Biochemical, Mössbauer, and EPR studies of the diiron cluster of phenol hydroxylase from Pseudomonas sp. strain CF 600

Proteogenomics identification of TBBPA degraders in anaerobic bioreactor

Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is the most used flame retardant worldwide and has become a threat to aquatic ecosystems. Previous research into the degradation of this micropollutant in anaerobic bioreactors has suggested several identities of putative TBBPA degraders. However, the organisms actively degrading TBBPA under in situ conditions have so far not been identified. Protein-stable isotope probing (protein-SIP) has become a cutting-edge technique in microbial ecology for enabling the link between identity and function under in situ conditions. Therefore, it was hypothesized that combining protein-based stable isotope probing with metagenomics could be used to identify and provide genomic insight into the TBBPA-degrading organisms. The identified ¹³C-labelled peptides were found to belong to organisms affiliated to Phytobacter, Clostridium, Sporolactobacillus, and Klebsilla genera. The functional classification of identified labelled peptides revealed that TBBPA is not only transformed by cometabolic reactions, but also assimilated into the biomass. By application of the proteogenomics with labelled micropollutants (protein-SIP) and metagenome-assembled genomes, it was possible to extend the current perspective of the diversity of TBBPA degraders in wastewater and predict putative TBBPA degradation pathways. The study provides a link to the active TBBPA degraders and which organisms to favor for optimized biodegradation.

Steady-state kinetics and spectroscopic characterization of enzyme-tRNA interactions for the non-heme diiron tRNA-monooxygenase, MiaE

MiaE [2-methylthio-N(6)-isopentenyl-adenosine(37)-tRNA monooxygenase] isolated from Salmonella typhimurium is a unique non-heme diiron enzyme that catalyzes the O2-dependent post-transcriptional allylic hydroxylation of a hypermodified nucleotide (ms(2)i(6)A37) at position 37 of selected tRNA molecules to produce 2-methylthio-N(6)-(4-hydroxyisopentenyl)-adenosine(37). In this work, isopentenylated tRNA substrates for MiaE were produced from small RNA oligomers corresponding to the anticodon stem loop (ACSL) region of tRNA(Trp) using recombinant MiaA and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate. Steady-state rates for MiaE-catalyzed substrate hydroxylation were determined using recombinant ferredoxin (Fd) and ferredoxin reductase (FdR) to provide a catalytic electron transport chain (ETC) using NADPH as the sole electron source. As with previously reported peroxide-shunt assays, steady-state product formation retains nearly stoichiometric (>98%) E stereoselectivity. MiaE-catalyzed i(6)A-ACSL(Trp) hydroxylation follows Michaelis-Menten saturation kinetics with kcat, KM, and V/K determined to be 0.10 ± 0.01 s(-1), 9.1 ± 1.5 μM, and ∼11000 M(-1) s(-1), respectively. While vastly slower, MiaE-catalyzed hydroxylation of free i(6)A nucleoside could also be observed using the (Fd/FdR)-ETC assay. By comparison to the V/K determined for i(6)A-ACSL substrates, an ∼6000-fold increase in enzymatic efficiency is imparted by ACSL(Trp)-MiaE interactions. The impact of substrate tRNA-MiaE interactions on protein secondary structure and active site electronic configuration was investigated using circular dichroism, dual-mode X-band electron paramagnetic resonance, and Mössbauer spectroscopies. These studies demonstrate that binding of tRNA to MiaE induces a protein conformational change that influences the electronic structure of the diiron site analogous to what has been observed for various bacterial multicomponent diiron monooxygenases upon titration with their corresponding effector proteins. These observations suggest that substrate-enzyme interactions may play a pivotal role in modulating the reactivity of the MiaE diiron active site. Moreover, the simplified monomeric (α) protein configuration exhibited by MiaE provide an unparalleled opportunity to study the impact of protein-effector interactions on non-heme diiron site geometry and reactivity.

Cyanobacterial aldehyde deformylase oxygenation of aldehydes yields n-1 aldehydes and alcohols in addition to alkanes

Aldehyde-deformylating oxygenase (ADO) catalyzes O2-dependent release of the terminal carbon of a biological substrate, octadecanal, to yield formate and heptadecane in a reaction that requires external reducing equivalents. We show here that ADO also catalyzes incorporation of an oxygen atom from O2 into the alkane product to yield alcohol and aldehyde products. Oxygenation of the alkane product is much more pronounced with C9-10 aldehyde substrates, so that use of nonanal as the substrate yields similar amounts of octane, octanal, and octanol products. When using doubly-labeled [1,2-13C]-octanal as the substrate, the heptane, heptanal and heptanol products each contained a single 13C-label in the C-1 carbons atoms. The only one-carbon product identified was formate. [18O]-O2 incorporation studies demonstrated formation of [18O]-alcohol product, but rapid solvent exchange prevented similar determination for the aldehyde product. Addition of [1-13C]-nonanol with decanal as the substrate at the outset of the reaction resulted in formation of [1-13C]-nonanal. No 13C-product was formed in the absence of decanal. ADO contains an oxygen-bridged dinuclear iron cluster. The observation of alcohol and aldehyde products derived from the initially formed alkane product suggests a reactive species similar to that formed by methane monooxygenase (MMO) and other members of the bacterial multicomponent monooxygenase family. Accordingly, characterization by EPR and Mössbauer spectroscopies shows that the electronic structure of the ADO cluster is similar, but not identical, to that of MMO hydroxylase component. In particular, the two irons of ADO reside in nearly identical environments in both the oxidized and fully reduced states, whereas those of MMOH show distinct differences. These favorable characteristics of the iron sites allow a comprehensive determination of the spin Hamiltonian parameters describing the electronic state of the diferrous cluster for the first time for any biological system. The nature of the diiron cluster and the newly recognized products from ADO catalysis hold implications for the mechanism of C-C bond cleavage.

Peroxide-shunt substrate-specificity for the Salmonella typhimurium O2-dependent tRNA modifying monooxygenase (MiaE)

Post-transcriptional modifications of tRNA are made to structurally diversify tRNA. These modifications alter noncovalent interactions within the ribosomal machinery, resulting in phenotypic changes related to cell metabolism, growth, and virulence. MiaE is a carboxylate bridged, nonheme diiron monooxygenase, which catalyzes the O2-dependent hydroxylation of a hypermodified-tRNA nucleoside at position 37 (2-methylthio-N(6)-isopentenyl-adenosine(37)-tRNA) [designated ms(2)i(6)A37]. In this work, recombinant MiaE was cloned from Salmonella typhimurium , purified to homogeneity, and characterized by UV-visible and dual-mode X-band EPR spectroscopy for comparison to other nonheme diiron enzymes. Additionally, three nucleoside substrate-surrogates (i(6)A, Cl(2)i(6)A, and ms(2)i(6)A) and their corresponding hydroxylated products (io(6)A, Cl(2)io(6)A, and ms(2)io(6)A) were synthesized to investigate the chemo- and stereospecificity of this enzyme. In the absence of the native electron transport chain, the peroxide-shunt was utilized to monitor the rate of substrate hydroxylation. Remarkably, regardless of the substrate (i(6)A, Cl(2)i(6)A, and ms(2)i(6)A) used in peroxide-shunt assays, hydroxylation of the terminal isopentenyl-C4-position was observed with >97% E-stereoselectivity. No other nonspecific hydroxylation products were observed in enzymatic assays. Steady-state kinetic experiments also demonstrate that the initial rate of MiaE hydroxylation is highly influenced by the substituent at the C2-position of the nucleoside base (v0/[E] for ms(2)i(6)A > i(6)A > Cl(2)i(6)A). Indeed, the >3-fold rate enhancement exhibited by MiaE for the hydroxylation of the free ms(2)i(6)A nucleoside relative to i(6)A is consistent with previous whole cell assays reporting the ms(2)io(6)A and io(6)A product distribution within native tRNA-substrates. This observation suggests that the nucleoside C2-substituent is a key point of interaction regulating MiaE substrate specificity.

Hydroquinone: environmental pollution, toxicity, and microbial answers

Hydroquinone is a major benzene metabolite, which is a well-known haematotoxic and carcinogenic agent associated with malignancy in occupational environments. Human exposure to hydroquinone can occur by dietary, occupational, and environmental sources. In the environment, hydroquinone showed increased toxicity for aquatic organisms, being less harmful for bacteria and fungi. Recent pieces of evidence showed that hydroquinone is able to enhance carcinogenic risk by generating DNA damage and also to compromise the general immune responses which may contribute to the impaired triggering of the host immune reaction. Hydroquinone bioremediation from natural and contaminated sources can be achieved by the use of a diverse group of microorganisms, ranging from bacteria to fungi, which harbor very complex enzymatic systems able to metabolize hydroquinone either under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Due to the recent research development on hydroquinone, this review underscores not only the mechanisms of hydroquinone biotransformation and the role of microorganisms and their enzymes in this process, but also its toxicity.

Oxygen dissociation by concerted action of di-iron centers in metal-organic coordination networks at surfaces: modeling non-heme iron enzymes

The high chemical reactivity of unsaturated metal sites is a key factor for the development of novel devices with applications in sensor engineering and catalysis. It is also central in the research for sustainable energy concepts, e.g., the efficient production and conversion of chemical fuels. Here, we study the process of oxygen dissociation by a surface-supported metal-organic network that displays close structural and functional analogies with the cofactors of non-heme enzymes. We synthesize a two-dimensional array of chemically active di-iron sites on a Cu(001) surface where molecular oxygen readily dissociates at room temperature. We provide an atomic-level structural and electronic characterization before and after reaction by combining scanning tunneling microscopy, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and density functional theory. The latter identifies a novel mechanism for O2 dissociation controlled by the cooperative catalytic action of two Fe2+ ions. The high structural flexibility of the organic ligands, the mobility of the metal centers, and the hydrogen bonding formation are shown to be essential for the functionality of these active centers allowing to mimick biologically relevant reactions in a confined environment.

Design and synthesis of a novel triptycene-based ligand for modeling carboxylate-bridged diiron enzyme active sites

A novel triptycene-based ligand with a preorganized framework was designed to model carboxylate-bridged diiron active sites in bacterial multicomponent monooxygenase (BMM) hydroxylase enzymes. The synthesis of the bis(benzoxazole)-appended ligand L1 depicted was accomplished in 11 steps. Reaction of L1 with iron(II) triflate and a carboxylate source afforded the desired diiron(II) complex [Fe(2)L1(μ-OH)(μ-O(2)CAr(Tol))(OTf)(2)].

Toward functional carboxylate-bridged diiron protein mimics: achieving structural stability and conformational flexibility using a macrocylic ligand framework

A dinucleating macrocycle, H(2)PIM, containing phenoxylimine metal-binding units has been prepared. Reaction of H(2)PIM with [Fe(2)(Mes)(4)] (Mes = 2,4,6-trimethylphenyl) and sterically hindered carboxylic acids, Ph(3)CCO(2)H or Ar(Tol)CO(2)H (2,6-bis(p-tolyl)benzoic acid), afforded complexes [Fe(2)(PIM)(Ph(3)CCO(2))(2)] (1) and [Fe(2)(PIM)(Ar(Tol)CO(2))(2)] (2), respectively. X-ray diffraction studies revealed that these diiron(II) complexes closely mimic the active site structures of the hydroxylase components of bacterial multicomponent monooxygenases (BMMs), particularly the syn disposition of the nitrogen donor atoms and the bridging μ-η(1)η(2) and μ-η(1)η(1) modes of the carboxylate ligands at the diiron(II) centers. Cyclic voltammograms of 1 and 2 displayed quasi-reversible redox couples at +16 and +108 mV vs ferrocene/ferrocenium, respectively. Treatment of 2 with silver perchlorate afforded a silver(I)/iron(III) heterodimetallic complex, [Fe(2)(μ-OH)(2)(ClO(4))(2)(PIM)(Ar(Tol)CO(2))Ag] (3), which was structurally and spectroscopically characterized. Complexes 1 and 2 both react rapidly with dioxygen. Oxygenation of 1 afforded a (μ-hydroxo)diiron(III) complex [Fe(2)(μ-OH)(PIM)(Ph(3)CCO(2))(3)] (4), a hexa(μ-hydroxo)tetrairon(III) complex [Fe(4)(μ-OH)(6)(PIM)(2)(Ph(3)CCO(2))(2)] (5), and an unidentified iron(III) species. Oxygenation of 2 exclusively formed di(carboxylato)diiron(III) compounds, a testimony to the role of the macrocylic ligand in preserving the dinuclear iron center under oxidizing conditions. X-ray crystallographic and (57)Fe Mössbauer spectroscopic investigations indicated that 2 reacts with dioxygen to give a mixture of (μ-oxo)diiron(III) [Fe(2)(μ-O)(PIM)(Ar(Tol)CO(2))(2)] (6) and di(μ-hydroxo)diiron(III) [Fe(2)(μ-OH)(2)(PIM)(Ar(Tol)CO(2))(2)] (7) units in the same crystal lattice. Compounds 6 and 7 spontaneously convert to a tetrairon(III) complex, [Fe(4)(μ-OH)(6)(PIM)(2)(Ar(Tol)CO(2))(2)] (8), when treated with excess H(2)O.

Multiple roles of component proteins in bacterial multicomponent monooxygenases: phenol hydroxylase and toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase from Pseudomonas sp. OX1

Phenol hydroxylase (PH) and toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase (ToMO) from Pseudomonas sp. OX1 require three or four protein components to activate dioxygen for the oxidation of aromatic substrates at a carboxylate-bridged diiron center. In this study, we investigated the influence of the hydroxylases, regulatory proteins, and electron-transfer components of these systems on substrate (phenol; NADH) consumption and product (catechol; H(2)O(2)) generation. Single-turnover experiments revealed that only complete systems containing all three or four protein components are capable of oxidizing phenol, a major substrate for both enzymes. Under ideal conditions, the hydroxylated product yield was ∼50% of the diiron centers for both systems, suggesting that these enzymes operate by half-sites reactivity mechanisms. Single-turnover studies indicated that the PH and ToMO electron-transfer components exert regulatory effects on substrate oxidation processes taking place at the hydroxylase actives sites, most likely through allostery. Steady state NADH consumption assays showed that the regulatory proteins facilitate the electron-transfer step in the hydrocarbon oxidation cycle in the absence of phenol. Under these conditions, electron consumption is coupled to H(2)O(2) formation in a hydroxylase-dependent manner. Mechanistic implications of these results are discussed.

In vitro reconstitution and crystal structure of p-aminobenzoate N-oxygenase (AurF) involved in aureothin biosynthesis

p-Aminobenzoate N-oxygenase (AurF) from Streptomyces thioluteus catalyzes the formation of unusual polyketide synthase starter unit p-nitrobenzoic acid (pNBA) from p-aminobenzoic acid (pABA) in the biosynthesis of antibiotic aureothin. AurF is a metalloenzyme, but its native enzymatic activity has not been demonstrated in vitro, and its catalytic mechanism is unclear. In addition, the nature of the cofactor remains a controversy. Here, we report the in vitro reconstitution of the AurF enzyme activity, the crystal structure of AurF in the oxidized state, and the cocrystal structure of AurF with its product pNBA. Our combined biochemical and structural analysis unequivocally indicates that AurF is a non-heme di-iron monooxygenase that catalyzes sequential oxidation of aminoarenes to nitroarenes via hydroxylamine and nitroso intermediates.

Characterization of the arene-oxidizing intermediate in ToMOH as a diiron(III) species

We report the generation and characterization of a diiron(III) intermediate formed during reaction with dioxygen of the reduced hydroxylase component of toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase from Pseudomonas sp. OX1. The decay rate of this species is accelerated upon mixing with phenol, a substrate for this system. Under steady-state conditions, hydrogen peroxide was generated in the absence of substrate. The oxidized hydroxylase also decomposed hydrogen peroxide to liberate dioxygen in the absence of reducing equivalents. This activity suggests that dioxygen activation may be reversible. The linear free energy relationship determined from hydroxylation of para-substituted phenols under steady-state turnover has a negative slope. A value of rho < 0 is consistent with electrophilic attack by the oxidizing intermediate on the aromatic substrates. The results from these steady and pre-steady-state experiments provide compelling evidence that the diiron(III) intermediate is the active oxidant in the toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase system and is a peroxodiiron(III) transient, despite differences between its optical and Mössbauer spectroscopic parameters and those of other peroxodiiron(III) centers.

tRNA-modifying MiaE protein from Salmonella typhimurium is a nonheme diiron monooxygenase

MiaE catalyzes the posttranscriptional allylic hydroxylation of 2-methylthio-N-6-isopentenyl adenosine in tRNAs. The Salmonella typhimurium enzyme was heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli. The purified enzyme is a monomer with two iron atoms and displays activity in in vitro assays. The type and properties of the iron center were investigated by using a combination of UV-visible absorption, EPR, HYSCORE, and Mössbauer spectroscopies which demonstrated that the MiaE enzyme contains a nonheme dinuclear iron cluster, similar to that found in the hydroxylase component of methane monooxygenase. This is the first example of an enzyme from this important class of diiron monooxygenases to be involved in the hydroxylation of a biological macromolecule and the second example of a redox metalloenzyme participating in tRNA modification.

Butane monooxygenase of ‘Pseudomonas butanovora’: purification and biochemical characterization of a terminal-alkane hydroxylating diiron monooxygenase

Butane monooxygenase (sBMO) has been purified to homogeneity from the Gram-negative beta-proteobacterium 'Pseudomonas butanovora' and confirmed to be a three-component diiron monooxygenase system. The reconstituted enzyme complex oxidized C(3)-C(6) linear and branched aliphatic alkanes, which are growth substrates for 'P. butanovora'. The sBMO complex was composed of an iron-containing hydroxylase (BMOH), a flavo-iron sulfur-containing NADH-oxidoreductase (BMOR) and a small regulatory component protein (BMOB). The physical characteristics of sBMO were remarkably similar to the sMMO family of soluble multicomponent diiron monooxgenases. However, the catalytic properties of sBMO were quantitatively different in regard to inactivation in the presence of substrate and product distribution. BMOH was capable of ethene oxidation when supplied with H(2)O(2) and ethene (known as the peroxide shunt), but this activity was at least three orders of magnitude less than that observed for the hydroxylase of sMMO of Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b. BMOH and BMOR were efficient in the oxidation of ethene in the absence of BMOB with regard to rate of reaction and product yield. Regiospecificity of sBMO was strongly biased towards primary hydroxylation, with > or = 80 % of the hydroxylations occurring at the terminal carbon atom.

X-ray structure of a hydroxylase-regulatory protein complex from a hydrocarbon-oxidizing multicomponent monooxygenase, Pseudomonas sp. OX1 phenol hydroxylase

Phenol hydroxylase (PH) belongs to a family of bacterial multicomponent monooxygenases (BMMs) with carboxylate-bridged diiron active sites. Included are toluene/o-xylene (ToMO) and soluble methane (sMMO) monooxygenase. PH hydroxylates aromatic compounds, but unlike sMMO, it cannot oxidize alkanes despite having a similar dinuclear iron active site. Important for activity is formation of a complex between the hydroxylase and a regulatory protein component. To address how structural features of BMM hydroxylases and their component complexes may facilitate the catalytic mechanism and choice of substrate, we determined X-ray structures of native and SeMet forms of the PH hydroxylase (PHH) in complex with its regulatory protein (PHM) to 2.3 A resolution. PHM binds in a canyon on one side of the (alphabetagamma)2 PHH dimer, contacting alpha-subunit helices A, E, and F approximately 12 A above the diiron core. The structure of the dinuclear iron center in PHH resembles that of mixed-valent MMOH, suggesting an Fe(II)Fe(III) oxidation state. Helix E, which comprises part of the iron-coordinating four-helix bundle, has more pi-helical character than analogous E helices in MMOH and ToMOH lacking a bound regulatory protein. Consequently, conserved active site Thr and Asn residues translocate to the protein surface, and an approximately 6 A pore opens through the four-helix bundle. Of likely functional significance is a specific hydrogen bond formed between this Asn residue and a conserved Ser side chain on PHM. The PHM protein covers a putative docking site on PHH for the PH reductase, which transfers electrons to the PHH diiron center prior to O2 activation, suggesting that the regulatory component may function to block undesired reduction of oxygenated intermediates during the catalytic cycle. A series of hydrophobic cavities through the PHH alpha-subunit, analogous to those in MMOH, may facilitate movement of the substrate to and/or product from the active site pocket. Comparisons between the ToMOH and PHH structures provide insights into their substrate regiospecificities.

Correlating structure with function in bacterial multicomponent monooxygenases and related diiron proteins

Bacterial multicomponent monooxygenases (BMMs) catalyze the O2-dependent hydroxylation of hydrocarbons at a carboxylate-bridged diiron center similar to those that occur in a variety of dimetallic oxygen-utilizing enzymes. BMMs have found numerous biodegradation and biocatalytic applications. Recent investigations have begun to reveal how BMMs perform their C-H bond activation chemistry and why these enzymes may be mechanistically different from other related diiron proteins. The structures of the BMM component proteins and of complexes between them provide insights into the tuning of the dinuclear iron center and the enzyme mechanism. Selected findings are compared and contrasted with the properties of other carboxylate-bridged diiron proteins, revealing common structural and functional themes.

Phenol hydroxylase and toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase from Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1: interplay between two enzymes

Degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons by aerobic bacteria is generally divided into an upper pathway, which produces dihydroxylated aromatic intermediates by the action of monooxygenases, and a lower pathway, which processes these intermediates down to molecules that enter the citric acid cycle. Bacterial multicomponent monooxygenases (BMMs) are a family of enzymes divided into six distinct groups. Most bacterial genomes code for only one BMM, but a few cases (3 out of 31) of genomes coding for more than a single monooxygenase have been found. One such case is the genome of Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1, in which two different monooxygenases have been found, phenol hydroxylase (PH) and toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase (ToMO). We have already demonstrated that ToMO is an oligomeric protein whose subunits transfer electrons from NADH to oxygen, which is eventually incorporated into the aromatic substrate. However, no molecular data are available on the structure and on the mechanism of action of PH. To understand the metabolic significance of the association of two similar enzymatic activities in the same microorganism, we expressed and characterized this novel phenol hydroxylase. Our data indicate that the PH P component of PH transfers electrons from NADH to a subcomplex endowed with hydroxylase activity. Moreover, a regulatory function can be suggested for subunit PH M. Data on the specificity and the kinetic constants of ToMO and PH strongly support the hypothesis that coupling between the two enzymatic systems optimizes the use of nonhydroxylated aromatic molecules by the draining effect of PH on the product(s) of oxidation catalyzed by ToMO, thus avoiding phenol accumulation.

Crystal structure of the toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase hydroxylase from Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1. Insight into the substrate specificity, substrate channeling, and active site tuning of multicomponent monooxygenases

The four-component toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase (ToMO) from Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1 is capable of oxidizing arenes, alkenes, and haloalkanes at a carboxylate-bridged diiron center similar to that of soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO). The remarkable variety of substrates accommodated by ToMO invites applications ranging from bioremediation to the regio- and enantiospecific oxidation of hydrocarbons on an industrial scale. We report here the crystal structures of the ToMO hydroxylase (ToMOH), azido ToMOH, and ToMOH containing the product analogue 4-bromophenol to 2.3 A or greater resolution. The catalytic diiron(III) core resembles that of the sMMO hydroxylase, but aspects of the alpha2beta2gamma2 tertiary structure are notably different. Of particular interest is a 6-10 A-wide channel of approximately 35 A in length extending from the active site to the protein surface. The presence of three bromophenol molecules in this space confirms this route as a pathway for substrate entrance and product egress. An analysis of the ToMOH active site cavity offers insights into the different substrate specificities of multicomponent monooxygenases and explains the behavior of mutant forms of homologous enzymes described in the literature.

3- and 4-alkylphenol degradation pathway in Pseudomonas sp. strain KL28: genetic organization of the lap gene cluster and substrate specificities of phenol hydroxylase and catechol 2,3-dioxygenase

The enzymes and genes responsible for the catabolism of higher alkylphenols have not been characterized in aerobic bacteria. Pseudomonas sp. strain KL28 can utilize a wide range of alkylphenols, which include the 4-n-alkylphenols (C(1)-C(5)). The genes, designated as lap (for long-chain alkylphenols), encoding enzymes for the catabolic pathway were cloned from chromosomal DNA and sequenced. The lap genes are located in a 13.2 kb region with 14 ORFs in the order lapRBKLMNOPCEHIFG and with the same transcriptional orientation. The lapR gene is transcribed independently and encodes a member of the XylR/DmpR positive transcriptional regulators. lapB, the first gene in the lap operon, encodes catechol 2,3-dioxygenase (C23O). The lapKLMNOP and lapCEHIFG genes encode a multicomponent phenol hydroxylase (mPH) and enzymes that degrade derivatives of 2-hydroxymuconic semialdehyde (HMS) to TCA cycle intermediates, respectively. The P(lapB) promoter contains motifs at positions -24(GG) and -12(GC) which are typically found in sigma(54)-dependent promoters. A promoter assay using a P(lapB) : : gfp transcriptional fusion plasmid showed that lapB promoter activity is inducible and that it responds to a wide range of (alkyl)phenols. The structural genes encoding enzymes required for this catabolism are similar (42-69 %) to those encoded on a catabolic pVI150 plasmid from an archetypal phenol degrader, Pseudomonas sp. CF600. However, the lap locus does not include genes encoding HMS hydrolase and ferredoxin. The latter is known to be functionally associated with C23O for use of 4-alkylcatechols as substrates. The arrangement of the lap catabolic genes is not commonly found in other meta-cleavage operons. Substrate specificity studies show that mPH preferentially oxidizes 3- and 4-alkylphenols to 4-alkylcatechols. C23O preferentially oxidizes 4-alkylcatechols via proximal (2,3) cleavage. This indicates that these two key enzymes have unique substrate preferences and lead to the establishment of the initial steps of the lap pathway in strain KL28.

Modeling Features of the Non-Heme Diiron Cores in O2-Activating Enzymes through the Synthesis, Characterization, and Oxidation of 1,8-Naphthyridine-Based Complexes

Multidentate naphthyridine-based ligands were used to prepare a series of diiron(II) complexes. The compound [Fe(2)(BPMAN)(mu-O(2)CPh)(2)](OTf)(2) (1), where BPMAN = 2,7-bis[bis(2-pyridylmethyl)aminomethyl]-1,8-naphthyridine, exhibits two reversible oxidation waves with E(1/2) values at +310 and +733 mV vs Cp(2)Fe(+)/Cp(2)Fe, as revealed by cyclic voltammetry. Reaction with O(2) or H(2)O(2) affords a product with optical and Mössbauer properties that are characteristic of a (mu-oxo)diiron(III) species. The complexes [Fe(2)(BPMAN)(mu-OH)(mu-O(2)CAr(Tol))](OTf)(2) (2) and [Fe(2)(BPMAN)(mu-OMe)(mu-O(2)CAr(Tol))](OTf)(2) (3) were synthesized, where Ar(Tol)CO(2)(-) is the sterically hindered ligand 2,6-di(p-tolyl)benzoate. Compound 2 has a reversible redox wave at +11 mV, and both 2 and 3 react with O(2), via a mixed-valent Fe(II)Fe(III) intermediate, to give final products that are also consistent with (mu-oxo)diiron(III) species. The paddle-wheel compound [Fe(2)(BBAN)(mu-O(2)CAr(Tol))(3)](OTf) (4), where BBAN = 2,7-bis(N,N-dibenzylaminomethyl)-1,8-naphthyridine, reacts with dioxygen to yield benzaldehyde via oxidative N-dealkylation of a benzyl group on BBAN, an internal substrate. In the presence of bis(4-methylbenzyl)amine, the reaction also produces p-tolualdehyde, revealing oxidation of an external substrate. A structurally related compound, [Fe(2)(BEAN)(mu-O(2)CAr(Tol))(3)](OTf) (5), where BEAN = 2,7-bis(N,N-diethylaminomethyl)-1,8-naphthyridine, does not undergo N-dealkylation, nor does it facilitate the oxidation of bis(4-methylbenzyl)amine. The contrast in reactivity of 4 and 5 is attributed to a difference in accessibility of the substrate to the diiron centers of the two compounds. The Mössbauer spectroscopic properties of the diiron(II) complexes were also investigated.

The oxygenase component of phenol hydroxylase from Acinetobacter radioresistens S13

Phenol hydroxylase (PH) from Acinetobacter radioresistens S13 represents an example of multicomponent aromatic ring monooxygenase made up of three moieties: a reductase (PHR), an oxygenase (PHO) and a regulative component (PHI). The function of the oxygenase component (PHO), here characterized for the first time, is to bind molecular oxygen and catalyse the mono-hydroxylation of substrates (phenol, and with less efficiency, chloro- and methyl-phenol and naphthol). PHO was purified from extracts of A. radioresistens S13 cells and shown to be a dimer of 206 kDa. Each monomer is composed by three subunits: alpha (54 kDa), beta (38 kDa) and gamma (11 kDa). The gene encoding PHO alpha (named mopN) was cloned and sequenced and the corresponding amino acid sequence matched with that of functionally related oxygenases. By structural alignment with the catalytic subunits of methane monooxygenase (MMO) and alkene monooxygenase, we propose that PHO alpha contains the enzyme active site, harbouring a dinuclear iron centre Fe-O-Fe, as also suggested by spectral analysis. Conserved hydrophobic amino acids known to define the substrate recognition pocket, are also present in the alpha-subunit. The prevalence of alpha-helices (99.6%) as studied by CD confirmed the hypothized structural homologies between PHO and MMO. Three parameters (optimum ionic strength, temperature and pH) that affect kinetics of the overall phenol hydroxylase reaction were further analyzed with a fixed optimal PHR/PHI/PHO ratio of 2/1/1. The highest level of activity was evaluated between 0.075 and 0.1 m of ionic strength, the temperature dependence showed a maximum of activity at 24 degrees C and finally the pH for optimal activity was determined to be 7.5.