parts of plants, leading to the possibility of enrichment and transmission through the food chain and threatening human health. However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. With increased studies on the internalization of micro/nanoplastics in terrestrial plants, a comprehensive and systematic review summarizing the current research trends and progress is warranted to provide a reference for further relevant research. Based on bibliometric analysis, this study focused on the mechanisms, study methods, and reduction techniques of micro/nanoplastics adherence, uptake, and translocation by terrestrial plants. The results showed that micro/nanoplastics can adhere to the surfaces of plant tissues such as seeds, roots, and leaves. Root uptake (root-to-leaf translocation) and foliar uptake (leaf-to-root translocation) are the two simultaneous internalization pathways of MNPs in plants. The observation methods included scanning electron microscopy (SEM), confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS), and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). We highlighted the necessity and urgency of reducing the uptake and translocation of MNPs by plants and found that the application of silicon may be a promising approach for reducing internalization. This study identifies current knowledge gaps and proposes possible future needs.

Transcriptomic mechanism for foliar applied nano-ZnO alleviating phytotoxicity of nanoplastics in corn (Zea mays L.) plants

Nanoplastics, as emerging pollutants, have drawn increasing concerns for their potential threats to agriculture and food security. ZnO nanoparticles (nano-ZnO), serving as ideal nano-fertilizer dispersion in sustainable agriculture, might be a promising application for nanoplastic stress management. To determine the role of nano-ZnO in regulating crop response towards nanoplastic pollutions, corn (Zea mays L.) seedlings after leaf treatment by nano-ZnO were foliar exposed to polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs). The presence of nano-ZnO significantly reduced the accumulation of PSNPs in corn leaf, stem and root tissues by 40.7 %-71.4 %. Physiologically, nano-ZnO prominently decreased the extent of PSNP-induced reduction in chlorophyll content and photosynthetic rates, thereby greatly weakening the toxic effects of PSNPs on corn plant growth. The Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses demonstrated that responsive differentially expressed genes involved in photosynthesis, glutathione metabolism and phytohormone signal transduction pathways explained the enhanced tolerance of corn plants to PSNPs under the addition of nano-ZnO. Among the key genes of photosynthesis, nano-ZnO ensured the regular expression of chlorophyll synthesis genes (CHLH, CHLD, CHLM, DVR, GTR and POR), photosystem II gene (PetH), and carbon fixation enzyme genes (pepc, rbcL and rbcS) inhibited by PSNP exposure. These findings enlarge our understanding of the mechanism by which nano-ZnO attenuates the negative effects of nanoplastics on crops, which is of great significance for improving the sustainable utilization of nano-fertilizers in agriculture.

Cell Wall Pectin Content Refers to Favored Delivery of Negatively Charged Carbon Dots in Leaf Cells

In this work, we systematically investigated how cell wall and cell wall components affect the delivery of charged carbon quantum dots (CDs, from -34 to +41 mV) to leaf cells of cucumber and Arabidopsis plants. Four different types of leaf cells in cucumber and Arabidopsis were used, i.e., protoplasts (without cell wall), isolated individual cells (cell wall hydrolyzed with pectinase), regenerated individual cells (cell wall regenerated from protoplast), and intact leaf cells (intact cell wall, in planta). Leaf cells were incubated with charged CDs (0.5 mg/mL) for 2 h. Confocal imaging results showed that protoplasts, regenerated individual cells, and leaf cells showed favored uptake of the negatively charged CDs (-34 mV) compared to the PEI (polyethylenimine) coated and positively charged carbon dots [PEI600-CDs (17 mV) and PEI10K-CDs (41 mV)], while in isolated individual cells, the trend is opposite. The results of the content of the cell wall components showed that no significant changes in the total cell wall content were found between isolated individual cells and regenerated individual cells (1.28 vs 1.11 mg/106 cells), while regenerated individual cells showed significant higher pectin content [water-soluble pectin (0.13 vs 0.06 mg/106 cells, P < 0.01), chelator-soluble pectin (0.04 vs 0.01 mg/106 cells, P < 0.01), and alkaline pectin (0.02 vs 0.01 mg/106 cells, P < 0.01)] and significant lower cellulose content (0.13 vs 0.32 mg/106 cells, P < 0.01) than the isolated individual cells. No difference of the hemicellulose content was found between isolated individual cells and regenerated individual cells (0.20 vs 0.21 mg/106 cells). Our results suggest that compared with cellulose and hemicellulose in the cell wall, the pectin is a more important factor referring to the favored uptake of negatively charged carbon dots in leaf cells. Overall, this work provides a method to study the role of cell wall components in the uptake of nanoparticles in plant cells and also points out the importance of understanding the interactions between cell barriers and nanoparticles to design nanoparticles for agricultural use.

Uptake, transport and accumulation of micro- and nano-plastics in terrestrial plants and health risk associated with their transfer to food chain - A mini review

Waste plastics enter the environment (water, soil, and atmosphere) and degrade into micro- and nano-plastics (MNPs) through physical, chemical, or biological processes. MNPs are ubiquitous in the environment and inevitably interact with terrestrial plants. Terrestrial plants have become important potential sinks, and subsequently, the sources of MNPs. At present, many studies have reported the effects of MNPs on plant physiology, biochemistry, and their phototoxicity. However, the source, detection method, and the absorption process of MNPs in terrestrial plants have not been systematically studied. In order to better understand the continuous process of MNPs entering terrestrial plants, this review introduces the sources and analysis methods of MNPs in terrestrial plants. The uptake pathways of MNPs in terrestrial plants and their influencing factors were systematically summarized. Meanwhile, the transport pathways and the accumulation of MNPs in different plant organs (roots, stems, leaves, calyxes, and fruits) were explored. Finally, the transfer of MNPs through food chains to humans and their health risks were discussed. The aim of this work is to provide significant theoretical knowledge to understand the uptake, transport, and accumulation of MNPs in terrestrial plants and the potential health risks associated with their transfer to humans through food chain.

Uptake and translocation of organic pollutants in Camellia sinensis (L.): a review

Camellia sinensis (L.) is a perennial evergreen woody plant with the potential for environmental pollution due to its unique growth environment and extended growth cycle. Pollution sources and pathways for tea plants encompass various factors, including atmospheric deposition, agricultural inputs of chemical fertilizers and pesticide, uptake from soil, and sewage irrigation. During the cultivation phase, Camellia sinensis (L.) can absorb organic pollutants through its roots and leaves. This review provides an overview of the uptake and translocation mechanisms involving the absorption of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pesticides, anthraquinone (AQ), perchlorate, and other organic pollutants by tea plant roots. Additionally, we summarize how fresh tea leaves can be impacted by spraying pesticide and atmospheric sedimentation. In conclusion, this review highlights current research progress in understanding the pollution risks associated with Camellia sinensis (L.) and its products, emphasizing the need for further investigation and providing insights into potential future directions for research in this field.

Mass-based trophic transfer of polystyrene nanoplastics in the lettuce-snail food chain

To investigate the potential transfer of nanoplastics (NPs) from water to plants and subsequently to a higher trophic level, we established a food chain and evaluated the trophic transfer of polystyrene (PS) NPs based on mass concentrations by pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Lettuce plants were cultivated in Hoagland solution with varying concentrations of PS-NPs (0.1, 1, 10, 100 and 1000 mg/L) for a period of 60 d and then a total of 7 g lettuce shoot was fed to snails for 27 d. Shoot biomass exposed at 1000 mg/L PS-NPs was reduced by 36.1 %. No significant change in root biomass was observed, however, root volume was reduced by 25.6 % at 100 mg/L. Moreover, PS-NPs were detected in both lettuce roots and shoots across all concentrations. Additionally, PS-NPs were transferred to snails and primarily found in feces (>75 %). Only 28 ng/g of PS-NPs were detected in the soft tissue of snails indirectly exposed at 1000 mg/L. Although PS-NPs were bio-diluted when transferred to species at higher trophic levels, they significantly inhibited the growth of snails, indicating that their potential risk to high trophic levels cannot be ignored. This study provides key information on trophic transfer and patterns of PS-NPs in food chains and helps to evaluate risk of NPs in terrestrial ecosystem.

Compound effect and mechanism of oxidative damage induced by nanoplastics and benzo [a] pyrene

Nanoplastics and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous in soil environments. In order to objectively evaluate the toxic interaction between polystyrene nanoplastics (PS NPs) and benzo [a] pyrene (BaP), oxidative damage at the level of earthworm cells and biomacromolecules was investigated by experiments combined with molecular dynamics simulation. Studies on cells reveal that PS NPs and BaP had synergistic toxicity when it came to causing oxidative stress. Cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels under combined pollutant exposure were 24% and 19% higher, respectively than when PS NPs and BaP were exposed alone (compared to the blank group). In addition, BaP and PS NPs inhibited the ability of CAT to decompose H2O2 by affecting the structure of the proximal amino acid Tyr 357 in the active center of CAT, which exacerbated oxidative stress to a certain extent. Therefore, the synergistic toxic effect of BaP and PS NPs is due to the mutual complement of the two to the induction of protein structural looseness, and the strengthening of the stability of the conjugate (CAT-BaP-PS) under the weak interaction. This work provides a new perspective and approach on how to talk about the toxicity of combined pollutants.

Palladium-doped and undoped polystyrene nanoplastics in a chronic toxicity test for higher plants: Impact on soil, plants and ammonium oxidizing bacteria

There is a lack of knowledge about the fate and impact of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs), as well as their potential uptake and impact on plants and microorganisms. The predicted environmental concentrations (PEC) of frequent polymers in soils are low, and therefore, difficult to detect with the available techniques, which explains the knowledge gaps. Therefore, model particles (polystyrene particles (PS-P), 343 nm) and palladium (Pd) nanoparticle-doped polystyrene particles (PS-Pd-PS-P, 442 nm) were synthesized, characterized, and subsequently applied to agricultural soils (Cambisol, Podzol, PS target contents: 25 mg kg-1, 75 mg kg-1, 225 mg kg-1). A combination of different techniques, such as inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Pyr-GC-MS), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), were used to characterize the particles in the dispersions, soils and plants. The spiked soils were applied to a chronical plant toxicity test with oat (Avena sativa). The applied particle contents could be recovered from both soils by ICP-MS (Pd, 89% - 99%), and Pyr-GC-MS (PS, 73% - 120%). Moreover, non-aggregated particles in soils and on oat roots were visualized through SEM. The ratio obtained for the Pd contents in oat roots to that in the Cambisol (2.2-2.7) and the Podzol (2.3-2.6) implied that particles accumulated on the root surface or in the roots. No Pd was detected in the oat shoots, which indicated that no translocation occurred from the roots to the shoots. Despite particle accumulation at or in the roots, no clear effects on plant growth were observed. Furthermore, the soil microorganisms (Podzol) and the soil water repellency (Cambisol, Podzol) showed no clear monotone concentration-response relationship after exposure to PS-P and PS-Pd-PS-P. The findings are complex and illustrate the urgent need for further sophisticated experimental studies to elucidate the impacts of NPs on physicochemical soil function, plants, and soil organisms. The model PS-P doped with Pd nanoparticles significantly enhanced the development and validation of methods for investigating MPs and NPs in environmental matrices, highlighting their considerable potential for further studies.

Accumulation and transfer of polystyrene microplastics in Solanum nigrum seedlings

Microplastic (MP) pollution is lately receiving increasing attention owing to its harmful impact on terrestrial ecosystems. In this microcosm study, we assessed the uptake and transfer of MPs in Solanum nigrum seedlings exposed to 50 mg L-1 of 0.2-µm polystyrene (PS) beads for 30 d. Confocal laser scanning micrographs helped detect highly intense red fluorescence signals from PS-MP beads in S. nigrum root compared with the controls. Confocal images revealed that the PS beads were primarily distributed in the epidermis and xylem of roots and vascular systems of stems and leaves. Scanning electron microscopy showed that PS beads were scattered on the cell walls of the root xylem and leaf vascular system. Few PS beads were transferred from roots to stems and leaves via the vascular system following the transpiration stream. In conclusion, our findings showed that PS beads accumulated in S. nigrum roots and were transferred from the roots to the aerial parts.

Effects of microplastics on the phytoremediation of Cd, Pb, and Zn contaminated soils by Solanum photeinocarpum and Lantana camara

Microplastics are emerging pollutants and have become a global environmental issue. The impacts of microplastics on the phytoremediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils are unclear. A pot experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of four additions (0, 0.1%, 0.5%, and 1% w·w-1) of polyethylene (PE) and cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) contaminated soil on the growth and heavy metal accumulation of two hyperaccumulators (Solanum photeinocarpum and Lantana camara). PE significantly decreased the pH and activities of dehydrogenase and phosphatase in soil, while it increased the bioavailability of Cd and Pb in soil. Peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), and malondialdehyde (MDA) activity in the plant leaves were all considerably increased by PE. PE had no discernible impact on plant height, but it did significantly impede root growth. PE affected the morphological contents of heavy metals in soils and plants, while it did not alter their proportions. PE increased the content of heavy metals in the shoots and roots of the two plants by 8.01-38.32% and 12.24-46.28%, respectively. However, PE significantly reduced the Cd extraction amount in plant shoots, while it significantly increased the Zn extraction amount in the plant roots of S. photeinocarpum. For L. camara, a lower addition (0.1%) of PE inhibited the extraction amount of Pb and Zn in the plant shoots, but a higher addition (0.5% and 1%) of PE stimulated the Pb extraction amount in the plant roots and the Zn extraction amount in the plant shoots. Our results indicated that PE microplastics have negative effects on the soil environment, plant growth, and the phytoremediation efficiency of Cd and Pb. These findings contribute to a better knowledge of the interaction effects of microplastics and heavy metal-contaminated soils.

Multidimensional applications and potential health implications of nanocomposites

This study reviews the concept, classifications, and techniques involved in the synthesis of nanocomposites. The environmental and health implications of nanoparticles and composite materials were detailed, as well as the applications of nanocomposites in water remediation, antibacterial application, and printed circuit boards. The study gave insights into the challenges of water pollution treatment and provided a broad list of nanocomposites that have been explored for water remediation. Moreover, the emergence of multi-drug resistance to many antibiotics has made current antibiotics inadequate in the treatment of disease. This has engineered the development of alternative strategies in the drug industries for the production of effective therapeutic agents, comprising nanocomposites with antibacterial agents. The new therapeutic agents known as nanoantibiotics are more efficient and have paved the way to handle the challenges of antibiotic resistance. In printed circuit boards, nanocomposites have shown promising applications because of their distinct mechanical, thermal, and electrical characteristics. The uniqueness of the write-up is that it provides a broad explanation of the concept, synthesis, application, toxicity, and harmful effects of nanocomposites. Thus, it will provide all-inclusive awareness to readers to identify research gaps and motivate researchers to synthesize novel nanocomposites for use in various fields.

Are nanoplastics potentially toxic for plants and rhizobiota? Current knowledge and recommendations

Soil is now becoming a reservoir of plastics in response to global production, use/disposal patterns and low recovery rates. Their degradation is caused by numerous processes, and this degradation leads to the formation and release of plastic nanoparticles, i.e., nanoplastics. The occurrence of nanoplastics in the soil is expected to both directly and indirectly impact its properties and functioning. Nanoplastics may directly impact the physiology and development of living organisms, especially plants, e.g., by modifying their production yield. Nanoplastics can also indirectly modify the physicochemical properties of the soil and, as a result, favour the release of related contaminants (organic or inorganic) and have an impact on soil biota, and therefore have a negative effect on the functioning of rhizospheres. However all these results have to be taken carefully since performed with polymer nano-bead not representative of the nanoplastics observed in the environment. This review highlight thus the current knowledge on the interactions between plants, rhizosphere and nanoplastics, their consequences on plant physiology and development in order to identify gaps and propose scientific recommendations.

In vitro wheat protoplast cytotoxicity of polystyrene nanoplastics

Nanoplastics are an emerging environmental pollutant, having a potential risk to the terrestrial ecosystem. In the natural environment, almost all the micro-or nano-plastics will be aged by many factors and their characterizations of the surface will be modified. However, the toxicity and mechanism of the modified polystyrene nanoparticles (PS-NPs) to plant cells are not clear. In the study, the amino- and carboxyl-modified PS-NPs with different sizes (20 and 200 nm) were selected as the typical representatives to investigate their effects on protoplast cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the cell and the leakage of cell-inclusion and apoptosis. The results indicated that the 20 nm amino-modified PS-NPs (PS-20A) could significantly damage the structure of the cell, especially the cell membrane, chloroplast and mitochondrion. After being modified by amino group, smaller size nanoplastics had the potential to cause more severe damage. In addition, compared with carboxyl-modified PS-NPs, the amino-modified PS-NPs induced more ROS production and caused higher membrane permeability/lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage. Apoptosis assay indicated that the proportion of viable cells in the PS-20A treatment decreased significantly, and the proportion of necrotic cells increased by four times. This study provides new insights into the toxicity and damage mechanism of PS-NPs to terrestrial vascular plants at the cellular level, and guides people to pay attention to the quality and safety of agricultural products caused by nanoplastics.

Polystyrene micro and nanoplastics attenuated the bioavailability and toxic effects of Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) on soybean (Glycine max) sprouts

Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) have attracted much attention since their wide distribution in the environment and organisms. MNPs in the environment adsorb other organic pollutants, such as Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), and cause combined effects. However, the impact of MNPs and PFOS in agricultural hydroponic systems is unclear. This study investigated the combined effects of polystyrene (PS) MNPs and PFOS on soybean (Glycine max) sprouts, which are common hydroponic vegetable. Results demonstrated that the adsorption of PFOS on PS particles transformed free PFOS into adsorbed state and reduced its bioavailability and potential migration, thus attenuating acute toxic effects such as oxidative stress. TEM and Laser confocal microscope images showed that PS nanoparticles uptake in sprout tissue was enhanced by the adsorption of PFOS which is because of changes of the particle surface properties. Transcriptome analysis showed that PS and PFOS exposure promoted soybean sprouts to adapt to environmental stress and MARK pathway might play an important role in recognition of microplastics coated by PFOS and response to enhancing plant resistance. This study provided the first evaluation about the effect of adsorption between PS particles and PFOS on their phytotoxicity and bioavailability, in order to provide new ideas for risk assessment.

Nanoparticles in Plants: Uptake, Transport and Physiological Activity in Leaf and Root

Due to their unique characteristics, nanoparticles are increasingly used in agricultural production through foliage spraying and soil application. The use of nanoparticles can improve the efficiency of agricultural chemicals and reduce the pollution caused by the use of agricultural chemicals. However, introducing nanoparticles into agricultural production may pose risks to the environment, food and even human health. Therefore, it is crucial to pay attention to the absorption migration, and transformation in crops, and to the interaction with higher plants and plant toxicity of nanoparticles in agriculture. Research shows that nanoparticles can be absorbed by plants and have an impact on plant physiological activities, but the absorption and transport mechanism of nanoparticles is still unclear. This paper summarizes the research progress of the absorption and transportation of nanoparticles in plants, especially the effect of size, surface charge and chemical composition of nanoparticle on the absorption and transportation in leaf and root through different ways. This paper also reviews the impact of nanoparticles on plant physiological activity. The content of the paper is helpful to guide the rational application of nanoparticles in agricultural production and ensure the sustainability of nanoparticles in agricultural production.