Wastewater-Based Epidemiology as a New Tool for Estimating Population Exposure to Phthalate Plasticizers

Feasibility of sulfated BPA and BPS as wastewater-based epidemiology biomarkers: Insights from wastewater and reported human urine analysis

In wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), the selection of appropriate biomarkers presents a significant challenge. Recently, sulfated bisphenols have garnered attention as potential WBE biomarkers due to their increased stability in wastewater compared to glucuronide conjugates. This study aims to comprehensively assess the feasibility of employing sulfated BPA and BPS as WBE biomarkers by analyzing both WBE and human biomonitoring data. To conduct this research, wastewater samples were collected from six domestic wastewater treatment plants in Guangzhou, China, and urinary concentration of BPA and BPS were obtained from peer-reviewed literature. The results revealed that mean urinary concentrations of BPA and BPS, calculated using Monte Carlo simulations, significantly exceeded those reported in human biomonitoring studies. Furthermore, the per capita mass load ratio of sulfated BPA and BPS in human urine to the mass load in wastewater was found to be below 10 %. This outcome suggests that the excretion of BPA-S and BPS-S in urine does not make a substantial contribution to wastewater, hinting at the existence of other notable sources. Consequently, our study concludes that sulfated BPA-S and BPS-S are not suitable candidates as WBE biomarkers. This work provides a referenceable analytical framework for evaluating the feasibility of WBE biomarkers and emphasizes the necessity for caution when utilizing WBE to assess human exposure to chemicals.

Exposure assessment of plastics, phthalate plasticizers and their transformation products in diverse bio-based fertilizers

Bio-based fertilizers (BBFs) produced from organic waste have the potential to reduce societal dependence on limited and energy-intensive mineral fertilizers. BBFs, thereby, contribute to a circular economy for fertilizers. However, BBFs can contain plastic fragments and hazardous additives such as phthalate plasticizers, which could constitute a risk for agricultural soils and the environment. This study assessed the exposure associated with plastic and phthalates in BBFs from three types of organic wastes: agricultural and food industry waste (AgriFoodInduWaste), sewage sludge (SewSludge), and biowaste (i.e., garden, park, food and kitchen waste). The wastes were associated with various treatments like drying, anaerobic digestion, and vermicomposting. The number of microplastics (0.045-5 mm) increased from AgriFoodInduWaste-BBFs (15-258 particles g-1), to SewSludge-BBFs (59-1456 particles g-1) and then to Biowaste-BBFs (828-2912 particles g-1). Biowaste-BBFs mostly contained packaging plastics (e.g., polyethylene terephthalate), with the mass of plastic (>10 g kg-1) exceeding the EU threshold (3 g kg-1, plastics >2 mm). Other BBFs mostly contained small (< 1 mm) non-packaging plastics in amounts below the EU limit. The calculated numbers of microplastics entering agricultural soils via BBF application was high (107-1010 microplastics ha-1y-1), but the mass of plastic released from AgriFoodInduWaste-BBFs and SewSludge-BBFs was limited (< 1 and <7 kg ha-1y-1) compared to Biowaste-BBFs (95-156 kg ha-1y-1). The concentrations of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP; < 2.5 mg kg-1) and phthalate transformation products (< 8 mg kg-1) were low (< benchmark of 50 mg kg-1 for DEHP), attributable to both the current phase-out of DEHP as well as phthalate degradation during waste treatment. The Biowaste-BBF exposed to vermicomposting indicated that worms accumulated phthalate transformation products (4 mg kg-1). These results are overall positive for the implementation of the studied AgriFoodInduWaste-BBFs and SewSludge-BBFs. However, the safe use of the studied Biowaste-BBFs requires reducing plastic use and improving sorting methods to minimize plastic contamination, in order to protect agricultural soils and reduce the environmental impact of Biowaste-BBFs.

High-throughput analytical methodology of monoalkyl phthalate esters and the composite risk assessment with their parent phthalate esters in aquatic organisms and seawater

A sensitive, robust, and highly efficient analytical methodology involving solid phase extraction coupled to ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry was successfully established to detect 13 monoalkyl phthalate esters (MPAEs) in aquatic organisms and seawater. After the organisms were preprocessed using enzymatic deconjugation with β-glucuronidase, extraction, purification, and qualitative and quantitative optimization procedures were performed. Under optimal conditions, the limits of detection varied from 0.07 to 0.88 μg/kg (wet weight) and 0.04-1.96 ng/L in organisms and seawater, respectively. Collectively, MPAEs achieved acceptable recovery values (91.0-102.7%) with relative standard deviations less than 10.4% and matrix effects ranging from 0.93 to 1.07 in the above matrix. Furthermore, MPAEs and phthalate esters were detected by the developed methodology and gas chromatography-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer in practical samples, respectively. Mono-n-butyl phthalate and mono-iso-butyl phthalate were the most predominant congeners, accounting for 24.8-35.2% in aquatic organisms and seawater. Comprehensive health and ecological risks were higher after the MPAEs were incorporated than when phthalate esters were considered separately, and greater than their risk threshold. Therefore, the risks caused by substances and their metabolites in multiple media, with analogous structure-activity relationships, should be considered to ensure the safety of aquatic organisms and consumers.

Comparing the removal efficiency of diisobutyl phthalate by Bacillariophyta, Cyanophyta and Chlorophyta

The utilization of microalgae for both removing phthalate esters (PAEs) from wastewater and producing bioenergy has become a popular research topic. However, there is a lack of studies comparing the effectiveness of different types of microalgae in removing these harmful compounds. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate and compare the efficiency of various processes, such as hydrolysis, photolysis, adsorption, and biodegradation, in removing diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP) using six different species of microalgae. The study indicated that the average removal efficiency of DiBP (initial concentrations of 5, 0.5, and 0.05 mg L-1) by all six microalgae (initial cell density of 1 × 106 cells mL-1) was in the order of Scenedesmus obliquus (95.39 %) > Chlorella vulgaris (94.78 %) > Chroococcus sp. (91.16 %) > Cyclotella sp. (89.32 %) > Nitzschia sp. (88.38 %) > Nostoc sp. (84.33 %). The results of both hydrolysis and photolysis experiments revealed that the removal of DiBP had minimal impact, with respective removal efficiencies of only 0.89 % and 1.82 %. The adsorption efficiency of all six microalgae decreased significantly with increasing initial DiBP concentrations, while the biodegradation efficiency was elevated. Chlorella vulgaris and Chroococcus sp. demonstrated the highest adsorption and biodegradation efficiencies among the microalgae tested. Scenedesmus obliquus was chosen for the analysis of the degradation products of DiBP due to its exceptional ability to remove DiBP. The analysis yielded valuable results, identifying monoisobutyl phthalate (MiBP), phthalic acid (PA), and salicylic acid (SA) as the possible degradation products of DiBP. The possible degradation pathways mainly included dealkylation, the addition of hydroxyl groups, and decarboxylation. This study lays a theoretical foundation for the elimination of PAEs in the aquatic environment.

Novel, alternative analytical methodology for determination of antimicrobial chemicals in aquatic environments and public use assessment: Extraction sorbent, microbiological sensitivity, stability, and applicability

BACKGROUND

Assessing antimicrobial chemicals from wastewater source to recipient water systems is crucial in planning effective, policy-related interventions for antimicrobial resistance (AMR) risk mitigation. However, the capability of related analytical methods for AMR assessment has not been explored previously. There is also a lack of knowledge on the effectiveness of alternative extraction sorbents with ion-exchange functions, and little information on chemical stability from sampling to analysis as well as preservative options. Hence, our study aims to address the clear need for advanced, broad-range and microbiologically-sensitive methodologies, paired with thorough stability assessments.

RESULTS

Oasis® WCX ion-exchange was for the first time employed in solid-phase extraction (SPE) for antibacterials, antifungals, antivirals and human metabolites in various water matrices. Analysis was performed using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) on a biphenyl analytical column. The optimized and validated method provided satisfactory accuracy, precision, and recovery for 53 compounds via LC-MS/MS direct injection and for up to 35 compounds via SPE-LC-MS/MS. Method quantification limits (MQLs) were determined in groundwater (0.33-54 ng L-1), surface water (0.53-75 ng L-1), effluent wastewater (2.5-470 ng L-1), and influent wastewater (11-650 ng L-1). As a novel approach, MQLs were compared with minimum inhibitory concentrations, to confirm our method's microbiological sensitivity for studying AMR. Stability assessment revealed that most compounds remained stable in standard solution at -80 °C for six months, in various waters at -20 °C for eight weeks, and during 24-h sampling at 4 °C. Sodium azide was a better preservative than sodium metabisulfite.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our study is an added value to the analytical methodology for water measurements of antimicrobial chemicals, in which it provides a novel, alternative method that is robust and overall more sensitive than others using generic Oasis® HLB sorbents and C18 analytical columns in SPE-LC-MS/MS. Also, the comprehensive data on antimicrobial stability helps reduce methodological uncertainty for future studies. Our method shows sufficient microbiologically-sensitivity and thus is suitable for future (inter)national regulatory water monitoring of AMR.

Additives of plastics: Entry into the environment and potential risks to human and ecological health

A steep rise in global plastic production and significant discharge of plastic waste are expected in the near future. Plastics pose a threat to the ecosystem and human health through the generation of particulate plastics that act as carriers for other emerging contaminants, and the release of toxic chemical additives. Since plastic additives are not covalently bound, they can freely leach into the environment. Due to their occurrence in various environmental settings, the additives exert significant ecotoxicity. However, only 25% of plastic additives have been characterized for their potential ecological concern. Despite global market statistics highlighting the substantial environmental burden caused by the unrestricted production and use of plastic additives, information on their ecotoxicity remains incomplete. By focusing on the ecological impacts of plastic additives, the present review aims to provide detailed insights into the following aspects: (i) diversity and occurrence in the environment, (ii) leaching from plastic materials, (iii) trophic transfer, (iv) human exposure, (v) risks to ecosystem and human health, and (vi) legal guidelines and mitigation strategies. These insights are of immense value in restricting the use of toxic additives, searching for eco-friendly alternatives, and establishing or revising guidelines on plastic additives by global health and environmental agencies.

Direct injection liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry as a sensitive and high-throughput method for the quantitative surveillance of antimicrobials in wastewater

Environmental antimicrobial pollution and antimicrobial resistance pose a threat to environmental and human health. Wastewater analysis has been identified as a promising tool for antimicrobial monitoring and the back-estimation of antimicrobial consumption, but current pretreatment methods are tedious and complicated, limiting their scope for high-throughput analysis. A sensitive direct injection method for the quantification of 109 antimicrobials and their metabolites in wastewater samples was developed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The method was validated for both wastewater influent and effluent in terms of specificity, calibration range, matrix effect, filtration loss, accuracy, precision, limit of detection (LOD), and limit of quantification (LOQ). Most analytes achieved calibration of R2 > 0.99, and the calibration range was from 0.0002 to 150 μg L-1. Recoveries ranged consistently between ~50 % and ~100 % and losses were attributed to sample filtration. Method LOQs were determined as low as 0.0003 μg L-1, and acceptable accuracy (75 %-125 %) and precision (within 25 %) were achieved for >90 % of the analytes. The method was subsequently further assessed using wastewater of raw influent and treated effluent collected from 6 Australian wastewater treatment plants in 2021. In total, 37 analytes were detected in influent and 22 in effluent. Most of them could be quantified at concentrations ranging from 0.0053 to 160 μg L-1, with benzalkonium chloride-C12, amoxicilloic acid, and cephalexin detected at the highest concentrations. The current study provides a straightforward analytical method for antimicrobial monitoring in wastewater with a fast and simple pretreatment procedure.

Bisphenols and phthalates in Australian wastewater: A statistical approach for estimating contributions from diffuse and point sources

Chemicals associated with plastics, such as bisphenols and phthalates, enter sewerage from both diffuse (domestic/commercial) and point (industrial) sources. In this study, we aimed to devise a conservative, statistical baseline to estimate contributions from these source types when sampling of specific sources is not possible. Population-normalised mass loads of two bisphenols and nine phthalates were estimated in wastewater samples from 22 sewage treatment plants (STPs) in 2019. Two multiday (10 and 7 day) pools were created for each STP. Baseline (diffuse) release thresholds were set at the mean of the first quartile (Q1) plus 10 times the standard deviation (STDV) of this quartile [Q1 mean + (10 x STDV)], with contributions over this considered to come from point sources. Chemicals with at least one population-normalised mass load more than three times their baseline were classified as point-source dominant and the remaining as diffuse-source dominant. Eleven of the twelve chemicals examined were detected above limits of quantification in all wastewater samples. Bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol S (BPS), di-isononyl phthalate (DiNP) and di-methyl phthalate (DMP) were classified as point-source dominant chemicals. The total annual mass loads entering STPs across Australia were estimated to be 4.2 tonnes/year from diffuse sources and 4.5 tonnes/year from point sources for bisphenols, and 47 tonnes/year from diffuse sources and 5.9 tonnes/year from point sources for phthalates.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of human health-related protein markers for realizing real-time wastewater-based epidemiology

For effective implementation of the wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach, real-time quantification of markers in wastewater is critical for data acquisition before data interpretation, dissemination, and decision-making. This can be achieved by using biosensor technology, but whether the quantification/detection limits of different types of biosensors comply with the concentration of WBE markers in wastewater is unclear. In the present study, we identified promising protein markers with relatively high concentrations in wastewater samples and analyzed biosensor technologies that are potentially available for real-time WBE. The concentrations of potential protein markers in stool and urine samples were obtained through systematic review and meta-analysis. We examined 231 peer-review papers to collect information regarding potential protein markers that can enable us to achieve real-time monitoring using biosensor technology. Fourteen markers in stool samples were identified at the ng/g level, presumably equivalent to ng/L of wastewater after dilution. Moreover, relatively high average concentrations of fecal inflammatory proteins were observed, e.g., fecal calprotectin, clusterin, and lactoferrin. Fecal calprotectin exhibited the highest average log concentration among the markers identified in stool samples with its mean value being 5.24 [95 % CI: 5.05, 5.42] ng/g. We identified 50 protein markers in urine samples at the ng/mL level. Uromodulin (4.48 [95 % CI: 4.20, 4.76] ng/mL) and plasmin (4.18 [95 % CI: 3.15, 5.21] ng/mL) had the top two highest log concentrations in urine samples. Furthermore, the quantification limit of some electrochemical- and optical-based biosensors was found to be around the femtogram/mL level, which is sufficiently low to detect protein markers in wastewater even after dilution in sewer pipes.

Degradation of dimethyl phthalate by morphology controlled β-MnO2 activated peroxymonosulfate: The overlooked roles of high-valent manganese species

Activated peroxymonosulfate (PMS) processes have emerged as an efficient advanced oxidation process to eliminate refractory organic pollutants in water. This study synthesized a novel spherical manganese oxide catalyst (0.4KBr-β-MnO2) via a simple KBr-guided approach to activate PMS for degrading dimethyl phthalate (DMP). The 0.4KBr-β-MnO2/PMS system enhanced DMP degradation under different water quality conditions, exhibiting an ultrahigh and stable catalytic activity, outperforming equivalent quantities of pristine β-MnO2 by 8.5 times. Mn(V) was the dominant reactive species that was revealed by the generation of methyl phenyl sulfone from methyl phenyl sulfoxide oxidation. The selectivity of Mn(V) was demonstrated by the negligible inhibitory effects of Inorganic anions. Theoretical calculations confirmed that Mn (V) was more prone to attack the CO bond of the side chain of DMP. This study revealed the indispensable roles of high-valent manganese species in DMP degradation by the 0.4KBr-β-MnO2/PMS system. The findings could provide insight into effective PMS activation by Mn-based catalysts to efficiently degrade pollutants in water via the high-valent manganese species.

High resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) determination of drugs in wastewater and wastewater based epidemiology in Cadiz Bay (Spain)

Multi-residue methods for the determination of the myriad of compounds of emerging concern (CECs) entering in the environment are key elements for further assessment on their distribution and fate. Here, we have developed an analytical protocol for the simultaneous analysis of 195 prescription, over-the-counter, and illicit drugs by using a combination of solid phase extraction (SPE) and determination by liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). The method was applied to the analysis of influent sewage samples from 3 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) from Cadiz Bay (SW Spain), enabling the quantification of more than 100 pharmaceuticals, 19 of them at average concentrations higher than 1 μg L^-1, including caffeine (92 μg L^-1), paracetamol (72 μg L^-1), and ibuprofen (56 μg L^-1), as well as several illicit drugs (e.g., cocaine). Wastewater based epidemiology (WBE) was applied for 27 of the detected compounds to establish their consumption in the sampling area, which has been never attempted before. Caffeine, naproxen, and salicylic acid stood out because of their high consumption (638, 51, and 20 g d^-1·1000pop^-1, respectively). Regarding illicit drugs, cocaine showed the highest frequency of detection and we estimated an average consumption of 3683 mg d^-1·1000pop^-1 in Cadiz Bay. The combination of new HRMS methods, capable of discriminating thousands of chemicals, and WBE will allow for a more comprehensive characterization of chemical substances and their consumption in urban environments in the near future.

Improving Wastewater-Based Tobacco Use Estimates Using Anabasine

In wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), nicotine metabolites have been used as biomarkers for monitoring tobacco use. Recently, the minor tobacco alkaloids anabasine and anatabine have been suggested as more specific biomarkers for tobacco use since nicotine use can be from both tobacco and non-tobacco sources. This study aimed to provide an in-depth evaluation of the suitability of anabasine and anatabine as WBE biomarkers of tobacco and subsequently estimate their excretion factors for WBE applications. Pooled urine (n = 64) and wastewater samples (n = 277), collected between 2009 and 2019 in Queensland, Australia, were analyzed for nicotine and its metabolites (cotinine and hydroxycotinine), as well as anabasine and anatabine. Anabasine performed as the better biomarker, showing a similar per capita load in pooled urine (2.2 ± 0.3 μg/day/person) and wastewater samples (2.3 ± 0.3 μg/day/person), while the per capita load of anatabine in wastewater was 50% higher than its load in urine. It is estimated that 0.9 μg of anabasine was excreted per cigarette smoked. Triangulation of tobacco sales data and tobacco use estimated from either anabasine or cotinine showed that anabasine-based estimates were 5% higher than sales data, while cotinine-based estimates were between 2 and 28% higher. Our results provided concrete evidence to confirm the suitability of anabasine as a specific biomarker for monitoring tobacco use by WBE.

Use of a guard column coupled to mass spectrometry as a fast semi-quantitative methodology for the determination of plasticizer metabolites in urine

For the first time, a very simple and fast method combining the use of a guard column coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (guard column-MS/MS) has been proposed for the determination of plasticizer metabolites in urine. Briefly, samples (1.0 mL) were submitted to enzymatic hydrolysis for 10 min, filtered, diluted 1/10 v/v with ultrapure water and directly injected into the system. A fast run of only 2 min (3 min including the injection cycle) allowed the determination of 19 analytes. Enzymatic hydrolysis, filtering material, and guard column-MS/MS conditions were optimized. Intra-day precision at the low-level concentration (expressed as relative standard deviation, %RSD) obtained from the analysis of synthetic urine samples varied between 11 and 20%. Limits of quantification ranged from 2.8 to 60 ng/mL. Trueness values, calculated as apparent recoveries, ranged from 70 to 135%. To correct for matrix effects, analyte concentrations in real urine were quantified by the standard addition method. To confirm the results obtained by guard column-MS/MS, an ultra(high)-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method was also applied (total chromatographic run time 17 min, including column re-equilibration). Concentrations measured with both methods were in good agreement. Hence, we propose the use of guard column-MS/MS to analyse a large number samples in a very short time (semi-quantification), and apply the chromatographic analysis only to those samples with levels close to/higher than the concentrations equivalent to the safe maximum daily intakes of the parent compounds (confirmation). This double strategy (semi-quantification by guard column-MS/MS and confirmation-when needed-by UHPLC-MS/MS) implies important savings in time and money.

A Framework for Public Health Authorities to Evaluate Health Determinants for Wastewater-Based Epidemiology

BACKGROUND

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is rapidly developing as a powerful public health tool. It can provide information about a wide range of health determinants (HDs), including community exposure to environmental hazards, trends in consumption of licit and illicit substances, spread of infectious diseases, and general community health. As such, the list of possible candidate HDs for WBE is almost limitless. Consequently, a means to evaluate and prioritize suitable candidates for WBE is useful, particularly for public health authorities, who often face resource constraints.

OBJECTIVES

We have developed a framework to assist public health authorities to decide what HDs may be appropriate for WBE and what biomarkers could be used. This commentary reflects the experience of the authors, who work at the interface of research and public health implementation.

DISCUSSION

To be suitable for WBE, a candidate HD should address a public health or scientific issue that would benefit from better understanding at the population level. For HDs where information on individual exposures or stratification by population subgroups is required, WBE is less suitable. Where other methodologies are already used to monitor the candidate HD, consideration must be given to whether WBE could provide better or complementary information to the current approach. An essential requirement of WBE is a biomarker specific for the candidate HD. A biomarker in this context refers to any human-excreted chemical or biological that could act as an indicator of consumption or exposure to an environmental hazard or of the human health state. Suitable biomarkers should meet several criteria outlined in this commentary, which requires background knowledge for both the biomarker and the HD. An evaluation tree summarizing key considerations for public health authorities when assessing the suitability of candidate HDs for WBE and an example evaluation are presented. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11115.

Application of wastewater-based epidemiology for estimating population-wide human exposure to phthalate esters, bisphenols, and terephthalic acid

Phthalates, bisphenols (BPs), and terephthalic acid (TPA) are widely used plasticizers and monomers in plastic manufacturing. Most of them are known to have an adverse effect on the human body, functioning as endocrine disruptors and suspected carcinogens. Access to near real-time data on population exposure to plasticizers is essential for identifying vulnerable communities and better protecting and managing public health locally. The objective of the present study was to evaluate population-level exposure to phthalates, BPs, and TPA by measuring urinary metabolites in community wastewater. Composited community wastewater (24-h samples) from five sewer sub-catchments of a southwestern city within the United States were analyzed for urinary biomarkers of phthalates, BPs, and TPA using solid-phase extraction-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in conjunction with the isotope dilution method for absolute quantification. Ten of 16 analytes were detected at least once in community wastewater above the method detection limit (MDL), with MDLs ranging from 37 to 203 ng/L. The population normalized mass load of TPA was the highest, followed by the human metabolite of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). Bisphenol S and monoethyl phthalate were detected with the highest frequency. Study findings suggest that analyzing municipal wastewater for chemical indicators of human exposure to plastic constituents is feasible, practicable, and informative, as long as appropriate steps are taken to determine, quantify and account for background levels of plastic analytes in the laboratory environment.

Applicability of an on-line solid-phase extraction liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry for the wastewater-based assessment of human exposure to chemicals from personal care and household products

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) can be a useful complementary approach to assess human exposure to potentially harmful chemicals, including those from personal care and household products. In this work, a fully automated multiresidue method, based on on-line solid-phase extraction liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry, was developed for the determination of 27 biomarkers of human exposure to selected chemicals from personal care and household products, including parabens, UV filters, phthalates and alternative plasticizers, phosphorous flame retardants/plasticizers (PFRs), and bisphenols. These biomarkers include both the parent compounds and their human metabolites. In addition, two oxidative stress biomarkers, 8-epi-prostaglandin F2α and 4-hydroxy nonenal mercapturic acid, were also considered in the study. The method was carefully optimized to tackle the challenges of analyzing compounds with different physico-chemical properties in a highly complex raw wastewater matrix, while model experiments were performed to investigate filtration losses and analyte stability. The applicability of the developed method was tested by analyzing raw wastewater from four European cities: Antwerp, Brussels (Belgium), Girona (Spain), and Zagreb (Croatia). Twenty-one biomarkers (10 parent compounds and 11 metabolites) were detected in all analyzed wastewater samples. The parent compounds with the highest mass loads were PFRs, parabens, and bisphenol S, while phthalate monoesters were the most prominent metabolites. The mass loads of most compounds were quite similar across cities, but geographic differences were observed for some biomarkers, such as metabolites of phthalates and alternative plasticizers. Exposure was then assessed for seven substances for which quantitative urinary excretion data are known. Our results indicate that safe reference values were exceeded for several contaminants, including butylated phthalates, bisphenol A, and tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate, particularly for toddlers. With this relatively simple method, which requires less sample manipulation, it is possible to promptly identify and monitor exposure to harmful chemicals at the population level using the WBE approach.

Young population consume twice as much artificial sweetener than the general population - A wastewater-based assessment in China

Understanding artificial sweetener consumption patterns and levels in different demographics is important for formulating public health policies on controlling sugar consumption. There is a considerable knowledge gap with respect to the pattern of artificial sweetener consumption in China. To narrow this gap, wastewater analysis was used to assess the temporal patterns of consumption of seven artificial sweeteners in an urban population and a university town in a megacity in South China over a one-year period. Daily influent wastewater samples were collected from an urban catchment and weekly samples collected from a university sub-catchment. Population normalized per capita consumption of the four detected artificial sweeteners (cyclamate, acesulfame, sucralose and saccharin) in the university catchment (1.0-5.9 mg d^-1 p^-1) was much higher than those in urban catchment (0.5-1.3 mg d^-1 p^-1), indicating younger population consume more artificial sweeteners than the general population. The daily consumption of artificial sweeteners was found to be stable throughout the week in the urban catchment. Time-series analysis showed that an average increase in temperature of 1 °C was associated with an increase consumption of 33 μg d^-1 p^-1 for acesulfame, 15 μg d^-1 p^-1 for sucralose and 14 μg d^-1 p^-1 for saccharin. This was the first study that objectively quantified the greater consumption of artificial sweeteners (proxy for consumption of artificially sweetened food and beverages) in a younger age group when compared to the general population, which could potentially pose a risk of health related diseases.

Preparation and application of nano petal-shaped covalent organic frameworks modified polystyrene-divinylbenzene- glycidylmethacrylate microspheres for the extraction of illicit drugs from wastewater

A novel nano petal-shaped covalent organic frameworks modified magnetic polystyrene-divinylbenzene-glycidylmethacrylate (NP-COF@Mag-PS/DVB/GMA) microsphere has been synthesized. It is a perfect combination of high productivity of PS/DVB/GMA microspheres and excellent enrichment efficiency of COF particles, and the excellent properties of NP-COF@Mag-PS/DVB/GMA microspheres are characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The sorbent can extract illicit drugs via the reverse-phase interactions provided by benzene ring on the polymer backbone and the hydrogen bonding interactions provided by functional group (-NH-) on the COF particles. Based on using NP-COF@Mag-PS/DVB/GMA as sorbents, an easiness-to-handle of magnetic dispersive solid phase extraction (Mag-dSPE) procedure is proposed for the simultaneous preconcentration of 12 illicit drugs from wastewater. The obtained results show high extraction efficiency of NP-COF@Mag-PS/DVB/GMA to illicit drugs with recoveries between 81.6 and 116%. Furthermore, a liquid chromatography-tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the determination of 12 illicit drugs from wastewater at sub-ppt levels has been proposed and validated with the pretreatment of samples by Mag-dSPE. The limits of quantification (LOQs) for the 12 illicit drugs are between 0.40 and 4.90 ng/L. Validation results on linearity, specificity, trueness and precision, as well as on application to the analysis of 12 illicit drugs in ten real samples demonstrate the applicability to environment monitoring analysis.

Use of illicit drugs, alcohol and tobacco in Spain and Portugal during the COVID-19 crisis in 2020 as measured by wastewater-based epidemiology

The COVID-19 pandemic spread rapidly worldwide in the year 2020, which was initially restrained by drastic mobility restrictions. In this work, we investigated the use of illicit drugs (amphetamine, methamphetamine, ecstasy, cocaine and cannabis), and licit substances of abuse (alcohol and tobacco) during the earlier months (March-July 2020) of the pandemic restrictions in four Spanish (Bilbao and its metropolitan area, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Castellón and Santiago de Compostela) and two Portuguese (Porto and Vila do Conde) locations by wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). The results show that no methamphetamine was detected in any of the locations monitored, while amphetamine use was only detectable in the two locations from the Basque Country (Bilbao and its metropolitan area and Vitoria-Gasteiz), with high estimated average usage rates (700-930 mg day-1 1000 inhabitant-1). The remaining substances were detected in all the investigated catchment areas. In general, no remarkable changes were found in population normalized loads compared to former years, except for cocaine (i.e. its main metabolite, benzoylecgonine). For this drug, a notable decrease in use was discernible in Castellón, while its usage in Porto and Santiago de Compostela seemed to continue in a rising trend, already initiated in former years. Furthermore, two events of ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, MDMA) dumping in the sewage network were confirmed by enantiomeric analysis, one in Santiago de Compostela just prior the lockdown and the second one in the Bilbao and its metropolitan area in July after relieving the more stringent measures. The latter could also be associated with a police intervention. The comparison of WBE with (web) survey data, which do not provide information at a local level, points towards contradictory conclusions for some of the substances, thereby highlighting the need for stable WBE networks capable of near real-time monitoring drug use.

Intrapopulation and temporal differences of phthalate concentrations in North Atlantic fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus)

The fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) is a migratory filter-feeding species that is susceptible to ingest plastics while lunge feeding across the oceans. Plastic additives, such as phthalates, are compounds that are added to plastics to give them specific characteristics, such as flexibility. These so-called plasticizers are currently raising major concern because of their potential adverse effects on marine fauna. However, little is known about phthalate concentrations in tissues of baleen whales as well as their potential relation with biological variables (i.e., sex, body length and age) and their trends with time. In this study, we assessed the concentration of 13 phthalates in the muscle of 31 fin whales sampled in the feeding grounds off western Iceland between 1986 and 2015. We detected 5 of the 13 phthalates investigated, with di-n-butylphthalate (DBP), diethylphthalate (DEP) and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) being the most abundant. None of the biological variables examined showed a statistically significant relationship with phthalate concentrations. Also, phthalate concentrations did not significantly vary over the 29-year period studied, a surprising result given the global scenario of increasing plastic pollution in the seas. The lack of time trends in phthalate concentration may be due in part to the fact that phthalates also originate from other sources. Although no adverse effects of phthalates on fin whales have been detected to date, further monitoring of these pollutants is required to identify potential toxic effects in the future.

Changes in Sewage Sludge Chemical Signatures During a COVID-19 Community Lockdown, Part 1: Traffic, Drugs, Mental Health, and Disinfectants

The early months of the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated shutdowns disrupted many aspects of daily life and thus caused changes in the use and disposal of many types of chemicals. While records of sales, prescriptions, drug overdoses, and so forth provide data about specific chemical uses during this time, wastewater and sewage sludge analysis can provide a more comprehensive overview of chemical changes within a region. We analyzed primary sludge from a wastewater-treatment plant in Connecticut, USA, collected March 19 to June 30, 2020. This time period encompassed the first wave of the pandemic, the initial statewide stay at home order, and the first phase of reopening. We used liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry and targeted and suspect screening strategies to identify 78 chemicals of interest, which included pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, disinfectants, ultraviolet (UV) filters, and others. We analyzed trends over time for the identified chemicals using linear trend analyses and multivariate comparisons (p < 0.05). We found trends related directly to the pandemic (e.g., hydroxychloroquine, a drug publicized for its potential to treat COVID-19, had elevated concentrations in the week following the implementation of the US Emergency Use Authorization), as well as evidence for seasonal changes in chemical use (e.g., increases for three UV-filter compounds). Though wastewater surveillance during the pandemic has largely focused on measuring severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 RNA concentrations, chemical analysis can also show trends that are important for revealing the public and environmental health effects of the pandemic. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:1179-1192. © 2021 SETAC.

Changes in Sewage Sludge Chemical Signatures During a COVID-19 Community Lockdown, Part 1: Traffic, Drugs, Mental Health, and Disinfectants

The early months of the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated shutdowns disrupted many aspects of daily life and thus caused changes in the use and disposal of many types of chemicals. While records of sales, prescriptions, drug overdoses, and so forth provide data about specific chemical uses during this time, wastewater and sewage sludge analysis can provide a more comprehensive overview of chemical changes within a region. We analyzed primary sludge from a wastewater-treatment plant in Connecticut, USA, collected March 19 to June 30, 2020. This time period encompassed the first wave of the pandemic, the initial statewide stay at home order, and the first phase of reopening. We used liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry and targeted and suspect screening strategies to identify 78 chemicals of interest, which included pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, disinfectants, ultraviolet (UV) filters, and others. We analyzed trends over time for the identified chemicals using linear trend analyses and multivariate comparisons (p < 0.05). We found trends related directly to the pandemic (e.g., hydroxychloroquine, a drug publicized for its potential to treat COVID-19, had elevated concentrations in the week following the implementation of the US Emergency Use Authorization), as well as evidence for seasonal changes in chemical use (e.g., increases for three UV-filter compounds). Though wastewater surveillance during the pandemic has largely focused on measuring severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 RNA concentrations, chemical analysis can also show trends that are important for revealing the public and environmental health effects of the pandemic. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:1179-1192. © 2021 SETAC.

Accurate Removal of Toxic Organic Pollutants from Complex Water Matrices

Characteristic emerging pollutants at low concentration have raised much attention for causing a bottleneck in water remediation, especially in complex water matrices where high concentration of interferents coexist. In the future, tailored treatment methods are therefore of increasing significance for accurate removal of target pollutants in different water matrices. This critical review focuses on the overall strategies for accurately removing highly toxic emerging pollutants in the presence of typical interferents. The main difficulties hindering the improvement of selectivity in complex matrices are analyzed, implying that it is difficult to adopt a universal approach for multiple targets and water substrates. Selective methods based on assorted principles are proposed aiming to improve the anti-interference ability. Thus, typical approaches and fundamentals to achieve selectivity are subsequently summarized including their mechanism, superiority and inferior position, application scope, improvement method and the bottlenecks. The results show that different methods may be applicable to certain conditions and target pollutants. To better understand the mechanism of each selective method and further select the appropriate method, advanced methods for qualitative and quantitative characterization of selectivity are presented. The processes of adsorption, interaction, electron transfer, and bond breaking are discussed. Some comparable selective quantitative methods are helpful for promoting the development of related fields. The research framework of selectivity removal and its fundamentals are established. Presently, although continuous advances and remarkable achievements have been attained in the selective removal of characteristic organic pollutants, there are still various substantial challenges and opportunities. It is hopeful to inspire the researches on the new generation of water and wastewater treatment technology, which can selectively and preferentially treat characteristic pollutants, and establish a reliable research framework to lead the direction of environmental science.

Source identification of amphetamine-like stimulants in Spanish wastewater through enantiomeric profiling

Amphetamine (AMP), methamphetamine (MAMP) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) occur in wastewater not only as a result of illicit consumption, but also, in some cases, from prescription drug use or by direct drug disposal into the sewage system. Enantiomeric profiling of these chiral drugs could give more insight into the origin of their occurrence. In this manuscript, a new analytical methodology for the enantiomeric analysis of amphetamine-like substances in wastewater has been developed. The method consists of a solid-phase extraction (SPE) followed by liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), which showed low quantification limits in the 2.4-5.5 ng L^-1 range. The LC-MS/MS method was first applied to characterize a total of 38 solid street drug samples anonymously provided by consumers. The results of these analysis showed that AMP and MDMA trafficked into Spain are synthesized as racemate, while MAMP is exclusively produced as the S(+)-enantiomer. Then, the analytical method was employed to analyse urban wastewater samples collected from the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) of five different cities in 2018 and 2019. Consumption estimated through normalized population loads in wastewater showed an increased pattern of AMP use in the Basque Country. Furthermore, the enantiomeric profiling of wastewater samples was contrasted to lisdexamfetamine (LIS) and selegiline (SEL) prescription figures, two pharmaceuticals which metabolize to S(+)-AMP, and to R(-)-AMP and R(-)-MAMP, respectively. From this analysis, and considering uncertainties derived from metabolism and adherence to treatment, it was concluded that LIS is a relevant source of AMP in those cases with low wastewater loads, i.e. up to a maximum of 60% of AMP detected in wastewater in some samples could originate from LIS prescription, while SEL does not represent a significant source of AMP nor MAMP. Finally, removal efficiencies could be evaluated for the WWTP (serving ca. 860,000 inhabitants) with higher AMP influent concentrations. The removal of AMP was satisfactory with rates higher than 99%, whereas MDMA showed an average removal of approximately 60%, accompanied by an enrichment of R(-)-MDMA.

Nanobiotechnology enabled approaches for wastewater based epidemiology

The impacts of the ongoing coronavirus pandemic highlight the importance of environmental monitoring to inform public health safety. Wastewater based epidemiology (WBE) has drawn interest as a tool for analysis of biomarkers in wastewater networks. Wide scale implementation of WBE requires a variety of field deployable analytical tools for real-time monitoring. Nanobiotechnology enabled sensing platforms offer potential as biosensors capable of highly efficient and sensitive detection of target analytes. This review provides an overview of the design and working principles of nanobiotechnology enabled biosensors and recent progress on the use of biosensors in detection of biomarkers. In addition, applications of biosensors for analysis of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus are highlighted as they relate to the potential expanded use of biosensors for WBE-based monitoring. Finally, we discuss the opportunities and challenges in future applications of biosensors in WBE for effective monitoring and investigation of public health threats.

Using Prescription and Wastewater Data to Estimate the Correction Factors of Atenolol, Carbamazepine, and Naproxen for Wastewater-Based Epidemiology Applications

The correction factor (CF) is a critical parameter in wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) that significantly influences the accuracy of the final consumption estimates. However, most CFs have been derived from a few old pharmacokinetic studies and should be re-evaluated and refined to improve the accuracy of the WBE approach. This study aimed to review and estimate the CFs for atenolol, carbamazepine, and naproxen for WBE using the daily mass loads of those pharmaceuticals in wastewater and their corresponding dispensed prescription data in Australia. Influent wastewater samples were collected from wastewater treatment plants serving approximately 24% of the Australian population and annual national dispensed prescription data. The estimated CFs for atenolol and carbamazepine are 1.37 (95% CI: 1.17-1.66) and 8.69 (95% CI: 7.66-10.03), respectively. Due to significant over-the-counter sales of naproxen, a reliable CF could not be estimated based on prescription statistics. Using an independent dataset of 186 and 149 wastewater samples collected in an urban catchment in 2011 and 2012, WBE results calculated using the new CFs matched well with the dispensed data for atenolol and carbamazepine in the catchment area.

Insights into mechanisms involved in the uptake, translocation, and metabolism of phthalate esters in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa var. chinensis)

In the present study, the uptake and translocation mechanisms of phthalate esters (PAEs) and their primary mono esters metabolites (mPAEs), and the mechanisms of PAEs metabolism in plants were elucidated. The objectives of this study were to: (i) elucidate the fractionation of PAEs and mPAEs in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa var. chinensis) by hydroponic experiment, (ii) investigate the PAEs and mPAEs uptake mechanisms in root by inhibitor experiments, (iii) explain the molecular mechanisms of PAE interactions with the plant macromolecules by proteomics analysis and molecular docking, and (iv) reveal the involvement of carboxylesterase in the plant metabolism of PAEs. The results demonstrated that both the apoplastic and symplastic pathways contributed to the uptake of di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP), and mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) by vacuum-infiltration-centrifugation method. The energy-dependent active process was involved for the uptake of DnBP, DEHP, MnBP, and MEHP. The passive uptake pathways of anion mPAEs and neutral PAEs differ. Aquaporins contributed to the uptake of anion MnBP and MEHP, and slow-type anion channel was also responsible for the uptake of anion MEHP. Molecular interactions of PAEs and macromolecules were further characterized by proteomic analysis and molecular docking. PAEs were transferred via non-specific lipid transfer protein by binding hydroponic amino acid residues. The carboxylesterase enzyme was attributed to the metabolism of PAEs to form mPAEs by using crude enzyme extract and commercial pure enzyme. This study provides both experimental and theoretical evidence for uptake, accumulation, and metabolism of PAEs in plants.

Monitoring drug consumption in Innsbruck during coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) lockdown by wastewater analysis

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has developed into a serious pandemic with millions of cases diagnosed worldwide. To fight COVID-19 pandemic, over 100 countries instituted either a full or partial lockdown, affecting billions of people. In Tyrol, first lockdown measures were taken on 10 March 2020. On 16 March 2020, a curfew went into force which ended on 1 May 2020. On 19 March 2020, Tyrol as a whole was placed in quarantine which ended on 7 April 2020. The governmental actions helped reducing the spread of COVID-19 at the cost of significant effects on social life and behaviour. Accordingly, to provide a comprehensive picture of the population health status not only input from medical and biological sciences is required, but also from other sciences able to provide lifestyle information such as drug use. Herein, wastewater-based epidemiology was used for studying temporal trends of licit and illicit drug consumption during lockdown and quarantine in the area of the Tyrolean capital Innsbruck (174,000 inhabitants). On 35 days between 12 March 2020 and 15 April 2020, loads of 23 markers were monitored in wastewater. Loads determined on 292 days between March 2016 and January 2020 served as reference. During lockdown, changes in the consumption patterns of recreational drugs (i.e. cocaine, amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, methamphetamine, and alcohol) and pharmaceuticals for short-term application (i.e. acetaminophen, codeine, and trimethoprim) were detected. For illicit drugs and alcohol, it is very likely that observed changes were linked to the shutdown of the hospitality industry and event cancelation which led to a reduced demand of these compounds particularly on weekends. For the pharmaceuticals, further work will be necessary to clarify if the observed declines are indicators of improved population health or of some kind of restraining effect that reduced the number of consultations of medical doctors and pharmacies.

Combination of different chromatographic and sampling modes for high-resolution mass spectrometric screening of organic microcontaminants in water

This study explores the combination of two sampling strategies (polar organic compounds integrative sampler (POCIS) vs. spot sampling) and four chromatographic retention modes (reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC), hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC), mixed-mode liquid chromatography (MMLC) and supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC)) for high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) screening of organic pollutants in water samples. To this end, a suspect screening approach, using iterative data-dependent tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) driven by a library of 3227 chemicals (including pharmaceuticals, pesticides, drugs of abuse, human metabolites, industrial chemicals and other pollutants), was employed. Results show that POCIS can afford a larger number of positive identifications as compared to spot sampling. On the other hand, the best suited retention mechanisms, in terms of identified analytes, are SFC, and followed by RPLC, MMLC and HILIC. However, the best combination (POCIS + SFC) would only allow the identification of 67% of the detected analytes. Thus, the combination of the two sampling strategies, spot and passive sampling, with two orthogonal retention mechanisms, RPLC and SFC, is proposed in order to maximize the number of analytes detected (89%). This strategy was applied to different surface water (river and estuary) samples from Galicia (NW Spain). A total of 155 compounds were detected at a confidence level 2a, from which the major class was pharmaceuticals (61%).

Investigation of temporal illicit drugs, alcohol and tobacco trends in Istanbul city: Wastewater analysis of 14 treatment plants

Wastewater-based drug monitoring is a complementary tool that has been used worldwide in recent years, and many cities have periodically reported monitoring results. However, this study is the first to analyze drugs in wastewater in a single city with a high population during four periods simultaneously from 14 treatment plants. The aim was to estimate the consumption of conventional illicit drugs [amphetamine (AMP), methamphetamine (METH), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), cannabis, cocaine, and heroin], tobacco, and alcohol in 2019 for quarterly periods in Istanbul city, which has a population of almost 20 million, to aid in implementing evidence-based measures. Additionally, the seasonal variations among the 14 wastewater treatment plants and their weekday/weekend comparison of drug use patterns and consumption per substance were examined. Solid phase extraction was followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and a previously validated method was enhanced by adding new parameters (morphine, cotinine, and ethyl sulfate), and satisfactory results were obtained. In this study, alcohol, nicotine, and cannabis had the highest estimated per capita consumption with mean values of 29655.3 mL/1000 inh/day, 5507.6 mg/1000 inh/day and 3607.0 mg/1000 inh/day, respectively. These results were followed by heroin and cocaine consumption with mean values of 557.0 and 200.9 mg/1000 inh/day, respectively, whereas AMP-type stimulants had the lowest values among the targeted substances. METH and cannabis were also highly consumed drugs when compared with the results of other metropolitan cities, whereas heroin consumption was remarkably high owing to Turkey's location on a possible heroin trafficking route. Because Istanbul is the business center of the country and has the potential to attract tourists in all four seasons, meaningful seasonal consumption differences were not observed for all substances.

Transformation of phthalates and their metabolites in wastewater under different sewer conditions

There is an increasing demand to monitor the human exposure to phthalates, and a few studies have used phthalate metabolites in wastewater to estimate exposure to these chemicals in the population. However, it is suspected that the stability of phthalates and phthalate metabolites during sewer transport can influence the final estimates. In this study, we used laboratory sewer reactors to evaluate the in-sewer transformation of phthalates and their metabolites, and deconjugation of phthalate metabolites. We found concentrations of parent phthalates decreased quickly over time while the concentrations of phthalate metabolites increased significantly for most compounds, indicating that parent phthalate compounds are partly transformed into their metabolites in the sewer. Our assessment of the deconjugation of glucuronide-conjugated phthalate metabolites found that this process did not significantly affect the concentrations of phthalate metabolites in the wastewater, with the relative difference ranging from -16% to 7% between enzymatically treated samples and control group. Additionally, our results showed that phthalate metabolites could be subject to rapid degradation during the incubation process. Our findings suggested that the level of phthalate metabolites in sewage could be strongly influenced by the in-sewer transformation of the parent phthalates and of themselves, and could not be assumed as uniquely the results of urinary excretion after human exposure to parent phthalates.

Assessing population exposure to phthalate plasticizers in thirteen Spanish cities through the analysis of wastewater

Phthalates are widely used plasticizers that produce endocrine-disrupting disorders. Quantifying exposure is crucial to perform risk assessments and to develop proper health measures. Herein, a wastewater-based epidemiology approach has been applied to estimate human exposure to six of the mostly used phthalates within the Spanish population. Wastewater samples were collected over four weekdays from seventeen wastewater treatment plants serving thirteen cities and ca. 6 million people (12.8 % of the Spanish population). Phthalate metabolite loads in wastewater were transformed into metabolite concentrations in urine and into daily exposure levels to the parent phthalates. Considering all the sampled sites, population-weighted overall means of the estimated concentrations in urine varied between 0.7 ng/mL and 520 ng/mL. Very high levels, compared to human biomonitoring data, were estimated for monomethyl phthalate, metabolite of dimethyl phthalate. This, together with literature data pointing to other sources of this metabolite in sewage led to its exclusion for exposure assessments. For the remaining metabolites, estimated concentrations were closer to those found in urine. Their 4-days average exposure levels ranged from 2 to 1347 μg/(day∙inh), exceeding in some sites the daily exposure thresholds set for di-i-butyl phthalate and di-n-buthyl phthalate by the European Food Safety Authority.

Wastewater-based epidemiology to assess human exposure to personal care and household products - A review of biomarkers, analytical methods, and applications

Humans are nowadays exposed to numerous chemicals in our day-to-day life, including parabens, UV filters, phosphorous flame retardants/plasticizers, bisphenols, phthalates and alternative plasticizers, which can have different adverse effects to human health. Estimating human's exposure to these potentially harmful substances is, therefore, of paramount importance. Human biomonitoring (HBM) is the existing approach to assess exposure to environmental contaminants, which relies on the analysis of specific human biomarkers (parent compounds and/or their metabolic products) in biological matrices from individuals. The main drawback is its implementation, which involves complex cohort studies. A novel approach, wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), involves estimating exposure from the analysis of biomarkers in sewage (a pooled urine and feces sample of an entire population). One of the key challenges of WBE is the selection of biomarkers which are specific to human metabolism, excreted in sufficient amounts, and stable in sewage. So far, literature data on potential biomarkers for estimating exposure to these chemicals are scattered over numerous pharmacokinetic and HBM studies. Hence, this review provides a list of potential biomarkers of exposure to more than 30 widely used chemicals and report on their urinary excretion rates. Furthermore, the potential and challenges of WBE in this particular field is discussed through the review of pioneer WBE studies, which for the first time explored applicability of this novel approach to assess human exposure to environmental contaminants. In the future, WBE could be potentially applied as an "early warning system", which could promptly identify communities with the highest exposure to environmental contaminants.

Effect of lockdown on wastewater characteristics: a comparison of two large urban areas

The effect of the lockdown imposed to limit the spread of SARS-CoV-2 in France between March 14 and May 11, 2020 on the wastewater characteristics of two large urban areas (with between 250,000 and 300,000 inhabitants) was studied. The number of outward and inward daily commuters was extracted from national census databases related to the population and their commuting habits. For urban area A, with the larger number of daily inward commuters (110,000, compared to 53,000 for B), lockdown was observed to have an effect on the monthly load averages of chemical oxygen demand, biochemical oxygen demand, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, total suspended solids and total phosphorus, all of which decreased (confidence level of 95%). This decrease, which varied between 20% and 40% and reached 45% for COD, can be related to the cessation of catering and activities such as hairdressing, which generate large amounts of graywater. The ammonium loads, due to the use of toilets before leaving for work and after returning from work, remained constant. In the case of urban area B, lockdown had no noticeable effect. More data would be necessary in the long term to analyze the effect of changes in the balance between ammonia and carbon sources on the operation of wastewater treatment plants.

Comprehensive determination of phthalate, terephthalate and di-iso-nonyl cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate metabolites in wastewater by solid-phase extraction and ultra(high)-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Plasticizers are chemical compounds used in the production of flexible plastics for a large variety of applications. They are present in most of the environments and, hence, we are highly exposed to them via several routes (ingestion, inhalation, etc). Due to the endocrine disruption potential of some of these chemicals and the unknown toxicological effects of their alternatives, assessing human exposure to these contaminants is an issue of emerging concern. Herein we propose an analytical methodology for the determination of several plasticizer metabolites in wastewater as a non-invasive, cheap, and fast exposure monitoring tool complementary to the analysis of urine. A solid-phase extraction procedure followed by an ultra(high)-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was optimized and validated for 21 analytes among phthalate, terephthalate, and di-iso-nonyl cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate metabolites. Method quantification limits ranged from 0.079 to 4.4 ng L^-1. The method was applied to the analysis of seven daily composite wastewater samples collected in the NW of Spain. Metabolites of low molecular weight phthalates and of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate were quantified in all samples, despite the existing regulations limiting the use of phthalates. Metabolites of terephthalates, introduced at the end of the 20th century as phthalate substituents, were also quantified in all samples, being the first time that they were detected in this matrix. Exposure back-calculation highlighted di-2-ethylhexyl terephthalate as the second most common plastic additive after diethyl phthalate in the population considered, reflecting the increasing substitution of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate by its analogous terephthalate.

First nation-wide estimation of tobacco consumption in Spain using wastewater-based epidemiology

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has become a very useful tool to monitor a population's drug consumption or exposure to environmental and food contaminants. In this work, WBE has been applied to estimate tobacco consumption in seven Spanish regions. To this end, 24 h composite wastewater samples were taken daily for one week in 17 wastewater treatment plants, covering altogether a population of ca. 6 million inhabitants. The samples were treated by enzymatic deconjugation and the wastewater content of two human-specific nicotine metabolites (namely, cotinine and trans-3'-hydroxycotinine) was measured to estimate the daily consumption of nicotine. The population-weighted average nicotine consumption in the seven analyzed regions was 2.2 g/(day∙1000 inh.), without any daily pattern. This average estimated nicotine consumption value agreed with the value derived from official tobacco sales data. Differences in consumption among the seven studied regions were found, being Galicia, the region with the lowest rate, and the Basque Country and Catalonia those with the highest rates. However, no conclusive correlation was found between those values and the prevalence data taken from two different national surveys, nor sociodemographic and health data. This study demonstrates that this tool can complement other indicators in order to accurately assess tobacco consumption rates at regional and national levels and provides the most extensive application of the approach in the Spanish territory.

Metabolism of mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in Arabidopsis thaliana: Exploration of metabolic pathways by deuterium labeling

Mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) is the primary monoester transformation product of the commonly used plasticizer, di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), and has been frequently detected in various environmental compartments (e.g., soil, biosolids, plants). Plants growing in contaminated soils can take up MEHP, and consumption of the contaminated plants may result in unintended exposure for humans and other organisms. The metabolism of MEHP in plants is poorly understood, but critical for evaluating the potential human and environmental health risks. The present study represents the first attempt to explore the metabolic fate of MEHP in plants. We used Arabidopsis thaliana cells as a plant model and explored metabolic pathways of MEHP using deuterium stable isotope labelling (SIL) coupled with time-of-flight high resolution mass spectrometer (TOF-HRMS). A. thaliana rapidly took up MEHP from the culture medium and mediated extensive metabolism of MEHP. Combining SIL with TOF-HRMS analysis was proved as a powerful method for identification of unknown MEHP metabolites. Four phase Ⅰ and three phase Ⅱ metabolites were confirmed or tentatively identified. Based on the detected transformation products, hydroxylation, oxidation, and malonylation are proposed as the potential MEHP metabolism pathways. In cells, the maximum fraction of each transformation product accounted for 2.8-56.5% of the total amount of metabolites during the incubation. For individual metabolites, up to 2.9-100% was found in the culture medium, suggesting plant excretion. The results in the cell culture experiments were further confirmed in cabbage and A. thaliana seedlings. The findings suggest active metabolism of MEHP in plants and highlight the need to include metabolites in refining environmental risk assessment of plasticizers in the agro-food systems.

Urinary Concentrations of Bisphenols in the Australian Population and Their Association with the Per Capita Mass Loads in Wastewater

Health concerns and related regulation of bisphenol A (BPA) in some countries have led to an increase in the production and use of unregulated and poorly understood BPA analogues, including bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol B (BPB), and bisphenol AF (BPAF). To assess the temporal trends of human exposure to BPA analogues, urine and wastewater samples were collected from South East Queensland, Australia between 2012 and 2017 and analyzed for five bisphenols using validated isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry methods. BPA and BPS were the predominant bisphenols detected in both urine and wastewater samples, with median concentrations of 2.5 and 0.64 μg/L in urine and 0.94 and 1.1 μg/L in wastewater, respectively. BPB, BPF, and BPAF had low detection frequencies in both urine and wastewater samples. Concentrations of BPA in both urine and wastewater decreased over the sampling period, whereas concentrations of BPS increased, suggesting that BPS has become a BPA replacement. The contributions of urinary excretion to wastewater were calculated by the ratio of daily per capita urinary excretion to wastewater-based mass loads of bisphenols. Urinary BPA and BPS contributed to less than 1% of the load found in wastewater, indicating that much of the BPA and BPS originates from other sources.

Simulated 2017 nationwide sampling at 13,940 major U.S. sewage treatment plants to assess seasonal population bias in wastewater-based epidemiology

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is an economical technique for monitoring and managing the health and behavior of human populations. Using 2017 nationwide data on geospatial population demographics as a test case, we simulated repeated sampling at all major U.S. wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs; n = 13,940) under constant biomarker loading conditions, to explore the potential sensitivity of WBE for generating skewed data. Simulation of repeated sewage sampling over all four seasons of 2017 yielded a number of expected, inter-dependent phenomena triggered by cooler wintertime temperatures compared to summertime results, including relatively (i) slower in-sewer biomarker decay, (ii) longer distal reach of WBE, (iii) larger effective sewershed monitoring areas, and (iv) an increase in the population represented. Additional important but not necessarily anticipated simulation outcomes included (v) distinct, non-random changes in demographic parameters of monitored subpopulations (e.g., by household income, educational attainment, military service, unemployment, and lack of health insurance), (vi) recurring observation of the latter demographic patterns across various geospatial scales and regions, and (vii) more evenly distributed results in the winter. In contrast, data obtainable by WBE in the summertime were dominated by households residing closest to the WWTP and subpopulations of relatively lesser wealth, educational achievement, healthcare access and employability. The analytical approach presented here should be readily applicable to other regions worldwide and may help to improve the design, robustness and interpretation of future WBE studies.

Longitudinal wastewater sampling in buildings reveals temporal dynamics of metabolites

Direct sampling of building wastewater has the potential to enable "precision public health" observations and interventions. Temporal sampling offers additional dynamic information that can be used to increase the informational content of individual metabolic "features", but few studies have focused on high-resolution sampling. Here, we sampled three spatially close buildings, revealing individual metabolomics features, retention time (rt) and mass-to-charge ratio (mz) pairs, that often possess similar stationary statistical properties, as expected from aggregate sampling. However, the temporal profiles of features-providing orthogonal information to physicochemical properties-illustrate that many possess different feature temporal dynamics (fTDs) across buildings, with large and unpredictable single day deviations from the mean. Internal to a building, numerous and seemingly unrelated features, with mz and rt differences up to hundreds of Daltons and seconds, display highly correlated fTDs, suggesting non-obvious feature relationships. Data-driven building classification achieves high sensitivity and specificity, and extracts building-identifying features found to possess unique dynamics. Analysis of fTDs from many short-duration samples allows for tailored community monitoring with applicability in public health studies.

Assessment of human exposure to selected pesticides in Norway by wastewater analysis

Pesticides offer many benefits for humanity and agriculture, but at the same time pose a potential risk to human health because of their widespread use and high biological activity. Human biomonitoring (HBM) studies are the main tool to investigate human exposure to pesticides and other chemicals, but face limitations such as sampling biases, long time to complete and high costs. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is an alternative approach that is centered on the chemical analysis of biomarkers of (pesticide) exposure in urban wastewater. The present study used WBE to assess human exposure to selected classes of pesticides, triazines, pyrethroids and organophosphates, in Norway. Untreated wastewater samples were collected from four cities, covering approximately 20% of the Norwegian population. The highest population weighted mass loads (mg/day/1000 inhabitants) were for alkyl phosphates and the lowest for triazines. Some differences were observed for the two metabolites, 2-isopropyl-6-methyl-4-pyrimidinol (IMPY) and 3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethyl-(1-cyclopropane) carboxylic acid (DCCA), which were higher in the rural city of Hamar. WBE figures were comparable with HBM findings for the specific metabolite of chlorpyrifos and chlorpyrifos methyl (3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol; TCPY) but were different for the alkyl phosphates. Pyrethroid intake was calculated and was lower than the acceptable daily intake in all the cities, indicating low risk for human health. This is the most extensive WBE study performed to date to assess national human exposure to pesticides. This study demonstrated that WBE has the potential to be a useful complementary biomonitoring tool for assessing population-wide exposure to pesticides, overcoming some of the limitations of HBM.

Concentrations of phthalate metabolites in Australian urine samples and their contribution to the per capita loads in wastewater

Exposure to phthalates is a public health concern. In this study, we collected both urine and wastewater samples from 2012 to 2017 and analysed for 14 phthalate metabolites to assess human exposure to phthalates in Southeast Queensland (SEQ), and for associations between phthalate metabolites in urine and wastewater samples. Twenty-four pooled urine samples were prepared from 2400 individual specimens every two years (stratified by age, gender and collection year). Wastewater samples were collected from the three major wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) representing locations in the SEQ region including a regional city, part of the state capital city and a third major urban WWTP in the region. Over the period, decreases for most phthalate metabolites, i.e. mono-butyl phthalate (MBP), mono-isobutyl phthalate (MiBP), monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP), monocyclohexyl phthalate (MCHP), mono(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate (MCPP), mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP), mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP), and monomethyl phthalate (MMP), but an increase in monoethyl phthalate (MEP, particularly in young children) were observed in urine. In general, temporal changes were smaller in urine pools representing older age groups. We also found substantial variation in per capita mass loads of phthalate metabolites between samples from the three WWTPs with generally higher concentrations of most phthalates in the metropolitan areas. Per capita mass loads of most phthalate metabolites in wastewater were higher than would be expected from the per-capita excretion in urine, suggesting there are additional sources contributing to the majority of the observed phthalate metabolites in wastewater. For MEHHP and MEOHP we estimate that the urinary excretion accounts for a substantial fraction (average about 50%) of the mass load observed in the wastewater hence wastewater data may provide useful for monitoring trends in exposure.

Phthalate metabolites in harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) from Norwegian coastal waters

The exposure of marine mammals to phthalates has received considerable attention due to the ubiquitous occurrence of these pollutants in the marine environment and their potential adverse health effects. The occurrence of phthalate metabolites is well established in human populations, but data is scarce for marine mammals. In this study, concentrations of 17 phthalate metabolites were determined in liver samples collected from one hundred (n = 100) by-caught harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) along the coast of Norway. Overall, thirteen phthalate metabolites were detected in the samples. Monoethyl phthalate (mEP), mono-iso-butyl phthalate (mIBP), mono-n-butyl phthalate (mBP) and phthalic acid (PA) were the most abundant metabolites, accounting for detection rates ≥ 85%. The highest median concentrations were found for mIBP (30.6 ng/g wet weight [w.w.]) and mBP (25.2 ng/g w.w.) followed by PA (7.75 ng/g w.w.) and mEP (5.67 ng/g w.w.). The sum of the median phthalate metabolites concentrations that were found in the majority of samples (detection rates > 50%) indicated that concentrations were lower for porpoises collected along the coastal area of Bodø (Nordland), Lebesby (Finnmark) and Varangerfjord (as compared to other coastal areas); these areas are among the least populated coastal areas but also the most distant (>700 km) from offshore active oil and gas fields. The monomethyl phthalate metabolite (mMP) was detected in 69% of the samples, and to our knowledge, alongside with PA, this is the first report of their occurrence in marine mammals. PA, as the non-specific marker of phthalate exposures, showed a statistically significant negative association with the body mass and length of the harbor porpoises. Among the phthalate metabolites, statistically significant positive associations were found between mBP and mIBP, mMP and mEP, PA and mEP, mIBP and mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (mEOHP), mIBP and mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (mEHHP), mBP and mEHHP, mono-n-nonyl phthalate (mNP) and PA, and between monobenzyl phthalate (mBzP) and mNP. To our knowledge, this is the first study on the biomonitoring of 17 phthalate metabolites in harbor porpoises.

Prevalence of illicit and prescribed neuropsychiatric drugs in three communities in Kentucky using wastewater-based epidemiology and Monte Carlo simulation for the estimation of associated uncertainties

A cost-effective alternative approach capable of determining the prevalence of substance use in communities can complement the existing efforts of combating drug abuse and addiction. In this study, the prevalence of 10 illicit and 19 prescribed psychoactive drugs of potential abuse was determined utilizing wastewater-based epidemiology, and compared in two adjoined urban communities and a rural community. This is the first application of the Monte Carlo simulation method to account multiple uncertainties and propagation of errors associated with the individual parameter of wastewater based epidemiological estimations in the U.S. A significantly higher prevalence of cocaine [3830 (mean difference, MD: 2960) mg/d/1000 people] was found in the central business district while the per-capita consumption rates of amphetamine [738 (MD: 338) mg/d/1000 people] and methamphetamine [1660 (MD: 629) mg/d/1000 people] were higher in a rural community. Among narcotics, the per-capita consumption rate of fentanyl and morphine was significantly higher in urban communities while codeine, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, and buprenorphine were dominant in a rural community. The significantly higher prevalence of buprenorphine (˜20-30 folds), oxycodone (˜2-3 folds), and alprazolam (˜2-3 folds) determined in these communities compared to the conventional estimates based on the electronically reported prescriptions and drug-related inpatient hospitalizations suggest the abuse of these drugs.

Wastewater-based epidemiology for tracking human exposure to mycotoxins

Mycotoxins are among the compounds of most concern for human health because of their common presence in food and their proven toxicity for human health. Human biomonitoring (HBM) studies, foodstuff analysis and dietary surveys are usually used to assess human exposure, but they are costly and time-consuming. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) can complement the established exposure monitoring tools. The aim of this study was to develop a new WBE application for assessing human exposure to mycotoxins by measuring specific biomarkers in raw wastewater. Eleven substances were analysed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in wastewater from four cities in Italy and Spain. Only deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisines were found, DON being the most abundant, in accordance with HBM studies. DON intake, back-calculated by WBE, was lower than the established Health-Based Guidance values, indicating moderate exposure in the population, with no risks for human health. WBE intake estimates were very close to those reported in HBM studies, validating WBE for estimating DON intake in the population. This study describes a promising WBE approach to complement HBM studies and assess the human intake of specific classes of mycotoxins, thus helping to identify risks for human health.

Human exposure of bisphenol A and its analogues: understandings from human urinary excretion data and wastewater-based epidemiology

This work evaluated human exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) and its analogues based on human urinary excretion data and wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). The results showed that the world's average human daily intake ranked from high to low is in order of bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol P (BPP), bisphenol AP (BPAP), bisphenol B (BPB), bisphenol Z (BPZ), and bisphenol AF (BPAF), and their corresponding human daily intakes are 2.53, 0.68, 0.60, 0.41, 0.36, 0.29, 0.24, and 0.06 μg/p/day, respectively. BPA is clearly the dominant bisphenol for human exposure. However, the results also showed that humans have been widely exposed to BPA analogues as well. Many BPA analogues showed similar estrogenic activities to those of BPA; therefore, the adverse effects of BPA and its analogues on humans should be comprehensively evaluated. The nominal exposure levels obtained based on wastewater-based epidemiology ranked high to low are in order of BPA (513.73 μg/p/day), BPF (10.20 μg/p/day), BPS (5.21 μg/p/day), BPP (1.15 μg/p/day), BPZ (0.66 μg/p/day), BPB (0.61 μg/p/day), BPAF (0.58 μg/p/day), and BPAP (0.35 μg/p/day). The world's human average daily intakes of BPA and its analogues are only 0.5-47.9% of the intakes of their corresponding human nominal exposures. This study suggests that other sources rather human excretions are important origins in municipal wastewater, which indicates that the WBE method based on parent compounds is inappropriate for evaluations of human daily intakes of BPA and its analogues, neither for other industrial compounds that have multiple important sources. Three main important sources of BPA and its analogues in municipal wastewater are likely effluents of industrial wastewater, discharges of hospital wastewater, and landfill leachates. To decrease discharges of BPA and its analogues to the natural environment, any mixing of industrial and hospital wastewater as well as landfill leachates in municipal wastewater is not favorable.

Flexible high resolution-mass spectrometry approach for screening new psychoactive substances in urban wastewater

The number of new psychoactive substances (NPS) on the recreational drug market has increased rapidly in the last years, creating serious challenges for public health agencies and law enforcement authorities. Epidemiological surveys and forensic analyses to monitor the consumption of these substances face some limitations for investigating their use on a large scale in a shifting market. The aim of this work was to develop a comprehensive and flexible screening approach for assessing the presence of NPS in urban wastewater by liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Almost 200 substances were selected as "priority NPS" among those most frequently and recently reported by the Early Warning Systems (EWS) of different agencies and were included in the screening. Wastewater samples were collected from several cities all over Europe in 2016 and 2017, extracted using different solid-phase cartridges and analysed by LC-HRMS. The screening workflow comprised three successive analytical steps and compounds were identified and confirmed following specific criteria from the current guidelines. Thirteen NPS were identified at different confidence levels by using analytical standards or information from libraries and literature, and about half of them were phenethylamines. As far as we know, this is the first time that four of them (i.e. 3,4-dimethoxy-α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, para-methoxyamphetamine, 2-phenethylamine and α-methyltryptamine) have been found in urban wastewater. The proposed screening approach was successfully applied in the largest NPS European wastewater monitoring, providing an innovative and easily adapted procedure for investigating NPS. In the light of current challenges and specific future research issues, this approach may complement epidemiological information and help in establishing measures for public health protection.

Contribution of phthalates and phthalate monoesters from drinking water to daily intakes for the general population

Although phthalates (PAEs) are ubiquitous in drinking water, and phthalate monoesters (MPAEs) have been recognized as the bioactive metabolites of PAEs, little information is available regarding the occurrence of MPAEs in drinking water and the contributions of PAEs and MPAEs to human exposure. In this study, the concentrations of PAEs and MPAEs in 146 samples of drinking water collected from 24 cities throughout China were determined. The mean concentrations of dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) were 14.31 ± 26.28, 5.905 ± 11.57, 103.8 ± 310.5, 595.9 ± 1794, and 178.2 ± 422.0 ng/L, respectively. Monomethyl phthalate (MMP), monoethyl phthalate (MEP), monoisobutyl phthalate (MiBP), mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP), and mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) were detected in drinking water for the first time, at mean concentrations of 12.1 ± 18.0, 2.4 ± 5.8, 11.3 ± 37.2, 36.3 ± 103, and 9.9 ± 18.0 ng/L, respectively. The geometric mean concentrations of MMP, MEP, MiBP, MnBP, and MEHP in urine samples collected from 1040 participants from 16 cities were 10.1, 19.3, 29.6, 47.3, and 3.63 μg/g creatinine, respectively. The concentrations of PAEs and MPAEs in drinking water and daily intakes (DIs) of PAEs from nine cities where drinking water and urine samples were simultaneously collected were used to estimate the contributions from drinking water. The percentages of DMP, DEP, DiBP, DnBP, and DEHP from drinking water accounted for DIs of 0.60%, 0.049%, 1.26%, 2.76%, and 0.56%, respectively. The percentages of MMP, MEP, MiBP, MnBP and MEHP via intake of drinking water accounted for urinary concentrations of 0.86%, 0.032%, 0.14%, 0.089%, and 0.045%, respectively.