Cancer Cells Microsurgery via Asymmetric Bent Surface Au/Ag/Ni Microrobotic Scalpels Through a Transversal Rotating Magnetic Field

Rapid Blood Clot Removal via Remote Delamination and Magnetization of Clot Debris

Micro/nano-scale robotic devices are emerging as a cutting-edge approach for precision intravascular therapies, offering the potential for highly targeted drug delivery. While employing micro/nanorobotics for stroke treatment is a promising strategy due to its ability to localize therapy and minimize drug dosage, current methods require prolonged treatment durations, increasing the risk of nerve tissue necrosis from extended hypoxia. Here a programmable colloidal microswarm capable of rapidly detaching blood clots from the vessel wall is developed, enabling swift recanalization without the need for complete clot degradation. More importantly, the detached clot debris, despite their random shapes, functions as magnetic "debris-robots" and can be efficiently propelled through helical swimming within flowing vessels, followed by retrieval using catheter suction. The entire process-including catheter delivery, controlled locomotion, clot detachment, and retrieval-can be completed in approximately half an hour, significantly saving time compared to the critical "Golden 6 hours" window for stroke treatment. This retrieval procedure greatly minimizes nanoparticle exposure in the bloodstream and lowers the risk of secondary clotting in distal vessels, marking a significant advancement in robotic-assisted thrombolysis.

Going for a Spin: Simultaneously Pulling and Spinning Microrods Speeds Transport through Collagen Matrices

Magnetic drug targeting requires particles to move through the complex viscoelastic environments of tissues and biological fluids. However, these environments often inhibit particle motion, making it difficult for magnetically guided particles to reach their intended targets. Magnetic microrods are easy to grow and manipulate, but experience significant hindrance to transport in complex, tortuous, tissue-like environments. Simple magnetic force translation ("pulling" or "pushing") is often insufficient or inefficient for long-range transport of microrods through such environments. Designing microrods capable of rotating while being pulled with a magnetic force may enable rods to overcome hindrances to transport. We present microrods with orthogonally magnetized segments, actuated by simultaneous magnetic force and magnetic torque. By simultaneously pulling and rotating our rods we create smooth-surfaced magnetic drilling microrods (MDMRs) capable of enhanced motion through protein-dense biopolymers. We model magnetic force and torque on MDMRs, characterize MDMR dynamics during transport, and demonstrate enhanced MDMR transport through protein-dense matrices in vitro.

Propulsion Mechanisms in Magnetic Microrobotics: From Single Microrobots to Swarms

Microrobots with different structures can exhibit multiple propulsion mechanisms under external magnetic fields. Swarms dynamically assembled by microrobots inherit the advantages of single microrobots, such as degradability and small dimensions, while also offering benefits like scalability and high flexibility. With control of magnetic fields, these swarms demonstrate diverse propulsion mechanisms and can perform precise actions in complex environments. Therefore, the relationship between single microrobots and their swarms is a significant area of study. This paper reviews the relationship between single microrobots and swarms by examining the structural design, control methods, propulsion mechanisms, and practical applications. At first, we introduce the structural design of microrobots, including materials and manufacturing methods. Then, we describe magnetic field generation systems, including gradient, rotating, and oscillating magnetic fields, and their characteristics. Next, we analyze the propulsion mechanisms of individual microrobots and the way microrobots dynamically assemble into a swarm under an external magnetic field, which illustrates the relationship between single microrobots and swarms. Finally, we discuss the application of different swarm propulsion mechanisms in water purification and targeted delivery, summarize current challenges and future work, and explore future directions.

Intelligent sensing for the autonomous manipulation of microrobots toward minimally invasive cell surgery

The physiology and pathogenesis of biological cells have drawn enormous research interest. Benefiting from the rapid development of microfabrication and microelectronics, miniaturized robots with a tool size below micrometers have widely been studied for manipulating biological cells in vitro and in vivo. Traditionally, the complex physiological environment and biological fragility require human labor interference to fulfill these tasks, resulting in high risks of irreversible structural or functional damage and even clinical risk. Intelligent sensing devices and approaches have been recently integrated within robotic systems for environment visualization and interaction force control. As a consequence, microrobots can be autonomously manipulated with visual and interaction force feedback, greatly improving accuracy, efficiency, and damage regulation for minimally invasive cell surgery. This review first explores advanced tactile sensing in the aspects of sensing principles, design methodologies, and underlying physics. It also comprehensively discusses recent progress on visual sensing, where the imaging instruments and processing methods are summarized and analyzed. It then introduces autonomous micromanipulation practices utilizing visual and tactile sensing feedback and their corresponding applications in minimally invasive surgery. Finally, this work highlights and discusses the remaining challenges of current robotic micromanipulation and their future directions in clinical trials, providing valuable references about this field.

Intermediate scattering function of a gravitactic circle swimmer

We analyze gravitaxis of a Brownian circle swimmer by deriving and analytically characterizing the experimentally measurable intermediate scattering function (ISF). To solve the associated Fokker-Planck equation, we use a spectral-theory approach, finding formal expressions in terms of eigenfunctions and eigenvalues of the overdamped-noisy-driven pendulum problem. We further perform a Taylor series of the ISF in the wavevector to extract the cumulants up to the fourth order. We focus on the skewness and kurtosis analyzed for four observation directions in the 2D plane. Validating our findings involves conducting Langevin-dynamics simulations and interpreting the results using a harmonic approximation. The skewness and kurtosis are amplified as the orienting torque approaches the intrinsic angular drift of the circle swimmer from above, highlighting deviations from Gaussian behavior. Transforming the ISF to the comoving frame, a measurable quantity, reveals gravitactic effects and diverse behaviors spanning from diffusive motion at low wavenumbers to circular motion at intermediate wavenumbers and directed motion at higher wavenumbers.

Magnetic-chemotactic hybrid microrobots with precise remote targeting capability

Micro/nanorobots (MNRs) hold great promise for various applications due to their capability to execute complex tasks in hard-to-reach micro/nano cavities. However, the developed magnetic MNRs, as marionettes of external magnetic fields, lack built-in intelligence for self-targeting, while chemotactic MNRs suffer from limited self-targeting range. Here, we demonstrate magnetic-chemotactic ZnO/Fe-Ag Janus microrobots (JMRs) capable of rapid, remote self-targeting for bacterial elimination. The JMRs utilize the magnetic Fe engine for coarse navigation from a distance, allowing for external control to swiftly guide them to the vicinity of a hidden/uncharted target that establishes a local chemical gradient ([CO2] or [H+] gradient). Once in proximity, the inherent chemotaxis of the JMRs takes over, the chemotactic engine enables them to autonomously accumulate at the target site along the chemical gradient in high precision. Upon reaching the target, the ZnO/Fe-Ag JMRs can release Zn2+ and Ag+ to eliminate bacteria residing there. The proposed strategy of integrating on-board chemotaxis with external magnetic field-driven propulsion paves the way for efficient precise therapies using MNRs, especially in targeted drug/energy delivery involving remote hidden or uncharted targets.

Advances in nano-preparations for improving tetrandrine solubility and bioavailability

Tetrandrine (TET) is a natural bis-benzylisoquinoline alkaloid isolated from Stephania species with a wide range of biological and pharmacologic activities; it mainly serves as an anti-inflammatory agent or antitumor adjuvant in clinical applications. However, limitations such as prominent hydrophobicity, severe off-target toxicity, and low absorption result in suboptimal therapeutic outcomes preventing its widespread adoption. Nanoparticles have proven to be efficient devices for targeted drug delivery since drug-carrying nanoparticles can be passively transported to the tumor site by the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effects, thus securing a niche in cancer therapies. Great progress has been made in nanocarrier construction for TET delivery due to their outstanding advantages such as increased water-solubility, improved biodistribution and blood circulation, reduced off-target irritation, and combinational therapy. Herein, we systematically reviewed the latest advancements in TET-loaded nanoparticles and their respective features with the expectation of providing perspective and guidelines for future research and potential applications of TET.

Field-Directed Motion, Cargo Capture, and Closed-Loop Controlled Navigation of Microellipsoids

Microrobots have the potential for diverse applications, including targeted drug delivery and minimally invasive surgery. Despite advancements in microrobot design and actuation strategies, achieving precise control over their motion remains challenging due to the dominance of viscous drag, system disturbances, physicochemical heterogeneities, and stochastic Brownian forces. Here, a precise control over the interfacial motion of model microellipsoids is demonstrated using time-varying rotating magnetic fields. The impacts of microellipsoid aspect ratio, field characteristics, and magnetic properties of the medium and the particle on the motion are investigated. The role of mobile micro-vortices generated is highlighted by rotating microellipsoids in capturing, transporting, and releasing cargo objects. Furthermore, an approach is presented for controlled navigation through mazes based on real-time particle and obstacle sensing, path planning, and magnetic field actuation without human intervention. The study introduces a mechanism of directing motion of microparticles using rotating magnetic fields, and a control scheme for precise navigation and delivery of micron-sized cargo using simple microellipsoids as microbots.

Design and batch fabrication of anisotropic microparticles toward small-scale robots using microfluidics: recent advances

Small-scale robots with shape anisotropy have garnered significant scientific interest due to their enhanced mobility and precise control in recent years. Traditionally, these miniature robots are manufactured using established techniques such as molding, 3D printing, and microfabrication. However, the advent of microfluidics in recent years has emerged as a promising manufacturing technology, capitalizing on the precise and dynamic manipulation of fluids at the microscale to fabricate various complex-shaped anisotropic particles. This offers a versatile and controlled platform, enabling the efficient fabrication of small-scale robots with tailored morphologies and advanced functionalities from the microfluidic-derived anisotropic microparticles at high throughput. This review highlights the recent advances in the microfluidic fabrication of anisotropic microparticles and their potential applications in small-scale robots. In this review, the term 'small-scale robots' broadly encompasses micromotors endowed with capabilities for locomotion and manipulation. Firstly, the fundamental strategies for liquid template formation and the methodologies for generating anisotropic microparticles within the microfluidic system are briefly introduced. Subsequently, the functionality of shape-anisotropic particles in forming components for small-scale robots and actuation mechanisms are emphasized. Attention is then directed towards the diverse applications of these microparticle-derived microrobots in a variety of fields, including pollution remediation, cell microcarriers, drug delivery, and biofilm eradication. Finally, we discuss future directions for the fabrication and development of miniature robots from microfluidics, shedding light on the evolving landscape of this field.

Metal-Organic Framework-Based Micro-/Nanomotors for Wastewater Remediation

Micro-/nanomotors (MNMs) in water remediation have garnered significant attention over the past two decades. More recently, metal-organic framework-based micro-/nanomotors (MOF-MNMs) have been applied for environmental remediation; however, a comprehensive summary of research in this research area is yet to be reported. Herein, a review is presented to cover the recent advances in MOF-MNMs and their various applications in wastewater remediation. The review presents a comprehensive introduction to MNMs, including different propulsion approaches, fabrication, and functionalization strategies, in addition to the unique features of MOF-MNMs. The conception and various synthetic routes of MOF-MNMs are extensively covered and the implementation of MOF-MNMs in water-related applications, including adsorption, degradation, sensing, and disinfection of different pollutants, is in depth discussed. Meanwhile, the propulsion and mechanism of action behind each MOF-MNM are systematically studied. Finally, the review provides insights into the challenges and perspectives to build more effective MOF-MNMs to cover versatile applications for wastewater treatment.

On-the-Fly Monitoring of the Capture and Removal of Nanoplastics with Nanorobots

Nanoplastics are considered an emerging organic persistent pollutant with possible severe long-term implications for the environment and human health; therefore, their remediation is of paramount importance. However, detecting and determining the concentration of nanoparticles in water is challenging and time-consuming due to their small size. In this work, we present a universal yet simple method for the detection and quantification of nanoplastics to monitor their removal from water using magnetic nanorobots. Nanoplastics were stained with a hydrophobic fluorescent dye to enable the use of photoluminescence techniques for their detection and quantification. Magnetic nanorobotic tools were employed to capture and subsequently remove the nanoplastics from contaminated waters. We demonstrated that nanorobots can capture and remove more than 90% of the nanoplastics from an aqueous solution within 120 min. This work shows that easy-to-use common fluorescent dyes combined with photoluminescence spectroscopy methods can be used as an alternative method for the detection and quantification of nanoplastics in water environments and swarming magnetic nanorobots for efficient capture and removal. These methods hold great potential for future research to improve the quantification and removal of nanoplastics in water, and it will ultimately reduce their harmful impact on the environment and human health.

Enhancing Swimming Performance of Magnetic Helical Microswimmers by Surface Microstructure

Artificial bacterial flagella (ABF), also known as a magnetic helical microswimmer, has demonstrated enormous potential in various future biomedical applications (e.g., targeted drug delivery and minimally invasive surgery). Nevertheless, when used for in vivo/in vitro treatment applications, it is essential to achieve the high motion efficiency of the microswimmers for rapid therapy. In this paper, inspired by microorganisms, the surface microstructure was introduced into ABFs to investigate its effect on the swimming behavior. It was confirmed that compared with smooth counterparts, the ABF with surface microstructure reveals a smaller forward velocity below the step-out frequency (i.e., the frequency corresponding to the maximum velocity) but a larger maximum forward velocity and higher step-out frequency. A hydrodynamic model of microstructured ABF is employed to reveal the underlying movement mechanism, demonstrating that the interfacial slippage and the interaction between the fluid and the microstructure are essential to the swimming behavior. Furthermore, the effect of surface wettability and solid fraction of microstructure on the swimming performance of ABFs was investigated experimentally and analytically, which further reveals the influence of surface microstructure on the movement mechanism. The results present an effective approach for designing fast microrobots for in vivo/in vitro biomedical applications.

3D-printed microrobots for biomedical applications

Microrobots, which can perform tasks in difficult-to-reach parts of the human body under their own or external power supply, are potential tools for biomedical applications, such as drug delivery, microsurgery, imaging and monitoring, tissue engineering, and sensors and actuators. Compared with traditional fabrication methods for microrobots, recent improvements in 3D printers enable them to print high-precision microrobots, breaking through the limitations of traditional micromanufacturing technologies that require high skills for operators and greatly shortening the design-to-production cycle. Here, this review first introduces typical 3D printing technologies used in microrobot manufacturing. Then, the structures of microrobots with different functions and application scenarios are discussed. Next, we summarize the materials (body materials, propulsion materials and intelligent materials) used in 3D microrobot manufacturing to complete body construction and realize biomedical applications (e.g., drug delivery, imaging and monitoring). Finally, the challenges and future prospects of 3D printed microrobots in biomedical applications are discussed in terms of materials, manufacturing and advancement.

A Human-Scale Clinically Ready Electromagnetic Navigation System for Magnetically Responsive Biomaterials and Medical Devices

Magnetic navigation systems are used to precisely manipulate magnetically responsive materials enabling the realization of new minimally invasive procedures using magnetic medical devices. Their widespread applicability has been constrained by high infrastructure demands and costs. The study reports on a portable electromagnetic navigation system, the Navion, which is capable of generating a large magnetic field over a large workspace. The system is easy to install in hospital operating rooms and transportable through health care facilities, aiding in the widespread adoption of magnetically responsive medical devices. First, the design and implementation approach for the system are introduced and its performance is characterized. Next, in vitro navigation of different microrobot structures is demonstrated using magnetic field gradients and rotating magnetic fields. Spherical permanent magnets, electroplated cylindrical microrobots, microparticle swarms, and magnetic composite bacteria-inspired helical structures are investigated. The navigation of magnetic catheters is also demonstrated in two challenging endovascular tasks: 1) an angiography procedure and 2) deep navigation within the circle of Willis. Catheter navigation is demonstrated in a porcine model in vivo to perform an angiography under magnetic guidance.

Multifunctional Hydrogel with 3D Printability, Fluorescence, Biodegradability, and Biocompatibility for Biomedical Microrobots

As micron-sized objects, mobile microrobots have shown significant potential for future biomedical applications, such as targeted drug delivery and minimally invasive surgery. However, to make these microrobots viable for clinical applications, several crucial aspects should be implemented, including customizability, motion-controllability, imageability, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. Developing materials to meet these requirements is of utmost importance. Here, a gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) and (2-(4-vinylphenyl)ethene-1,1,2-triyl)tribenzene (TPEMA)-based multifunctional hydrogel with 3D printability, fluorescence imageability, biodegradability, and biocompatibility is demonstrated. By using 3D direct laser writing method, the hydrogel exhibits its versatility in the customization and fabrication of 3D microstructures. Spherical hydrogel microrobots were fabricated and decorated with magnetic nanoparticles on their surface to render them magnetically responsive, and have demonstrated excellent movement performance and motion controllability. The hydrogel microstructures also represented excellent drug loading/release capacity and degradability by using collagenase, along with stable fluorescence properties. Moreover, cytotoxicity assays showed that the hydrogel was non-toxic, as well as able to support cell attachment and growth, indicating excellent biocompatibility of the hydrogel. The developed multifunctional hydrogel exhibits great potential for biomedical microrobots that are integrated with customizability, 3D printability, motion controllability, drug delivery capacity, fluorescence imageability, degradability, and biocompatibility, thus being able to realize the real in vivo biomedical applications of microrobots.

Iron-Reduced Graphene Oxide Core-Shell Micromotors Designed for Magnetic Guidance and Photothermal Therapy under Second Near-Infrared Light

Core-shell micro/nanomotors have garnered significant interest in biomedicine owing to their versatile task-performing capabilities. However, their effectiveness for photothermal therapy (PTT) still faces challenges because of their poor tumor accumulation, lower light-to-heat conversion, and due to the limited penetration of near-infrared (NIR) light. In this study, we present a novel core-shell micromotor that combines magnetic and photothermal properties. It is synthesized via the template-assisted electrodeposition of iron (Fe) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) on a microtubular pore-shaped membrane. The resulting Fe-rGO micromotor consists of a core of oval-shaped zero-valent iron nanoparticles with large magnetization. At the same time, the outer layer has a uniform reduced graphene oxide (rGO) topography. Combined, these Fe-rGO core-shell micromotors respond to magnetic forces and near-infrared (NIR) light (1064 nm), achieving a remarkable photothermal conversion efficiency of 78% at a concentration of 434 µg mL-1. They can also carry doxorubicin (DOX) and rapidly release it upon NIR irradiation. Additionally, preliminary results regarding the biocompatibility of these micromotors through in vitro tests on a 3D breast cancer model demonstrate low cytotoxicity and strong accumulation. These promising results suggest that such Fe-rGO core-shell micromotors could hold great potential for combined photothermal therapy.

A Survey of Recent Developments in Magnetic Microrobots for Micro-/Nano-Manipulation

Magnetically actuated microrobots have become a research hotspot in recent years due to their tiny size, untethered control, and rapid response capability. Moreover, an increasing number of researchers are applying them for micro-/nano-manipulation in the biomedical field. This survey provides a comprehensive overview of the recent developments in magnetic microrobots, focusing on materials, propulsion mechanisms, design strategies, fabrication techniques, and diverse micro-/nano-manipulation applications. The exploration of magnetic materials, biosafety considerations, and propulsion methods serves as a foundation for the diverse designs discussed in this review. The paper delves into the design categories, encompassing helical, surface, ciliary, scaffold, and biohybrid microrobots, with each demonstrating unique capabilities. Furthermore, various fabrication techniques, including direct laser writing, glancing angle deposition, biotemplating synthesis, template-assisted electrochemical deposition, and magnetic self-assembly, are examined owing to their contributions to the realization of magnetic microrobots. The potential impact of magnetic microrobots across multidisciplinary domains is presented through various application areas, such as drug delivery, minimally invasive surgery, cell manipulation, and environmental remediation. This review highlights a comprehensive summary of the current challenges, hurdles to overcome, and future directions in magnetic microrobot research across different fields.

Mimicking Motor Proteins: Wall-Guided Self-Navigation of Microwheels

Untethered micro/nanorobots (MNRs) show great promise in biomedicine. However, high-precision targeted in vivo navigation of MNRs into both deep and tiny microtube networks comes with big challenges because the present medical imaging cannot simultaneously meet the requirements of high resolution, high penetration depth, and high real-time performance. Inspired by intracellular motor proteins that transport cargo along cytoskeletal tracks, this study proposed a microtube inwall-guided targeted self-navigation strategy of magnetic microwheels (μ-wheels) that relies only on interactions with a microtube inwall, compared to conventional techniques that rely on real-time imaging and tracking of MNRs. By presetting the direction of the rotating magnetic field, the μ-wheel realized targeted navigation along the inwall. The propulsion principles behind it are elaborated. The targeted self-navigation of the μ-wheels in three-dimensional microtube networks, a spiral microtube, and an intrahepatic bile duct of a pig was conducted. Lastly, based on the strategy, a practical tumor early detection method was proposed and verified by means of magnetic resonance imaging. The microtube inwall-guided targeted self-navigation strategy reduces the dependence of in vivo targeted navigation of MNRs on the real-time performance of medical imaging technology and greatly contributes to the development of MNRs in biomedical applications.

Urease-Powered Black TiO2 Micromotors for Photothermal Therapy of Bladder Cancer

Urease-powered nano/micromotors can move at physiological urea concentrations, making them useful for biomedical applications, such as treating bladder cancer. However, their movement in biological environments is still challenging. Herein, Janus micromotors based on black TiO2 with urease asymmetric catalytic coating were designed to take benefit of the optical properties of black TiO2 under near-infrared light and the movement capability in simulated bladder environments (urea). The black TiO2 microspheres were half-coated with a thin layer of Au, and l-Cysteine was utilized to attach the urease enzyme to the Au surface using its thiol group. Biocatalytic hydrolysis of urea through urease at biologically relevant concentrations provided the driving force for micromotors. A variety of parameters, such as urea fuel concentration, viscosity, and ionic character of the environment, were used to investigate how micromotors moved in different concentrations of urea in water, PBS, NaCl, and urine. The results indicate that micromotors are propelled through ionic self-diffusiophoresis caused by urea enzymatic catalysis. Due to their low toxicity and in vitro anticancer effect, micromotors are effective agents for photothermal therapy, which can help kill bladder cancer cells. These promising results suggest that biocompatible micromotors hold great potential for improving cancer treatment and facilitating diagnosis.

Additively manufactured customized microhelix motors' bursting motion in mesoscopic tubes for vessel declogging

Magnetic microhelix motors are widely employed in various applications such as cargo transportation, drug delivery, toxic substance declogging, and cell manipulation, due to their unique adaptive magnetic manipulation capabilities. In this work, high-precision stereoscopic additive manufacturing techniques were used to produce customized microhelices with varying structural parameters, including different pitch numbers (2-4 pitches), sizes (0.1-0.25 mm), and taper angles (172°-180°). Their motion performance in mesoscopic tubes was systematically investigated. The magnetic microhelix motors' speed increases when circle numbers and taper angles decrease, while circle diameters increase. The magnetic microhelix motors' speed could achieve a 1500% enhancement reaching 0.16 mm s-1 in a 0.3 mm tube, with a pitch number of 3, diameter of 0.2 mm, and taper angle of 172°. Furthermore, their vessel declogging capability is confirmed in in vitro experiments.

An extracellular matrix-mimicking magnetic microrobot for targeted elimination of circulating cancer cells

Cancer cells disseminate through the bloodstream, leading to metastasis in distant sites within the body. One promising strategy to prevent metastasis is to eliminate circulating tumor cells. However, this remains challenging due to the lack of an active and targeted biomedical tool for efficient cancer cell elimination. Here, we developed a magnetic microrobot by using natural materials derived from the extracellular matrix (ECM) to mimic the ligand-receptor interaction between cancer cells and the ECM, offering targeted elimination of cancer cells. The ECM-mimicking microrobot is designed with a biodegradable hydrogel matrix, incorporating a cancer cell ligand and magnetic microparticles for cancer cell capture and active locomotion. This microrobot was fabricated based on an interface-shearing method, enabling controllable magnetic response and size scalability (30 μm-500 μm). The presented ECM-mimicking microrobot can actively approach and capture single cancer cells and cell clusters under the control of specific magnetic fields. The experiment was conducted in a blood vessel-mimicking simulator. The microrobot demonstrates an outstanding elimination efficacy of 92.3% on MDA-MB-231 cancer cells and a stable transport capability of the captured cells over long distances to a designed recycling site, inhibiting cell metastasis. This magnetic ECM-mimicking microrobot based on a bioinspired binding mechanism represents a promising candidate for the efficient elimination of cancer cells and other biological waste in the blood.

3D Motion Manipulation for Micro- and Nanomachines: Progress and Future Directions

In the past decade, micro- and nanomachines (MNMs) have made outstanding achievements in the fields of targeted drug delivery, tumor therapy, microsurgery, biological detection, and environmental monitoring and remediation. Researchers have made significant efforts to accelerate the rapid development of MNMs capable of moving through fluids by means of different energy sources (chemical reactions, ultrasound, light, electricity, magnetism, heat, or their combinations). However, the motion of MNMs is primarily investigated in confined two-dimensional (2D) horizontal setups. Furthermore, three-dimensional (3D) motion control remains challenging, especially for vertical movement and control, significantly limiting its potential applications in cargo transportation, environmental remediation, and biotherapy. Hence, an urgent need is to develop MNMs that can overcome self-gravity and controllably move in 3D spaces. This review delves into the latest progress made in MNMs with 3D motion capabilities under different manipulation approaches, discusses the underlying motion mechanisms, explores potential design concepts inspired by nature for controllable 3D motion in MNMs, and presents the available 3D observation and tracking systems.

Magnetic Hydrogel Microrobots as Insecticide Carriers for In Vivo Insect Pest Control in Plants

The cost of insect pests to human society exceeds USD70 billion per year worldwide in goods, livestock, and healthcare services. Therefore, pesticides are needed to prevent insect damage despite the secondary effects of these chemical agents on non-target organisms. Chemicals encapsulation into carriers is a promising strategy to improve their specificity. Hydrogel-based microrobots show enormous potential as chemical carriers. Herein, hydrogel chitosan magnetic microrobots encapsulating ethyl parathion (EP)-CHI@Fe3 O4 are used to efficiently kill mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor). The mechanism takes advantage of pH-responsive chitosan degradation at Tenebrio molitor midgut pH to efficiently deliver pesticide into the mealworm intestinal tract in just 2 h. It is observed that under a transversal rotating magnetic field, mealworm populations show higher mortality after 30 min compared to free pesticide. This example of active pesticide carriers based on soft microrobots opens new avenues for microrobots applications in the agrochemical field as active chemical carriers.

Coupling magnetic torque and force for colloidal microbot assembly and manipulation

For targeted transport in the body, biomedical microbots (μbots) must move effectively in three-dimensional (3D) microenvironments. Swimming μbots translate via asymmetric or screw-like motions while rolling ones use friction with available surfaces to generate propulsive forces. We have previously shown that planar rotating magnetic fields assemble μm-scale superparamagnetic beads into circular μbots that roll along surfaces. In this, gravity is required to pull μbots near the surface; however, this is not necessarily practical in complex geometries. Here we show that rotating magnetic fields, in tandem with directional magnetic gradient forces, can be used to roll μbots on surfaces regardless of orientation. Simplifying implementation, we use a spinning permanent magnet to generate differing ratios of rotating and gradient fields, optimizing control for different environments. This use of a single magnetic actuator sidesteps the need for complex electromagnet or tandem field setups, removes requisite gravitational load forces, and enables μbot targeting in complex 3D biomimetic microenvironments.

Recent Developments in Metallic Degradable Micromotors for Biomedical and Environmental Remediation Applications

Synthetic micromotor has gained substantial attention in biomedicine and environmental remediation. Metal-based degradable micromotor composed of magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), and iron (Fe) have promise due to their nontoxic fuel-free propulsion, favorable biocompatibility, and safe excretion of degradation products Recent advances in degradable metallic micromotor have shown their fast movement in complex biological media, efficient cargo delivery and favorable biocompatibility. A noteworthy number of degradable metal-based micromotors employ bubble propulsion, utilizing water as fuel to generate hydrogen bubbles. This novel feature has projected degradable metallic micromotors for active in vivo drug delivery applications. In addition, understanding the degradation mechanism of these micromotors is also a key parameter for their design and performance. Its propulsion efficiency and life span govern the overall performance of a degradable metallic micromotor. Here we review the design and recent advancements of metallic degradable micromotors. Furthermore, we describe the controlled degradation, efficient in vivo drug delivery, and built-in acid neutralization capabilities of degradable micromotors with versatile biomedical applications. Moreover, we discuss micromotors' efficacy in detecting and destroying environmental pollutants. Finally, we address the limitations and future research directions of degradable metallic micromotors.

Magnetic Microrobots as a Platform for Cell Clean Up

Mobile magnetic microrobots have been extensively used in a wide range of biomedical applications due to their numerous advantages. Magnetic microrobots in particular have been developed and shown great potential over the past two decades for the manipulation and migration of both single cells and cell aggregates. The efficient clearance of cell aggregates is crucial to prevent uncontrolled cell proliferation, tissue damage, and invasive surgeries, especially for those related to the vascular system. In this work, we showed cellular manipulation and mobility to achieve cellular clean up on Human Liver Cancer (HepG2) cells by using two types of untethered magnetic microrobots that are different in type and size. We performed the cellular clean up in the microchannel, which can demonstrate the closed working environment, and also on a glass slide to present an air-liquid interface. We showed that the microrobots could be able to move a cluster of cells in both conditions which could make them useful for sorting and separation applications. Furthermore, cell viability was assessed by using a trypan blue staining assay on HepG2 cells right after and 24 hours after microrobot actuation.

Tadpole-Like Flexible Microswimmers with the Head and Tail Both Magnetic

In analogy to eukaryotic cells that move by beating the flagella, magnetically powered micro/nanorobots with flexible filaments are capable of eluding the limitation of the scallop theorem to generate net displacement in a three-dimensional space, but they are limited by complicated fabrication and low speed. Here, we demonstrate a tadpole-like flexible microswimmer with a head and tail that are both magnetic by developing a magnetically assisted in situ polymerization method. The flexible microswimmer consists of a magnetic-bead head fixed to a nanochain bundle of magnetic nanoparticles (tail), and the tail length and stiffness can be adjusted simply by changing the duration and strength of the applied magnetic field during fabrication, respectively. For the microswimmer under an oscillating magnetic field, the magnetic head generates an undulatory motion, which can be further increased by the flexible magnetic tail. The magnetically induced undulation of the head and tail generates a traveling wave propagating through its flexible tail, resulting in efficient tadpole-like propulsion of the microswimmer. The flexible microswimmer runs at a maximum motion speed when the tail length is ∼5 times the diameter of the magnetic head, corresponding to ∼half the wavelength of the undulatory motion. The flexible microswimmers reported here are promising for active sensing and drug delivery, as the tails can be designed with various responsive hydrogels, and the results are expected to advance flexible micro/nanorobots.

Inverted Sedimentation of Active Particles in Unbiased ac Fields

Gaining control over the motion of active particles is crucial for applications ranging from targeted cargo delivery to nanomedicine. While much progress has been made recently to control active motion based on external forces, flows, or gradients in concentration or light intensity, which all have a well-defined direction or bias, little is known about how to steer active particles in situations where no permanent bias can be realized. Here, we show that ac fields with a vanishing time average provide an alternative route to steering active particles. We exemplify this route for inertial active particles in a gravitational field, observing that a substantial fraction of them persistently travels in the upward direction upon switching on the ac field, resulting in an inverted sedimentation profile at the top wall of a confining container. Our results offer a generic control principle that could be used in the future to steer active motion, direct collective behaviors, and purify mixtures.

Advances of medical nanorobots for future cancer treatments

Early detection and diagnosis of many cancers is very challenging. Late stage detection of a cancer always leads to high mortality rates. It is imperative to develop novel and more sensitive and effective diagnosis and therapeutic methods for cancer treatments. The development of new cancer treatments has become a crucial aspect of medical advancements. Nanobots, as one of the most promising applications of nanomedicines, are at the forefront of multidisciplinary research. With the progress of nanotechnology, nanobots enable the assembly and deployment of functional molecular/nanosized machines and are increasingly being utilized in cancer diagnosis and therapeutic treatment. In recent years, various practical applications of nanobots for cancer treatments have transitioned from theory to practice, from in vitro experiments to in vivo applications. In this paper, we review and analyze the recent advancements of nanobots in cancer treatments, with a particular emphasis on their key fundamental features and their applications in drug delivery, tumor sensing and diagnosis, targeted therapy, minimally invasive surgery, and other comprehensive treatments. At the same time, we discuss the challenges and the potential research opportunities for nanobots in revolutionizing cancer treatments. In the future, medical nanobots are expected to become more sophisticated and capable of performing multiple medical functions and tasks, ultimately becoming true nanosubmarines in the bloodstream.

Responsive Magnetic Nanocomposites for Intelligent Shape-Morphing Microrobots

With the development of advanced biomedical theragnosis and bioengineering tools, smart and soft responsive microstructures and nanostructures have emerged. These structures can transform their body shape on demand and convert external power into mechanical actions. Here, we survey the key advances in the design of responsive polymer-particle nanocomposites that led to the development of smart shape-morphing microscale robotic devices. We overview the technological roadmap of the field and highlight the emerging opportunities in programming magnetically responsive nanomaterials in polymeric matrixes, as magnetic materials offer a rich spectrum of properties that can be encoded with various magnetization information. The use of magnetic fields as a tether-free control can easily penetrate biological tissues. With the advances in nanotechnology and manufacturing techniques, microrobotic devices can be realized with the desired magnetic reconfigurability. We emphasize that future fabrication techniques will be the key to bridging the gaps between integrating sophisticated functionalities of nanoscale materials and reducing the complexity and footprints of microscale intelligent robots.

Photocatalysis dramatically influences motion of magnetic microrobots: Application to removal of microplastics and dyes

Micromachines gain momentum in the applications for environmental remediation. Magnetic components have been used to functionalize light-responsive micromachines to achieve efficient magnetic microrobots with photodegradation activity for decomposition of environmental pollutants. However, the influence of photocatalyst itself on the trajectory of micromotors in conjunction with magnetic motion was never considered. In this work, light-powered catalysis and transversal rotating magnetic field have been independently and simultaneously applied over Fe₃O₄@BiVO₄ microrobots to investigate the dynamics of their hybrid motion. Light exposure of microrobots results in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which power the microrobots, in addition to magnetic powered motion, and have a strong influence on the magnetic trajectories, resulting in an unexpected alteration of the direction of the motion of the microrobots. We have subsequently applied such magnetic/light powered micromachines for removal of microplastics in cigarette filter residues, one of the major contributors to the microplastic pollution, and dyes via photocatalysis. Such dual orthogonal propulsion modes act independently on the motion of the micromachines; and they also bring additional functionality as photodegradation agents. Hence, the dual magnetic/photocatalytic microrobots shall find a variety of catalytic applications in different fields.

Magnetically Driven Self-Degrading Zinc-Containing Cystine Microrobots for Treatment of Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed tumor disease in men, and its treatment is still a big challenge in standard oncology therapy. Magnetically actuated microrobots represent the most promising technology in modern nanomedicine, offering the advantage of wireless guidance, effective cell penetration, and non-invasive actuation. Here, new biodegradable magnetically actuated zinc/cystine-based microrobots for in situ treatment of prostate cancer cells are reported. The microrobots are fabricated via metal-ion-mediated self-assembly of the amino acid cystine encapsulating superparamagnetic Fe₃ O₄ nanoparticles (NPs) during the synthesis, which allows their precise manipulation by a rotating magnetic field. Inside the cells, the typical enzymatic reducing environment favors the disassembly of the aminoacidic chemical structure due to the cleavage of cystine disulfide bonds and disruption of non-covalent interactions with the metal ions, as demonstrated by in vitro experiments with reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). In this way, the cystine microrobots served for site-specific delivery of Zn²⁺ ions responsible for tumor cell killing via a "Trojan horse effect". This work presents a new concept of cell internalization exploiting robotic systems' self-degradation, proposing a step forward in non-invasive cancer therapy.

Radiopaque Nanorobots as Magnetically Navigable Contrast Agents for Localized In Vivo Imaging of the Gastrointestinal Tract

Magnetic nanorobots offer wireless navigation capability in hard-to-reach areas of the human body for targeted therapy and diagnosis. Though in vivo imaging is required for guidance of the magnetic nanorobots toward the target areas, most of the imaging techniques are inadequate to reveal the potential locomotion routes. This work proposes the use of radiopaque magnetic nanorobots along with microcomputed tomography (microCT) for localized in vivo imaging applications. The nanorobots consist of a contrast agent, barium sulfate (BaSO₄ ), magnetized by the decoration of magnetite (Fe₃ O₄ ) particles. The magnetic features lead to actuation under rotating magnetic fields and enable precise navigation in a microfluidic channel used to simulate confined spaces of the body. In this channel, the intrinsic radiopacity of the nanorobots also provides the possibility to reveal the internal structures by X-ray contrast. Furthermore, in vitro analysis indicates nontoxicity of the nanorobots. In vivo experiments demonstrate localization of the nanorobots in a specific part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract upon the influence of the magnetic field, indicating the efficient control even in the presence of natural peristaltic movements. The nanorobots reported here highlight that smart nanorobotic contrast agents can improve the current imaging-based diagnosis techniques by providing untethered controllability in vivo.

Hydrogen Bonding Nanoarchitectonics of Organic Pigment-Based Janus Microrobots with Entering Capability into Cancer Cells

Autonomous microrobots are at the forefront of biomedical research as they are expected to be applied for specific tasks at the intracellular level such as cargo delivery, sensing, molecular manipulation, among others. Here, we report on a preparation of microrobots based on quinacridone and indigo, which are members of the organic hydrogen-bonded pigment family. The microrobots were fabricated by asymmetric platinum deposition on corresponding quinacridone and indigo microparticles that possessed a homogeneous size and shape distribution. The microrobots exhibited autonomous locomotion in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, which was further supported by UV irradiation. The organic pigment-based microrobots were studied in the presence of mouse colorectal carcinoma cells, and it was observed that they were internalized into the cells. Internalization was visualized using confocal laser scanning microscopy. This study reveals the possibility of fabricating hydrogen-bonded organic pigment-based microrobots for biomedical applications by employing the principles of nanoarchitectonics.

Soft Magnetic Microrobots for Photoactive Pollutant Removal

"Soft" robotics based on hydrogels appears as an alternative to the traditional technology of "hard" robotics. Soft microrobots are employed for drug delivery and cell manipulation. This work develops magnetic hydrogel-based microrobots using chitosan (CHI) as the body of the micromotor and Fe₃ O₄ nanoparticles to allow for its magnetic actuation. In addition, ZnO nanoparticles are incorporated inside the CHI body of the microrobot to act as an active component for pollutants photodegradation. CHI@Fe₃ O₄ -ZnO microrobots are used for the efficient photodegradation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). The high absorption of CHI hydrogel enhances the POP photodegradation, degrading it 75% in just 30 min. The adsorption-degradation and magnetic properties of CHI@Fe₃ O₄ -ZnO microrobots are used in five cycles while maintaining up to 60% photodegradation efficiency. The proof-of-concept present in this work represents a simple way to obtain soft microrobots with magnetic actuation and photodegradation functionalities for several water purification applications.

Multistimuli-responsive microrobots: A comprehensive review

Untethered robots of the size of a few microns have attracted increasing attention for the potential to transform many aspects of manufacturing, medicine, health care, and bioengineering. Previously impenetrable environments have become available for high-resolution in situ and in vivo manipulations as the size of the untethered robots goes down to the microscale. Nevertheless, the independent navigation of several robots at the microscale is challenging as they cannot have onboard transducers, batteries, and control like other multi-agent systems, due to the size limitations. Therefore, various unconventional propulsion mechanisms have been explored to power motion at the nanoscale. Moreover, a variety of combinations of actuation methods has also been extensively studied to tackle different issues. In this survey, we present a thorough review of the recent developments of various dedicated ways to actuate and control multistimuli-enabled microrobots. We have also discussed existing challenges and evolving concepts associated with each technique.

Swarming Magnetically Navigated Indigo-Based Hydrophobic Microrobots for Oil Removal

Removal of oil is very important for environmental remediation when considering its negative impacts on living organisms and on the quality of water, groundwater, and soil. Here, we report on the application of hydrophobic magnetic hydrogen-bonded organic pigment-based microrobots for oil removal. The microrobots can be wirelessly navigated in a transversal rotating magnetic field, with full control of their trajectory. In addition, the velocity of magnetic microrobots can be easily controlled by changing the frequency. Due to their hydrophobic nature, the microrobots were able to enter droplets of spilled oil. Consequently, the navigation of the oil droplets was enabled in a magnetic field. Moreover, the microrobots captured within the oil droplets exhibited a swarm-like behavior; they collectively navigated toward further oil droplets that were collected and transferred to a desired location. This concept does not require the use of any additional fuel or surfactants, which is crucial for large-scale oil pollution treatment. Therefore, we believe that these microrobot swarms have great potential in remediating aqueous environments.

3D-printed microrobots from design to translation

Microrobots have attracted the attention of scientists owing to their unique features to accomplish tasks in hard-to-reach sites in the human body. Microrobots can be precisely actuated and maneuvered individually or in a swarm for cargo delivery, sampling, surgery, and imaging applications. In addition, microrobots have found applications in the environmental sector (e.g., water treatment). Besides, recent advancements of three-dimensional (3D) printers have enabled the high-resolution fabrication of microrobots with a faster design-production turnaround time for users with limited micromanufacturing skills. Here, the latest end applications of 3D printed microrobots are reviewed (ranging from environmental to biomedical applications) along with a brief discussion over the feasible actuation methods (e.g., on- and off-board), and practical 3D printing technologies for microrobot fabrication. In addition, as a future perspective, we discussed the potential advantages of integration of microrobots with smart materials, and conceivable benefits of implementation of artificial intelligence (AI), as well as physical intelligence (PI). Moreover, in order to facilitate bench-to-bedside translation of microrobots, current challenges impeding clinical translation of microrobots are elaborated, including entry obstacles (e.g., immune system attacks) and cumbersome standard test procedures to ensure biocompatibility.

Microbots have attracted attention due to an ability to reach places and perform tasks which are not possible with conventional techniques in a wide range of applications. Here, the authors review the recent work in the field on the fabrication, application and actuation of 3D printed microbots offering a view of the direction of future microbot research.

Swarming Magnetic Photoactive Microrobots for Dental Implant Biofilm Eradication

Titanium dental implants are a multibillion dollar market in the United States alone. The growth of a bacterial biofilm on a dental implant can cause gingivitis, implant loss, and expensive subsequent care. Herein, we demonstrate the efficient eradication of dental biofilm on titanium dental implants via swarming magnetic microrobots based on ferromagnetic (Fe₃O₄) and photoactive (BiVO₄) materials through polyethylenimine micelles. The ferromagnetic component serves as a propulsion force using a transversal rotating magnetic field while BiVO₄ is the photoactive generator of reactive oxygen species to eradicate the biofilm colonies. Such photoactive magnetically powered, precisely navigated microrobots are able to destroy biofilm colonies on titanium implants, demonstrating their use in precision medicine.

Micellar Polymer Magnetic Microrobots as Efficient Nerve Agent Microcleaners

Micro-/nanorobot technology has developed rapidly in recent years due to their great potential to perform multiple tasks. Here, we develop magnetic microrobots prepared as polycaprolactone/Fe₃O₄ microspheres covered by micellar polyethyleneimine and use them to efficiently remove a nerve agent from contaminated water. The magnetic polymeric microrobots presented in this work removed around 60% of the nerve agent from water samples in a short time. The attractive performance of these magnetic microrobots offers a very promising approach to large-scale water treatment for environmental remediation.

Refillable Fuel-Loading Microshell Motors for Persistent Motion in a Fuel-Free Environment

Artificial micro-/nanomotors that harvest environmental energy to move require energy surroundings; thus, their motion generally occurs in fuel solutions or under the real-time stimuli of external energy sources. Herein, inspired by vehicles, a refillable fuel-loading micromotor is proposed based on a 2 μm hemispherical multimetallic shell using catalase or platinum on its concave surface as the engine and the bowl structure as the fuel tank. H2O2 fuel is drawn into the microbowl by capillary action and restricted inside the bowl space through a self-generated O2 bubble cap on the microshell mouth. The periodic growth and burst of the O2 cap cause the enhanced diffusion motion of micromotors. This motion behavior can last for at least 30 min in a fuel-free environment with one H2O2 fueling. Additionally, the micromotor can be refilled repeatedly to achieve permanent motion. This demonstration of a refillable fuel-loading micromotor provides a model design of an energy built-in micromotor.

Plasmonic-magnetic nanorobots for SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection through electronic readout

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has prompted an urgent demand for nanotechnological solutions towards the global healthcare crisis, particularly in the field of diagnostics, vaccines, and therapeutics. As an emerging tool for nanoscience and technology, micro/nanorobots have demonstrated advanced performances, such as self-propelling, precise maneuverability, and remote actuation, thus hold great potential to provide breakthroughs in the COVID-19 pandemic. Here we show a plasmonic-magnetic nanorobot-based simple and efficient COVID-19 detection assay through an electronic readout signal. The nanorobots consist of Fe₃O₄ backbone and the outer surface of Ag, that rationally designed to perform magnetic-powered propulsion and navigation, concomitantly the probe nucleic acids transport and release upon the hybridization which can be quantified with the differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) technique. The magnetically actuated nanorobots swarming enables enhanced micromixing and active targeting, thereby promoting binding kinetics. Experimental results verified the enhanced sensing efficiency, with nanomolar detection limit and high selectivity. Further testing with extracted SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA samples validated the clinical applicability of the proposed assay. This strategy is versatile to extend targeting various nucleic acids, thus it could be a promising detection tool for other emerging pathogens, environmental toxins, and forensic analytes.

Magnetic Biohybrid Robots as Efficient Drug Carrier to Generate Plant Cell Clones

Micro/nanorobots represent a new generation of micromachines that can accomplish various tasks, such as loading and transporting specific targets or pharmaceuticals for a given application. Biohybrid robots consisting of biological cells (bacteria, sperm, and microalgae) combined with inorganic particles to control or propel their movement are of particular interest. The skeleton of these biohybrid robots can be used to load biomolecules. In this work, the authors create biohybrid robots based on tomato plants by coculturing ferromagnetic nanoparticles (Fe₃ O₄ ) with tomato callus cells. The tomato-based biohybrid robots (Tomato-Biobots) containing Fe₃ O₄ nanoparticles  are driven by a transversely rotating magnetic field. In addition, biohybrid robots are used to load vitamin C, to generate clones of tomato cells. It is shown that the presence of Fe₃ O₄  does not affect the growth of tomato callus. This study opens a wide range of possibilities for the use of biohybrid robots@Fe₃ O₄  to deliver conventional agrochemicals, including fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, and allows for a gradual and sustained release of nutrients and agrochemicals, leading to precise dosing that reduces the amount of agrochemicals used. This conceptually new type of micromachine with application to plants and agronomy shall find broad use in this field.

Self-Propelled Multifunctional Microrobots Harboring Chiral Supramolecular Selectors for "Enantiorecognition-on-the-Fly"

Herein, a general procedure for the synthesis of multifunctional MRs, which simultaneously exhibit i) chiral, ii) magnetic, and iii) fluorescent properties in combination with iv) self-propulsion, is reported. Self-propelled Ni@Pt superparamagnetic microrockets have been functionalized with fluorescent CdS quantum dots carrying a chiral host biomolecule as β-cyclodextrin (β-CD). The "on-the-fly" chiral recognition potential of MRs has been interrogated by taking advantage of the β-CD affinity to supramolecularly accommodate different chiral biomolecules (i.e., amino acids). As a proof-of-concept, tryptophan enantiomers have been discriminated with a dual-mode (optical and electrochemical) readout. This approach paves the way to devise intelligent cargo micromachines with "built-in" chiral supramolecular recognition capabilities to elucidate the concept of "enantiorecognition-on-the-fly", which might be facilely customized by tailoring the supramolecular host-guest encapsulation.

Multimodal microwheel swarms for targeting in three-dimensional networks

Microscale bots intended for targeted drug delivery must move through three-dimensional (3D) environments that include bifurcations, inclined surfaces, and curvature. In previous studies, we have shown that magnetically actuated colloidal microwheels (µwheels) reversibly assembled from superparamagnetic beads can translate rapidly and be readily directed. Here we show that, at high concentrations, µwheels assemble into swarms that, depending on applied magnetic field actuation patterns, can be designed to transport cargo, climb steep inclines, spread over large areas, or provide mechanical action. We test the ability of these multimodal swarms to navigate through complex, inclined microenvironments by characterizing the translation and dispersion of individual µwheels and swarms of µwheels on steeply inclined and flat surfaces. Swarms are then studied within branching 3D vascular models with multiple turns where good targeting efficiencies are achieved over centimeter length scales. With this approach, we present a readily reconfigurable swarm platform capable of navigating through 3D microenvironments.