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Luo WQ, Cao MT, Sun CX, Wang JJ, Gao MX, He XR, Dang LN, Geng YY, Li BY, Li J, Shi ZC, Yan XR. Size-dependent internalization of polystyrene microplastics as a key factor in macrophages and systemic toxicity. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2025; 490:137701. [PMID: 40020305 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.137701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2024] [Revised: 02/07/2025] [Accepted: 02/19/2025] [Indexed: 03/03/2025]
Abstract
Microplastics are emerging pollutants with a wide range of ecological and biological effects, including the ability to accumulate in organisms and induce toxicity. Although numerous studies have investigated the distribution and toxicity of microplastics in murine models and cell lines, the conclusions are inconsistent owing to variations in experimental designs, particle sizes, exposure methods, and dose quantifications. To address these gaps, we systematically evaluated the size-dependent internalization and toxicity of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) using in vitro and in vivo models. Fluorescently labeled PS-MPs were used to confirm the negligible toxicity of fluorophores on macrophages, demonstrating their suitability for tracking particle accumulation. In vitro experiments using RAW 264.7 cell lines and primary peritoneal macrophages revealed size-dependent phagocytosis and cytotoxicity, with smaller particles (0.5 µm) demonstrating higher internalization and causing greater mitochondrial depolarization, reactive oxygen species generation, and apoptosis compared to that with larger particles (5 µm). Acute in vivo experiments comparing oral administration and tail-vein injection revealed that the absorbed dose and toxicity were significantly influenced by particle size, with smaller PS-MPs showing higher organ retention and alterations in hematological and metabolic parameters. Additionally, a 28-day subacute oral exposure study highlighted systemic toxicity, including weight loss, disrupted food intake, elevated oxidative stress markers, and reduced antioxidant enzyme activity. By integrating multiple exposure routes, macrophage models, and fluorescence toxicity evaluations, this study provided a comprehensive and realistic assessment of microplastic toxicity, offering valuable insights for advancing toxicological evaluations and regulatory frameworks. However, this study did not address the influence of other plastic types, shapes, or environmental factors on toxicity. Future studies are thus needed to explore these variables and the long-term implications of real-world microplastic exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Qiang Luo
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China; Institute of Eco-toxicology, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Meng-Ting Cao
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China; Institute of Eco-toxicology, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Chen-Xuan Sun
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China; Institute of Eco-toxicology, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Jun-Jian Wang
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China; Institute of Eco-toxicology, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Meng-Xi Gao
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China; Institute of Eco-toxicology, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Xue-Rui He
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China; Institute of Eco-toxicology, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Le-Ning Dang
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China; Institute of Eco-toxicology, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Yang-Yang Geng
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China; Institute of Eco-toxicology, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Bing-Yao Li
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Jing Li
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Zhi-Cheng Shi
- Institute of Eco-toxicology, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Xing-Rong Yan
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China; Institute of Eco-toxicology, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China.
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Velasquez STR, Hu Q, Kramm J, Santin VC, Völker C, Wurm FR. Plastics of the Future? An Interdisciplinary Review on Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers: Progress in Chemistry, Societal Views, and Environmental Implications. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2025; 64:e202423406. [PMID: 40126932 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202423406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2024] [Revised: 01/30/2025] [Accepted: 01/30/2025] [Indexed: 03/26/2025]
Abstract
Global demand to reduce polymer waste and microplastics pollution has increased in recent years, prompting further research, development, and wider use of biodegradable and biobased polymers (BBPs). BBPs have emerged as promising alternatives to conventional plastics, with the potential to mitigate the environmental burdens of persistent plastic waste. We provide an updated perspective on their impact, five years after our last article, featuring several recent advances, particularly in exploring broader variety of feedstock, applying novel chemical modifications, and developing new functionalities. Life-cycle assessments reveal that environmental performance of BBPs depends on several factors including feedstock selection, production efficiency, and end-of-life management. Furthermore, the introduction of BBPs in several everyday life products has also influenced consumer perception, market dynamics, and regulatory frameworks. Although offering environmental advantages in specific applications, BBPs also raise concerns regarding their biodegradability under varying environmental conditions, potential microplastic generation, and soil health impacts. We highlight the need for a circular approach considering the entire polymer life cycle, from feedstock sourcing, modification and use, to end-of-life options. Interdisciplinary research, collaborative initiatives, and informed policymaking are crucial to unlocking the full potential of BBPs and exploiting their contribution to create a circular economy and more sustainable future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara T R Velasquez
- Sustainable Polymer Chemistry (SPC), Department of Molecules and Materials, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, Netherlands
| | - Qisong Hu
- Sustainable Polymer Chemistry (SPC), Department of Molecules and Materials, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, Netherlands
| | - Johanna Kramm
- Institute for Social-Ecological Research (ISOE), Hamburger Allee 45, 60486, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Vitória C Santin
- Sustainable Polymer Chemistry (SPC), Department of Molecules and Materials, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, Netherlands
| | - Carolin Völker
- Institute for Social-Ecological Research (ISOE), Hamburger Allee 45, 60486, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Institute of Ecology, Evolution and Diversity, Faculty Biological Sciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, Max-von-Laue-Straße 13, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Frederik R Wurm
- Sustainable Polymer Chemistry (SPC), Department of Molecules and Materials, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, Netherlands
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3
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Dennis J, Arulraj D, Mistri TK. Unseen toxins: Exploring the human health consequences of micro and nanoplastics. Toxicol Rep 2025; 14:101955. [PMID: 40092045 PMCID: PMC11909754 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.101955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2024] [Revised: 02/03/2025] [Accepted: 02/05/2025] [Indexed: 03/19/2025] Open
Abstract
Micro and nanoplastics (MNPs) contamination constitute a pressing global issue with considerable ramifications for human health. Particles originating from the decomposition of plastic waste permeate ecosystems and disturb biological systems, especially the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. MNPs compromise the intestinal barrier, provoke oxidative stress, inflammation, and immunological dysfunction, and modify gut microbiota, which is associated with metabolic problems, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and colorectal cancer. MNPs traverse biological barriers beyond the gastrointestinal system, including the blood-brain barrier, colonic mucus layer, and placental barrier, resulting in accumulation in essential organs such as the liver, kidneys, and brain. This results in inflammatory damage, metabolic abnormalities, and oxidative stress, specifically affecting liver disease due to microbiota metabolite alteration and nephrotoxicity in the kidneys. Airborne MNPs pose an additional risk to respiratory health, aggravating ailments such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and pulmonary fibrosis. At-risk groups, such as pregnant women, newborns, and the elderly, encounter increased dangers, as MNPs traverse the placental barrier and may induce neurological and intergenerational health consequences. These particles function as vectors for environmental pollutants, exacerbating their cardiovascular and neurological effects. Addressing the long-term consequences of MNP exposure necessitates interdisciplinary collaboration to enhance comprehension and alleviate their growing risk to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Dennis
- Department of Chemistry, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, SRM Nagar, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 603203, India
| | - Divya Arulraj
- Department of Chemistry, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, SRM Nagar, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 603203, India
| | - Tapan Kumar Mistri
- Department of Chemistry, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, SRM Nagar, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 603203, India
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Li B, Li M, Du D, Tang B, Yi W, He M, Liu R, Yu H, Yu Y, Zheng J. Characteristics and influencing factors of microplastics entering human blood through intravenous injection. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2025; 198:109377. [PMID: 40139033 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2025.109377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2024] [Revised: 03/11/2025] [Accepted: 03/13/2025] [Indexed: 03/29/2025]
Abstract
The presence of microplastics in the human body and their potential health risks have drawn widespread attention in recent years. Microplastics have been detected in human blood, though their pathways of entry remain unclear. This study employed Raman spectroscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy to evaluate the microplastic release characteristics of intravenous medical devices, aiming to investigate the influencing factors and the risk of microplastics entering the bloodstream. The results showed that microplastics were found in three widely-used medical devices, with abundances ranging from 0.44 to 2.00 items/n. Polyethylene, polypropylene (46.2 %), fragments (96.7 %), and white (86.8 %) were the predominant characteristics. Factors such as brand, specifications, and usage scenarios influence microplastic release, leading to differences in detection rates among different medical devices (0-100%). Repeated use significantly increases the risk of microplastic release (p < 0.05). Notably, built-in filtration membranes do not completely retain microplastics and may pose a risk of shedding fibers themselves. Using the exposure assessment model, the estimated microplastic release per person per year was 3.75 items for syringe, 6.22 items for infusion set, and 0.35 items for vein detained needle. Overall, although the amount of microplastics entering the human body through intravenous injection is significantly lower than that from dietary exposure and other pathways, the risk of direct entry into the bloodstream remains a concern. This research provides critical evidence for understanding the direct pathways and risks of microplastic exposure in human blood from plastic medical devices, offering significant scientific value for assessing exposure pathways and the safety of medical device use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bowen Li
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Research Center of Emerging Contaminants, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People's Republic of China, Guangzhou 510655, China
| | - Min Li
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Research Center of Emerging Contaminants, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People's Republic of China, Guangzhou 510655, China
| | - Dongwei Du
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Research Center of Emerging Contaminants, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People's Republic of China, Guangzhou 510655, China
| | - Bin Tang
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Research Center of Emerging Contaminants, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People's Republic of China, Guangzhou 510655, China
| | - Wenwen Yi
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Research Center of Emerging Contaminants, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People's Republic of China, Guangzhou 510655, China; School of Public Health, The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Monitoring and Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang 561113, China
| | - Miaoni He
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Research Center of Emerging Contaminants, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People's Republic of China, Guangzhou 510655, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Environment and Health Research, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
| | - Ruijuan Liu
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Research Center of Emerging Contaminants, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People's Republic of China, Guangzhou 510655, China
| | - Hairui Yu
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Research Center of Emerging Contaminants, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People's Republic of China, Guangzhou 510655, China
| | - Yunjiang Yu
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Research Center of Emerging Contaminants, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People's Republic of China, Guangzhou 510655, China
| | - Jing Zheng
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Research Center of Emerging Contaminants, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People's Republic of China, Guangzhou 510655, China.
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Li H, Song W, Wang S, Wang Y, Ma Y, Su Y, Ji R. Ingestion of melamine cleaning sponges-derived microplastic fibers affects the survival and reproduction of Daphnia magna. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2025; 290:117814. [PMID: 39874685 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.117814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2024] [Revised: 01/23/2025] [Accepted: 01/24/2025] [Indexed: 01/30/2025]
Abstract
The abrasion of melamine cleaning sponges release microplastic fibers (MPFs) into the environment, yet the potential risks remain unknown. Here, we evaluated the ingestion, elimination, and toxic effects of melamine MPFs on Daphnia magna through acute and chronic exposures. This new type of MPFs displayed different morphology (a combination of linear and branched fibers with a length ranging from 10 to 157 μm) from the widely-studied MPFs released from textiles (longer and thicker linear fibers but no branched fibers). Although the lethality of melamine MPFs to neonates was not observed upon a short-term exposure (24 h), such effect was detected when the animals were exposed for a longer period (21 d) and showed a concentration-dependent manner. The MPFs tended to aggregate in the gut of D. magna, leading to a slow elimination compared to polystyrene microspheres. The MPFs remaining in the gut triggered an elevation in the intracellular reactive oxygen species, which further induced oxidative damage and eventually death. The long-term exposure to MPFs also stimulated D. magna to produce more offspring. Our findings show the chronic toxicity of the sponges-derived MPFs to typical freshwater zooplankton and accentuate the environmental impacts related to the extensive use of the sponges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huimin Li
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Wenwen Song
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China; School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
| | - Songfeng Wang
- Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China
| | - Yanhua Wang
- School of Geography and Tourism, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China
| | - Yunfeng Ma
- School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Yu Su
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Rong Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
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Yashwanth A, Huang R, Iepure M, Mu M, Zhou W, Kunadu A, Carignan C, Yegin Y, Cho D, Oh JK, Taylor MT, Akbulut MES, Min Y. Food packaging solutions in the post-per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and microplastics era: A review of functions, materials, and bio-based alternatives. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2025; 24:e70079. [PMID: 39680570 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.70079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2024] [Revised: 11/15/2024] [Accepted: 11/19/2024] [Indexed: 12/18/2024]
Abstract
Food packaging (FP) is essential for preserving food quality, safety, and extending shelf-life. However, growing concerns about the environmental and health impacts of conventional packaging materials, particularly per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and microplastics, are driving a major transformation in FP design. PFAS, synthetic compounds with dual hydro- and lipophobicity, have been widely employed in food packaging materials (FPMs) to impart desirable water and grease repellency. However, PFAS bioaccumulate in the human body and have been linked to multiple health effects, including immune system dysfunction, cancer, and developmental problems. The detection of microplastics in various FPMs has raised significant concerns regarding their potential migration into food and subsequent ingestion. This comprehensive review examines the current landscape of FPMs, their functions, and physicochemical properties to put into perspective why there is widespread use of PFAS and microplastics in FPMs. The review then addresses the challenges posed by PFAS and microplastics, emphasizing the urgent need for sustainable and bio-based alternatives. We highlight promising advancements in sustainable and renewable materials, including plant-derived polysaccharides, proteins, and waxes, as well as recycled and upcycled materials. The integration of these sustainable materials into active packaging systems is also examined, indicating innovations in oxygen scavengers, moisture absorbers, and antimicrobial packaging. The review concludes by identifying key research gaps and future directions, including the need for comprehensive life cycle assessments and strategies to improve scalability and cost-effectiveness. As the FP industry evolves, a holistic approach considering environmental impact, functionality, and consumer acceptance will be crucial in developing truly sustainable packaging solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arcot Yashwanth
- Artie McFerrin Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Rundong Huang
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Monica Iepure
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Minchen Mu
- Artie McFerrin Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Wentao Zhou
- Artie McFerrin Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Angela Kunadu
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Courtney Carignan
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Yagmur Yegin
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Dongik Cho
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Dankook University, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun Kyun Oh
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Dankook University, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Matthew T Taylor
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Mustafa E S Akbulut
- Artie McFerrin Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Younjin Min
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California, USA
- Material Science and Engineering Program, University of California, Riverside, California, USA
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