Molecular structure influences the stability of membrane penetrating biointerfaces

Efficient Delivery of Biological Cargos into Primary Cells by Electrodeposited Nanoneedles via Cell-Cycle-Dependent Endocytosis

Nanoneedles are a useful tool for delivering exogenous biomolecules to cells. Although therapeutic applications have been explored, the mechanism regarding how cells interact with nanoneedles remains poorly studied. Here, we present a new approach for the generation of nanoneedles, validated their usefulness in cargo delivery, and studied the underlying genetic modulators during delivery. We fabricated arrays of nanoneedles based on electrodeposition and quantified its efficacy of delivery using fluorescently labeled proteins and siRNAs. Notably, we revealed that our nanoneedles caused the disruption of cell membranes, enhanced the expression of cell-cell junction proteins, and downregulated the expression of transcriptional factors of NFκB pathways. This perturbation trapped most of the cells in G2 phase, in which the cells have the highest endocytosis activities. Taken together, this system provides a new model for the study of interactions between cells and high-aspect-ratio materials.

Volcano-Shaped Scanning Probe Microscopy Probe for Combined Force-Electrogram Recordings from Excitable Cells

Atomic force microscopy based approaches have led to remarkable advances in the field of mechanobiology. However, linking the mechanical cues to biological responses requires complementary techniques capable of recording these physiological characteristics. In this study, we present an instrument for combined optical, force, and electrical measurements based on a novel type of scanning probe microscopy cantilever composed of a protruding volcano-shaped nanopatterned microelectrode (nanovolcano probe) at the tip of a suspended microcantilever. This probe enables simultaneous force and electrical recordings from single cells. Successful impedance measurements on mechanically stimulated neonatal rat cardiomyocytes in situ were achieved using these nanovolcano probes. Furthermore, proof of concept experiments demonstrated that extracellular field potentials (electrogram) together with contraction displacement curves could simultaneously be recorded. These features render the nanovolcano probe especially suited for mechanobiological studies aiming at linking mechanical stimuli to electrophysiological responses of single cells.

High-Aspect-Ratio Nanostructured Surfaces as Biological Metamaterials

Materials patterned with high-aspect-ratio nanostructures have features on similar length scales to cellular components. These surfaces are an extreme topography on the cellular level and have become useful tools for perturbing and sensing the cellular environment. Motivation comes from the ability of high-aspect-ratio nanostructures to deliver cargoes into cells and tissues, access the intracellular environment, and control cell behavior. These structures directly perturb cells' ability to sense and respond to external forces, influencing cell fate, and enabling new mechanistic studies. Through careful design of their nanoscale structure, these systems act as biological metamaterials, eliciting unusual biological responses. While predominantly used to interface eukaryotic cells, there is growing interest in nonanimal and prokaryotic cell interfacing. Both experimental and theoretical studies have attempted to develop a mechanistic understanding for the observed behaviors, predominantly focusing on the cell-nanostructure interface. This review considers how high-aspect-ratio nanostructured surfaces are used to both stimulate and sense biological systems.

Intracellular Recording of Cardiomyocyte Action Potentials with Nanopatterned Volcano-Shaped Microelectrode Arrays

Micronanotechnology-based multielectrode arrays have led to remarkable progress in the field of transmembrane voltage recording of excitable cells. However, providing long-term optoporation- or electroporation-free intracellular access remains a considerable challenge. In this study, a novel type of nanopatterned volcano-shaped microelectrode (nanovolcano) is described that spontaneously fuses with the cell membrane and permits stable intracellular access. The complex nanostructure was manufactured following a simple and scalable fabrication process based on ion beam etching redeposition. The resulting ring-shaped structure provided passive intracellular access to neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. Intracellular action potentials were successfully recorded in vitro from different devices, and continuous recording for more than 1 h was achieved. By reporting transmembrane action potentials at potentially high spatial resolution without the need to apply physical triggers, the nanovolcanoes show distinct advantages over multielectrode arrays for the assessment of electrophysiological characteristics of cardiomyocyte networks at the transmembrane voltage level over time.

Porous Silicon Nanoneedles Modulate Endocytosis to Deliver Biological Payloads

Owing to their ability to efficiently deliver biological cargo and sense the intracellular milieu, vertical arrays of high aspect ratio nanostructures, known as nanoneedles, are being developed as minimally invasive tools for cell manipulation. However, little is known of the mechanisms of cargo transfer across the cell membrane-nanoneedle interface. In particular, the contributions of membrane piercing, modulation of membrane permeability and endocytosis to cargo transfer remain largely unexplored. Here, combining state-of-the-art electron and scanning ion conductance microscopy with molecular biology techniques, it is shown that porous silicon nanoneedle arrays concurrently stimulate independent endocytic pathways which contribute to enhanced biomolecule delivery into human mesenchymal stem cells. Electron microscopy of the cell membrane at nanoneedle sites shows an intact lipid bilayer, accompanied by an accumulation of clathrin-coated pits and caveolae. Nanoneedles enhance the internalization of biomolecular markers of endocytosis, highlighting the concurrent activation of caveolae- and clathrin-mediated endocytosis, alongside macropinocytosis. These events contribute to the nanoneedle-mediated delivery (nanoinjection) of nucleic acids into human stem cells, which distribute across the cytosol and the endolysosomal system. This data extends the understanding of how nanoneedles modulate biological processes to mediate interaction with the intracellular space, providing indications for the rational design of improved cell-manipulation technologies.

Interfacial Contact is Required for Metal-Assisted Plasma Etching of Silicon

For decades, fabrication of semiconductor devices has utilized well-established etching techniques to create complex nanostructures in silicon. The most common dry process is reactive ion etching which fabricates nanostructures through the selective removal of unmasked silicon. Generalized enhancements of etching have been reported with mask-enhanced etching with Al, Cr, Cu, and Ag masks, but there is a lack of reports exploring the ability of metallic films to catalytically enhance the local etching of silicon in plasmas. Here, metal-assisted plasma etching (MAPE) is performed using patterned nanometers-thick gold films to catalyze the etching of silicon in an SF6/O2 mixed plasma, selectively increasing the rate of etching by over 1000%. The catalytic enhancement of etching requires direct Si-metal interfacial contact, similar to metal-assisted chemical etching (MACE), but is different in terms of the etching mechanism. The mechanism of MAPE is explored by characterizing the degree of enhancement as a function of Au catalyst configuration and relative oxygen feed concentration, along with the catalytic activities of other common MACE metals including Ag, Pt, and Cu.

Pulling lipid tubes from supported bilayers unveils the underlying substrate contribution to the membrane mechanics

Cell processes like endocytosis, membrane resealing, signaling and transcription involve conformational changes which depend on the chemical composition and the physicochemical properties of the lipid membrane. The better understanding of the mechanical role of lipids in cell membrane force-triggered and sensing mechanisms has recently become the focus of attention. Different membrane models and experimental methodologies are commonly explored. While general approaches involve controlled vesicle deformation using micropipettes or optical tweezers, due to the local and dynamic nature of the membrane, high spatial resolution atomic force microscopy (AFM) has been widely used to study the mechanical compression and indentation of supported lipid bilayers (SLBs). However, the substrate contribution remains unkown. Here, we demonstrate how pulling lipid tubes with an AFM out of model SLBs can be used to assess the nanomechanics of SLBs through the evaluation of the tube growing force (Ftube), allowing for very local evaluation with high spatial and force resolution of the lipid membrane tension. We first validate this approach to determine the contribution of different phospholipids, by varying the membrane composition, in both one-component and phase-segregated membranes. Finally, we successfully assess the contribution of the underlying substrate to the membrane mechanics, demonstrating that SLB models may represent an intermediate scenario between a free membrane (blebs) and a cytoskeleton supported membrane.

Nanoneedle-Based Sensing in Biological Systems

Nanoneedles are high aspect ratio nanostructures with a unique biointerface. Thanks to their peculiar yet poorly understood interaction with cells, they very effectively sense intracellular conditions, typically with lower toxicity and perturbation than traditionally available probes. Through long-term, reversible interfacing with cells, nanoneedles can monitor biological functions over the course of several days. Their nanoscale dimension and the assembly into large-scale, ordered, dense arrays enable monitoring the functions of large cell populations, to provide functional maps with submicron spatial resolution. Intracellularly, they sense electrical activity of complex excitable networks, as well as concentration, function, and interaction of biomolecules in situ, while extracellularly they can measure the forces exerted by cells with piconewton detection limits, or efficiently sort rare cells based on their membrane receptors. Nanoneedles can investigate the function of many biological systems, ranging from cells, to biological fluids, to tissues and living organisms. This review examines the devices, strategies, and workflows developed to use nanoneedles for sensing in biological systems.

The Nanomechanics of Lipid Multibilayer Stacks Exhibits Complex Dynamics

The nanomechanics of lipid membranes regulates a large number of cellular functions. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the plastic rupture of individual bilayers remain elusive. This study uses force clamp spectroscopy to capture the force-dependent dynamics of membrane failure on a model diphytanoylphosphatidylcholine multilayer stack, which is devoid of surface effects. The obtained kinetic measurements demonstrate that the rupture of an individual lipid bilayer, occurring in the bilayer parallel plane, is a stochastic process that follows a log-normal distribution, compatible with a pore formation mechanism. Furthermore, the vertical individual force-clamp trajectories, occurring in the bilayer orthogonal bilayer plane, reveal that rupturing process occurs through distinct intermediate mechanical transition states that can be ascribed to the fine chemical composition of the hydrated phospholipid moiety. Altogether, these results provide a first description of unanticipated complexity in the energy landscape governing the mechanically induced bilayer rupture process.

On-chip, multisite extracellular and intracellular recordings from primary cultured skeletal myotubes

In contrast to the extensive use of microelectrode array (MEA) technology in electrophysiological studies of cultured neurons and cardiac muscles, the vast field of skeletal muscle research has yet to adopt the technology. Here we demonstrate an empowering MEA technology for high quality, multisite, long-term electrophysiological recordings from cultured skeletal myotubes. Individual rat skeletal myotubes cultured on micrometer sized gold mushroom-shaped microelectrode (gMμE) based MEA tightly engulf the gMμEs, forming a high seal resistance between the myotubes and the gMμEs. As a consequence, spontaneous action potentials generated by the contracting myotubes are recorded as extracellular field potentials with amplitudes of up to 10 mV for over 14 days. Application of a 10 ms, 0.5-0.9 V voltage pulse through the gMμEs electroporated the myotube membrane, and transiently converted the extracellular to intracellular recording mode for 10-30 min. In a fraction of the cultures stable attenuated intracellular recordings were spontaneously produced. In these cases or after electroporation, subthreshold spontaneous potentials were also recorded. The introduction of the gMμE-MEA as a simple-to-use, high-quality electrophysiological tool together with the progress made in the use of cultured human myotubes opens up new venues for basic and clinical skeletal muscle research, preclinical drug screening, and personalized medicine.

Biomimetic surface patterning for long-term transmembrane access

Here we present a planar patch clamp chip based on biomimetic cell membrane fusion. This architecture uses nanometer length-scale surface patterning to replicate the structure and function of membrane proteins, creating a gigaohm seal between the cell and a planar electrode array. The seal is generated passively during cell spreading, without the application of a vacuum to the cell surface. This interface can enable cell-attached and whole-cell recordings that are stable to 72 hours, and generates no visible damage to the cell. The electrodes can be very small (<5 μm) and closely packed, offering a high density platform for cellular measurement.

Nano-Bioelectronics

Nano-bioelectronics represents a rapidly expanding interdisciplinary field that combines nanomaterials with biology and electronics and, in so doing, offers the potential to overcome existing challenges in bioelectronics. In particular, shrinking electronic transducer dimensions to the nanoscale and making their properties appear more biological can yield significant improvements in the sensitivity and biocompatibility and thereby open up opportunities in fundamental biology and healthcare. This review emphasizes recent advances in nano-bioelectronics enabled with semiconductor nanostructures, including silicon nanowires, carbon nanotubes, and graphene. First, the synthesis and electrical properties of these nanomaterials are discussed in the context of bioelectronics. Second, affinity-based nano-bioelectronic sensors for highly sensitive analysis of biomolecules are reviewed. In these studies, semiconductor nanostructures as transistor-based biosensors are discussed from fundamental device behavior through sensing applications and future challenges. Third, the complex interface between nanoelectronics and living biological systems, from single cells to live animals, is reviewed. This discussion focuses on representative advances in electrophysiology enabled using semiconductor nanostructures and their nanoelectronic devices for cellular measurements through emerging work where arrays of nanoelectronic devices are incorporated within three-dimensional cell networks that define synthetic and natural tissues. Last, some challenges and exciting future opportunities are discussed.

Mechanobiology - chemical origin of membrane mechanical resistance and force-dependent signaling

The cell membrane is a highly complex designed material with remarkable physicochemical properties; comprised mainly of lipid moieties, it is capable of self-assembling, changing morphology, housing a range of distinct proteins, and withstanding electrical, chemical and mechanical perturbations. All of these fundamental cellular functions occurring within a 5nm thick film is an astonishing feat of engineering, made possible due to the interplay of a variety of intermolecular forces. Elucidating how the interactions within the chemically distinct partners influence the nanomechanical properties of the membrane is essential to gain a comprehensive understanding of a wide-variety of both force-triggered and force-sensing mechanisms that dictate essential cellular processes.

Penetration of cell membranes and synthetic lipid bilayers by nanoprobes

Nanoscale devices have been proposed as tools for measuring and controlling intracellular activity by providing electrical and/or chemical access to the cytosol. Unfortunately, nanostructures with diameters of 50-500 nm do not readily penetrate the cell membrane, and rationally optimizing nanoprobes for cell penetration requires real-time characterization methods that are capable of following the process of membrane penetration with nanometer resolution. Although extensive work has examined the rupture of supported synthetic lipid bilayers, little is known about the applicability of these model systems to living cell membranes with complex lipid compositions, cytoskeletal attachment, and membrane proteins. Here, we describe atomic force microscopy (AFM) membrane penetration experiments in two parallel systems: live HEK293 cells and stacks of synthetic lipid bilayers. By using the same probes in both systems, we were able to clearly identify membrane penetration in synthetic bilayers and compare these events with putative membrane penetration events in cells. We examined membrane penetration forces for three tip geometries and 18 chemical modifications of the probe surface, and in all cases the median forces required to penetrate cellular and synthetic lipid bilayers with nanoprobes were greater than 1 nN. The penetration force was sensitive to the probe's sharpness, but not its surface chemistry, and the force did not depend on cell surface or cytoskeletal properties, with cells and lipid stacks yielding similar forces. This systematic assessment of penetration under various mechanical and chemical conditions provides insights into nanoprobe-cell interactions and informs the design of future intracellular nanoprobes.

Nanotechnology and neurophysiology

Neuroscience would be revolutionized by a technique to measure intracellular electrical potentials that would not disrupt cellular physiology and could be massively parallelized. Though such a technology does not yet exist, the technical hurdles for fabricating minimally disruptive, solid-state electrical probes have arguably been overcome in the field of nanotechnology. Nanoscale devices can be patterned with features on the same length scale as biological components, and several groups have demonstrated that nanoscale electrical probes can measure the transmembrane potential of electrogenic cells. Developing these nascent technologies into robust intracellular recording tools will now require a better understanding of device-cell interactions, especially the membrane-inorganic interface. Here we review the state-of-the art in nanobioelectronics, emphasizing the characterization and design of stable interfaces between nanoscale devices and cells.

Responsive cell–material interfaces

Major design aspects for novel biomaterials are driven by the desire to mimic more varied and complex properties of a natural cellular environment with man-made materials. The development of stimulus responsive materials makes considerable contributions to the effort to incorporate dynamic and reversible elements into a biomaterial. This is particularly challenging for cell–material interactions that occur at an interface (biointerfaces); however, the design of responsive biointerfaces also presents opportunities in a variety of applications in biomedical research and regenerative medicine. This review will identify the requirements imposed on a responsive biointerface and use recent examples to demonstrate how some of these requirements have been met. Finally, the next steps in the development of more complex biomaterial interfaces, including multiple stimuli-responsive surfaces, surfaces of 3D objects and interactive biointerfaces will be discussed.

Exploring arrays of vertical one-dimensional nanostructures for cellular investigations

The endeavor of exploiting arrays of vertical one-dimensional (1D) nanostructures (NSs) for cellular applications has recently been experiencing a pronounced surge of activity. The interest is rooted in the intrinsic properties of high-aspect-ratio NSs. With a height comparable to a mammalian cell, and a diameter 100-1000 times smaller, NSs should intuitively reach far into a cell and, due to their small diameter, do so without compromising cell health. Single NSs would thus be expedient for measuring and modifying cell response. Further organization of these structures into arrays can provide up-scaled and detailed spatiotemporal information on cell activity, an achievement that would entail a massive leap forward in disease understanding and drug discovery. Numerous proofs-of-principle published recently have expanded the large toolbox that is currently being established in this rapidly advancing field of research. Encouragingly, despite the diversity of NS platforms and experimental conditions used thus far, general trends and conclusions from combining cells with NSs are beginning to crystallize. This review covers the broad spectrum of NS materials and dimensions used; the observed cellular responses with specific focus on adhesion, morphology, viability, proliferation, and migration; compares the different approaches used in the field to provide NSs with the often crucial cytosolic access; covers the progress toward biological applications; and finally, envisions the future of this technology. By maintaining the impressive rate and quality of recent progress, it is conceivable that the use of vertical 1D NSs may soon be established as a superior choice over other current techniques, with all the further benefits that may entail.

Analysis of nanoprobe penetration through a lipid bilayer

With the rapid development of nanotechnology and biotechnology, nanoscale structures are increasingly used in cellular biology. However, the interface between artificial materials and a biological membrane is not well understood, and the harm caused by the interaction is poorly controlled. Here, we utilize the dissipative particle dynamics simulation method to study the interface when a nanoscale probe penetrates the cell membrane, and propose that an appropriate surface architecture can reduce the harm experienced by a cell membrane. The simulation shows that a hydrophilic probe generates a hydrophilic hole around the probe while a hydrophobic probe leads to a 'T-junction' state as some lipid molecules move toward the two ends of the probe. Both types of probe significantly disrupt lipid bilayer organization as reflected by the large variations in free energy associated with penetration of the membrane. Considering the hydrophilic/hydrophobic nature of the lipid bilayer, three other hydrophilic/hydrophobic patterns - band pattern, axial pattern and random pattern - are discussed to reduce the damage to the lipid membrane. Both the free energy analysis and simulation studies show that the axial pattern and the random pattern can both minimize the variations in free energy with correspondingly smaller adverse effects on membrane function. These results suggest that the axial pattern or random pattern nanoprobe generates a mild interaction with the biological membrane, which should be considered when designing nondestructive nanoscale structures.

Multi-electrode array technologies for neuroscience and cardiology

At present, the prime methodology for studying neuronal circuit-connectivity, physiology and pathology under in vitro or in vivo conditions is by using substrate-integrated microelectrode arrays. Although this methodology permits simultaneous, cell-non-invasive, long-term recordings of extracellular field potentials generated by action potentials, it is 'blind' to subthreshold synaptic potentials generated by single cells. On the other hand, intracellular recordings of the full electrophysiological repertoire (subthreshold synaptic potentials, membrane oscillations and action potentials) are, at present, obtained only by sharp or patch microelectrodes. These, however, are limited to single cells at a time and for short durations. Recently a number of laboratories began to merge the advantages of extracellular microelectrode arrays and intracellular microelectrodes. This Review describes the novel approaches, identifying their strengths and limitations from the point of view of the end users--with the intention to help steer the bioengineering efforts towards the needs of brain-circuit research.

AFM-based force-clamp monitors lipid bilayer failure kinetics

The lipid bilayer rupture phenomenon is here explored by means of atomic force microscopy (AFM)-based force clamp, for the first time to our knowledge, to evaluate how lipid membranes respond when compressed under an external constant force, in the range of nanonewtons. Using this method, we were able to directly quantify the kinetics of the membrane rupture event and the associated energy barriers, for both single supported bilayers and multibilayers, in contradistinction to the classic studies performed at constant velocity. Moreover, the affected area of the membrane during the rupture process was calculated using an elastic deformation model. The elucidated information not only contributes to a better understanding of such relevant process, but also proves the suitability of AFM-based force clamp to study model structures as lipid bilayers. These findings on the kinetics of lipid bilayers rupture could be extended and applied to the study of other molecular thin films. Furthermore, systems of higher complexity such as models mimicking cell membranes could be studied by means of AFM-based force-clamp technique.