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Schrenk D, Allemang A, Fahrer J, Harms H, Li X, Lin G, Mahony C, Mulder P, Peijnenburg A, Pfuhler S, Punt A, Sievers H, Troutman J, Widjaja F. Toxins in Botanical Drugs and Plant-derived Food and Feed - from Science to Regulation: A Workshop Review. PLANTA MEDICA 2024; 90:219-242. [PMID: 38198805 DOI: 10.1055/a-2218-5667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
In September 2022, the 3rd International Workshop on pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) and related phytotoxins was held on-line, entitled 'Toxins in botanical drugs and plant-derived food and feed - from science to regulation'. The workshop focused on new findings about the occurrence, exposure, toxicity, and risk assessment of PAs. In addition, new scientific results related to the risk assessment of alkenylbenzenes, a distinct class of herbal constituents, were presented. The presence of PAs and alkenylbenzenes in plant-derived food, feed, and herbal medicines has raised health concerns with respect to their acute and chronic toxicity but mainly related to the genotoxic and carcinogenic properties of several congeners. The compounds are natural constituents of a variety of plant families and species widely used in medicinal, food, and feed products. Their individual occurrence, levels, and toxic properties, together with the broad range of congeners present in nature, represent a striking challenge to modern toxicology. This review tries to provide an overview of the current knowledge on these compounds and indicates needs and perspectives for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieter Schrenk
- Food Chemistry and Toxicology, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Ashley Allemang
- Central Product Safety, The Procter & Gamble Company, Mason, USA
| | - Jörg Fahrer
- Food Chemistry and Toxicology, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Henrik Harms
- Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (BfArM), Bonn, Germany
| | - Xilin Li
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U. S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, USA
| | - Ge Lin
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Catherine Mahony
- Central Product Safety, Procter & Gamble Technical Centre, Reading, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick Mulder
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Ad Peijnenburg
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Stefan Pfuhler
- Central Product Safety, The Procter & Gamble Company, Mason, USA
| | - Ans Punt
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | | | - John Troutman
- Central Product Safety, The Procter & Gamble Company, Mason, USA
| | - Frances Widjaja
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
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Gooderham NJ, Cohen SM, Eisenbrand G, Fukushima S, Guengerich FP, Hecht SS, Rietjens IMCM, Rosol TJ, Davidsen JM, Harman CL, Kelly SE, Taylor SV. FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Sage oil, Orris Root Extract and Tagetes Oil and related flavoring ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 179:113940. [PMID: 37487858 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) has conducted a program to re-evaluate the safety of natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavor ingredients. This publication, twelfth in the series, details the re-evaluation of NFCs whose constituent profiles are characterized by alicyclic or linear ketones. In its re-evaluation, the Expert Panel applies a scientific constituent-based procedure for the safety evaluation of NFCs in commerce using a congeneric group approach. Estimated intakes of each congeneric group of the NFC are evaluated using the well-established and conservative Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) approach. In addition, studies on the toxicity and genotoxicity of members of the congeneric groups and the NFCs under evaluation are reviewed. The scope of the safety evaluation of the NFCs contained herein does not include added use in dietary supplements or any products other than food. Thirteen (13) NFCs derived from the Boronia, Cinnamomum, Thuja, Ruta, Salvia, Tagetes, Hyssopus, Iris, Perilla and Artemisia genera are affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) under conditions of their intended use as flavor ingredients based on an evaluation of each NFC and the constituents and congeneric groups therein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nigel J Gooderham
- Dept. of Metabolism, Digestion, Reproduction, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Samuel M Cohen
- Havlik-Wall Professor of Oncology, Dept. of Pathology and Microbiology, University f Nebraska Medical Center, 983135 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-3135, USA
| | - Gerhard Eisenbrand
- University of Kaiserslautern, Kühler Grund 48/1, 69126, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Shoji Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, 2445 Hirasawa, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Tadashi Inagami Professor of Biochemistry, Dept. of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
| | - Stephen S Hecht
- Wallin Professor of Cancer Prevention, Masonic Cancer Center and Dept. of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Cancer and Cardiovascular Research Building, 2231 6th St., S.E., Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas J Rosol
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, 1 Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Jeanne M Davidsen
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C., 20036, USA
| | - Christie L Harman
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C., 20036, USA
| | - Shannen E Kelly
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C., 20036, USA
| | - Sean V Taylor
- Scientific Secretary to the FEMA Expert Panel, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C., 20036, USA.
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Pedroni L, Louisse J, Dorne JLCM, Dall'Asta C, Dellafiora L. A computational study on the biotransformation of alkenylbenzenes by a selection of CYPs: Reflections on their possible bioactivation. Toxicology 2023; 488:153471. [PMID: 36863505 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2023.153471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023]
Abstract
Alkenylbenzenes are aromatic compounds found in several vegetable foods that can cause genotoxicity upon bioactivation by members of the cytochrome P450 (CYP) family, forming 1'-hydroxy metabolites. These intermediates act as proximate carcinogens and can be further converted into reactive 1'-sulfooxy metabolites, which are the ultimate carcinogens responsible for genotoxicity. Safrole, a member of this class, has been banned as a food or feed additive in many countries based on its genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. However, it can still enter the food and feed chain. There is limited information about the toxicity of other alkenylbenzenes that may be present in safrole-containing foods, such as myristicin, apiole, and dillapiole. In vitro studies showed safrole as mainly bioactivated by CYP2A6 to form its proximate carcinogen, while for myristicin this is mainly done by CYP1A1. However, it is not known whether CYP1A1 and CYP2A6 can activate apiole and dillapiole. The present study uses an in silico pipeline to investigate this knowledge gap and determine whether CYP1A1 and CYP2A6 may play a role in the bioactivation of these alkenylbenzenes. The study found that the bioactivation of apiole and dillapiole by CYP1A1 and CYP2A6 is limited, possibly indicating that these compounds may have limited toxicity, while describing a possible role of CYP1A1 in the bioactivation of safrole. The study expands the current understanding of safrole toxicity and bioactivation and helps understand the mechanisms of CYPs involved in the bioactivation of alkenylbenzenes. This information is essential for a more informed analysis of alkenylbenzenes toxicity and risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Pedroni
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parma 43124, Italy
| | - Jochem Louisse
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | | | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parma 43124, Italy
| | - Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parma 43124, Italy.
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FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Allspice, anise, fennel-derived and related flavoring ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 174:113643. [PMID: 36739890 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/28/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The FEMA Expert Panel program to re-evaluate the safety of natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavoring ingredients in food has resulted in the publication of an updated constituent-based procedure as well as publications on the safety evaluation of many botanical-derived NFCs. This publication, ninth in the series and related to the ninth publication, describes the affirmation of the generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status for NFCs with propenylhydroxybenzene and allylalkoxybenzene constituents under their conditions of intended use as flavoring ingredients added to food. The Panel's procedure applies the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept and evaluates relevant data on absorption, metabolism, genotoxic potential and toxicology for the NFCs themselves and their respective constituent congeneric groups. For NFCs containing allylalkoxybenzene constituent(s) with suspected genotoxic potential, the estimated intake of the individual constituent is compared to the TTC for compounds with structural alerts for genotoxicity and if exceeded, a margin of exposure is calculated using BMDL10 values derived from benchmark dose analyses using Bayesian model averaging, as presented in the tenth article of the series. Safety evaluations for NFCs derived from allspice, anise seed, star anise, sweet fennel seed and pimento leaves were conducted and their GRAS status was affirmed for use as flavoring ingredients. The scope of the safety evaluation contained herein does not include added use in dietary supplements or any products other than food.
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Rosol TJ, Cohen SM, Eisenbrand G, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Guengerich FP, Hecht SS, Rietjens IMCM, Davidsen JM, Harman CL, Kelly S, Ramanan D, Taylor SV. FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Lemongrass oil, chamomile oils, citronella oil and related flavoring ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 175:113697. [PMID: 36870670 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
In 2015, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) initiated a program for the re-evaluation of the safety of over 250 natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavor ingredients. This publication, eleventh in the series, evaluates the safety of NFCs characterized by primary alcohol, aldehyde, carboxylic acid, ester and lactone constituents derived from terpenoid biosynthetic pathways and/or lipid metabolism. The Expert Panel uses the scientific-based evaluation procedure published in 2005 and updated in 2018 that relies on a complete constituent characterization of the NFC intended for commerce and organization of the constituents of each NFC into well-defined congeneric groups. The safety of the NFCs is evaluated using the well-established and conservative threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept in addition to data on estimated intake, metabolism and toxicology of members of the congeneric groups and for the NFC under evaluation. The scope of the safety evaluation contained herein does not include added use in dietary supplements or any products other than food. Twenty-three NFCs, derived from the Hibiscus, Melissa, Ricinus, Anthemis, Matricaria, Cymbopogon, Saussurea, Spartium, Pelargonium, Levisticum, Rosa, Santalum, Viola, Cryptocarya and Litsea genera were affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) under their conditions of intended use as flavor ingredients based on an evaluation of each NFC and the constituents and congeneric groups therein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J Rosol
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, 1 Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Samuel M Cohen
- Havlik-Wall Professor of Oncology, Dept. of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 983135 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-3135, USA
| | - Gerhard Eisenbrand
- University of Kaiserslautern, Germany (Retired), Kühler Grund 48/1, 69126, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Shoji Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, 2445 Hirasawa, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Nigel J Gooderham
- Dept. of Metabolism, Digestion, Reproduction, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Tadashi Inagami Professor of Biochemistry, Dept. of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
| | - Stephen S Hecht
- Wallin Professor of Cancer Prevention, Masonic Cancer Center and Dept. of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Cancer and Cardiovascular Research Building, 2231 6th St., S.E., Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Professor of Toxicology, Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4 6708, WE, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jeanne M Davidsen
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C., 20036, USA
| | - Christie L Harman
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C., 20036, USA
| | - Shannen Kelly
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C., 20036, USA
| | - Danarubini Ramanan
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C., 20036, USA
| | - Sean V Taylor
- Scientific Secretary to the FEMA Expert Panel, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C., 20036, USA.
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Davidsen JM, Cohen SM, Eisenbrand G, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Guengerich FP, Hecht SS, Rietjens IMCM, Rosol TJ, Harman CL, Ramanan D, Taylor SV. FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Asafetida oil, garlic oil and onion oil. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 173:113580. [PMID: 36610475 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) applies its procedure for the safety evaluation of natural flavor complexes (NFCs) to re-evaluate the safety of Asafetida Oil (Ferula assa-foetida L.) FEMA 2108, Garlic Oil (Allium sativum L.) FEMA 2503 and Onion Oil (Allium cepa L.) FEMA 2817 for use as flavoring in food. This safety evaluation is part of a series of evaluations of NFCs for use as flavoring ingredients conducted by the Expert Panel that applies a scientific procedure published in 2005 and updated in 2018. Using a group approach that relies on a complete chemical characterization of the NFC intended for commerce, the constituents of each NFC are organized into well-defined congeneric groups and the estimated intake of each constituent congeneric group is evaluated using the conservative threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept. Data on the metabolism, genotoxic potential and toxicology for each constituent congeneric group are reviewed as well as studies on each NFC. Based on the safety evaluation, Asafetida Oil (Ferula assa-foetida L.), Garlic Oil (Allium sativum L.) and Onion Oil (Allium cepa L.) were affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRASa) under their conditions of intended use as flavor ingredients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanne M Davidsen
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | - Samuel M Cohen
- Havlik Wall Professor of Oncology, Dept. of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 983135 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-3135, USA
| | - Gerhard Eisenbrand
- University of Kaiserslautern, Germany (Retired), Kühler Grund 48/1, 69126, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Shoji Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, 2445 Hirasawa, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Nigel J Gooderham
- Dept. of Metabolism, Digestion, Reproduction, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Dept. of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
| | - Stephen S Hecht
- Masonic Cancer Center and Dept. of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Cancer and Cardiovascular Research Building, 2231 6th St., S.E, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708, WE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas J Rosol
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, 1 Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Christie L Harman
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | - Danarubini Ramanan
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | - Sean V Taylor
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA.
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Davidsen JM, Cohen SM, Eisenbrand G, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Guengerich FP, Hecht SS, Rietjens IMCM, Rosol TJ, Harman CL, Taylor SV. FEMA GRAS assessment of derivatives of basil, nutmeg, parsley, tarragon and related allylalkoxybenzene-containing natural flavor complexes. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 175:113646. [PMID: 36804339 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
In 2015, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) initiated a program for the re-evaluation of the safety of over 250 natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavoring ingredients in food. In this publication, tenth in the series, NFCs containing a high percentage of at least one naturally occurring allylalkoxybenzene constituent with a suspected concern for genotoxicity and/or carcinogenicity are evaluated. In a related paper, ninth in the series, NFCs containing anethole and/or eugenol and relatively low percentages of these allylalkoxybenzenes are evaluated. The Panel applies the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept and evaluates relevant toxicology data on the NFCs and their respective constituent congeneric groups. For NFCs containing allylalkoxybenzene constituent(s), the estimated intake of the constituent is compared to the TTC for compounds with structural alerts for genotoxicity and when exceeded, a margin of exposure (MOE) is calculated. BMDL10 values are derived from benchmark dose analyses using Bayesian model averaging for safrole, estragole and methyl eugenol using EPA's BMDS software version 3.2. BMDL10 values for myristicin, elemicin and parsley apiole were estimated by read-across using relative potency factors. Margins of safety for each constituent congeneric group and MOEs for each allylalkoxybenzene constituent for each NFC were determined that indicate no safety concern. The scope of the safety evaluation contained herein does not include added use in dietary supplements or any products other than food. Ten NFCs, derived from basil, estragon (tarragon), mace, nutmeg, parsley and Canadian snakeroot were determined or affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) under their conditions of intended use as flavor ingredients based on an evaluation of each NFC and the constituents and congeneric groups therein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanne M Davidsen
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C, 20036, USA
| | - Samuel M Cohen
- Havlik-Wall Professor of Oncology, Dept. of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 983135 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-3135, USA
| | - Gerhard Eisenbrand
- University of Kaiserslautern, Germany (Retired), Kühler Grund 48/1, 69126, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Shoji Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, 2445 Hirasawa, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Nigel J Gooderham
- Dept. of Metabolism, Digestion, Reproduction, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Dept. of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
| | - Stephen S Hecht
- Masonic Cancer Center and Dept. of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Cancer and Cardiovascular Research Building, 2231 6th St, S.E, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 6708 WE, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas J Rosol
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, 1 Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Christie L Harman
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C, 20036, USA
| | - Sean V Taylor
- Scientific Secretary to the FEMA Expert Panel, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C, 20036, USA.
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Pedroni L, Louisse J, Punt A, Dorne JLCM, Dall’Asta C, Dellafiora L. A Computational Inter-Species Study on Safrole Phase I Metabolism-Dependent Bioactivation: A Mechanistic Insight into the Study of Possible Differences among Species. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15020094. [PMID: 36828409 PMCID: PMC9962551 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15020094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Safrole, a 162.2 Da natural compound belonging to the alkenylbenzenes class, is classified as a possible carcinogen to humans by IARC (group IIB) and has proven to be genotoxic and carcinogenic to rodents. Despite its use as a food or feed additive, it is forbidden in many countries due to its documented toxicity; yet, it is still broadly present within food and feed and is particularly abundant in spices, herbs and essential oils. Specifically, safrole may exert its toxicity upon bioactivation to its proximate carcinogen 1'-hydroxy-safrole via specific members of the cytochrome P450 protein family with a certain inter/intra-species variability. To investigate this variability, an in-silico workflow based on molecular modelling, docking and molecular dynamics has been successfully applied. This work highlighted the mechanistic basis underpinning differences among humans, cats, chickens, goats, sheep, dogs, mice, pigs, rats and rabbits. The chosen metric to estimate the likeliness of formation of 1'-hydroxy-safrole by the species-specific cytochrome P450 under investigation allowed for the provision of a knowledge-based ground to rationally design and prioritise further experiments and deepen the current understanding of alkenylbenzenes bioactivation and CYPs mechanics. Both are crucial for a more informed framework of analysis for safrole toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Pedroni
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Jochem Louisse
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ans Punt
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jean Lou C. M. Dorne
- Methodology and Scientific Support Unit (MESE), European Food Safety Authority, 43126 Parma, Italy
| | - Chiara Dall’Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0521-906079
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Zhang X, Felter SP, Api AM, Joshi K, Selechnik D. A Cautionary tale for using read-across for cancer hazard classification: Case study of isoeugenol and methyl eugenol. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2022; 136:105280. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2022.105280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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10
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Kobets T, Smith BPC, Williams GM. Food-Borne Chemical Carcinogens and the Evidence for Human Cancer Risk. Foods 2022; 11:foods11182828. [PMID: 36140952 PMCID: PMC9497933 DOI: 10.3390/foods11182828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Commonly consumed foods and beverages can contain chemicals with reported carcinogenic activity in rodent models. Moreover, exposures to some of these substances have been associated with increased cancer risks in humans. Food-borne carcinogens span a range of chemical classes and can arise from natural or anthropogenic sources, as well as form endogenously. Important considerations include the mechanism(s) of action (MoA), their relevance to human biology, and the level of exposure in diet. The MoAs of carcinogens have been classified as either DNA-reactive (genotoxic), involving covalent reaction with nuclear DNA, or epigenetic, involving molecular and cellular effects other than DNA reactivity. Carcinogens are generally present in food at low levels, resulting in low daily intakes, although there are some exceptions. Carcinogens of the DNA-reactive type produce effects at lower dosages than epigenetic carcinogens. Several food-related DNA-reactive carcinogens, including aflatoxins, aristolochic acid, benzene, benzo[a]pyrene and ethylene oxide, are recognized by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as causes of human cancer. Of the epigenetic type, the only carcinogen considered to be associated with increased cancer in humans, although not from low-level food exposure, is dioxin (TCDD). Thus, DNA-reactive carcinogens in food represent a much greater risk than epigenetic carcinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetyana Kobets
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-914-594-3105; Fax: +1-914-594-4163
| | - Benjamin P. C. Smith
- Future Ready Food Safety Hub, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Gary M. Williams
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
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Myristicin and Elemicin: Potentially Toxic Alkenylbenzenes in Food. Foods 2022; 11:foods11131988. [PMID: 35804802 PMCID: PMC9265716 DOI: 10.3390/foods11131988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Alkenylbenzenes represent a group of naturally occurring substances that are synthesized as secondary metabolites in various plants, including nutmeg and basil. Many of the alkenylbenzene-containing plants are common spice plants and preparations thereof are used for flavoring purposes. However, many alkenylbenzenes are known toxicants. For example, safrole and methyleugenol were classified as genotoxic carcinogens based on extensive toxicological evidence. In contrast, reliable toxicological data, in particular regarding genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and reproductive toxicity is missing for several other structurally closely related alkenylbenzenes, such as myristicin and elemicin. Moreover, existing data on the occurrence of these substances in various foods suffer from several limitations. Together, the existing data gaps regarding exposure and toxicity cause difficulty in evaluating health risks for humans. This review gives an overview on available occurrence data of myristicin, elemicin, and other selected alkenylbenzenes in certain foods. Moreover, the current knowledge on the toxicity of myristicin and elemicin in comparison to their structurally related and well-characterized derivatives safrole and methyleugenol, especially with respect to their genotoxic and carcinogenic potential, is discussed. Finally, this article focuses on existing data gaps regarding exposure and toxicity currently impeding the evaluation of adverse health effects potentially caused by myristicin and elemicin.
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12
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In vitro and in silico study on consequences of combined exposure to the food-borne alkenylbenzenes estragole and safrole. Toxicol In Vitro 2021; 79:105290. [PMID: 34861381 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2021.105290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Potential consequences of combined exposure to the selected food-borne alkenylbenzenes safrole and estragole or their proximate carcinogenic 1'-hydroxy metabolites were evaluated in vitro and in silico. HepG2 cells were exposed to 1'-hydroxyestragole and 1'-hydroxysafrole individually or in equipotent combination subsequently detecting cytotoxicity and DNA adduct formation. Results indicate that concentration addition adequately describes the cytotoxic effects and no statistically significant differences were shown in the level of formation of the major DNA adducts. Furthermore, physiologically based kinetic modeling revealed that at normal dietary intake the concentration of the parent compounds and their 1'-hydroxymetabolites remain substantially below the Km values for the respective bioactivation and detoxification reactions providing further support for the fact that the simultaneous presence of the two carcinogens or of their proximate carcinogenic 1'-hydroxy metabolites may not affect their DNA adduct formation. Overall, these results point at the absence of interactions upon combined exposure to selected food-borne alkenylbenzenes at realistic dietary levels of intake.
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13
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Yamazoe Y, Murayama N, Yoshinari K. Refined CYP2E1 ∗ Template ∗∗ system to decipher the ligand-interactions. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2021; 41:100413. [PMID: 34673327 DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2021.100413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
A Template system for a prediction of human CYP2E1-mediated reactions (Drug Metab Rev 2011) has been refined with the introduction of ideas of Trigger-residue and the residue-initiated movement of ligands in the active site. The refined system also includes ideas of bi-molecule binding and angled-placement, which allow to sit diverse types of ligands on Template. With the use of these ideas in common with other Template systems for human CYP1A1, CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 (Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2016, 2017, 2019, and 2020), 349 reactions of 192 distinct chemicals published as CYP2E1 ligands were examined in the refined system. Verifications of good and poor substrates, regioselectivity and also inhibitory interaction were available faithfully for these ligands from their placements on the refined Template and rules for interaction modes, accompanied with their deciphering information to lead to the judgements. The refined CYP2E1 Template system will thus offer more reliable estimations of human CYP2E1 catalysis toward ligands of diverse structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasushi Yamazoe
- Division of Drug Metabolism and Molecular Toxicology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aramaki-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan; Division of Risk Assessment, National Institute of Health Sciences, Tonomachi 3-25-26, Kawasaki-ku, Kanagawa, 210-9501, Japan.
| | - Norie Murayama
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo, 194-8543, Japan
| | - Kouichi Yoshinari
- Laboratory of Molecular Toxicology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka, 52-1 Yada, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, 422-8526, Japan
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14
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Wang YK, Li WQ, Xia S, Guo L, Miao Y, Zhang BK. Metabolic Activation of the Toxic Natural Products From Herbal and Dietary Supplements Leading to Toxicities. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:758468. [PMID: 34744736 PMCID: PMC8564355 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.758468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, herbal and dietary supplements have been widely applied to prevent and treat various diseases. However, the potential toxicities and adverse reactions of herbal and dietary supplements have been increasingly reported, and have gradually attracted widespread attention from clinical pharmacists and physicians. Metabolic activation of specific natural products from herbal and dietary supplements is mediated by hepatic cytochrome P450 or intestinal bacteria, and generates chemical reactive/toxic metabolites that bind to cellular reduced glutathione or macromolecules, and form reactive metabolites-glutathione/protein/DNA adducts, and these protein/DNA adducts can result in toxicities. The present review focuses on the relation between metabolic activation and toxicities of natural products, and provides updated, comprehensive and critical comment on the toxic mechanisms of reactive metabolites. The key inductive role of metabolic activation in toxicity is highlighted, and frequently toxic functional groups of toxic natural products were summarized. The biotransformation of drug cytochrome P450 or intestinal bacteria involved in metabolic activation were clarified, the reactive metabolites-protein adducts were selected as biomarkers for predicting toxicity. And finally, further perspectives between metabolic activation and toxicities of natural products from herbal and dietary supplements are discussed, to provide a reference for the reasonable and safe usage of herbal and dietary supplements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Kun Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Wen Qun Li
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Shuang Xia
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Lin Guo
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yan Miao
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Bi-Kui Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy, Central South University, Changsha, China
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15
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Lecourt M, Chietera G, Blerot B, Antoniotti S. Laccase-Catalyzed Oxidation of Allylbenzene Derivatives: Towards a Green Equivalent of Ozonolysis. Molecules 2021; 26:6053. [PMID: 34641596 PMCID: PMC8512103 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26196053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Laccase-based biocatalytic reactions have been tested with and without mediators and optimized in the oxidation of allylbenzene derivatives, such as methyl eugenol taken as a model substrate. The reaction primarily consisted in the hydroxylation of the propenyl side chain, either upon isomerization of the double bond or not. Two pathways were then observed; oxidation of both allylic alcohol intermediates could either lead to the corresponding α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound, or the corresponding benzaldehyde derivative by oxidative cleavage. Such a process constitutes a green equivalent of ozonolysis or other dangerous or waste-generating oxidation reactions. The conversion rate was sensitive to the substitution patterns of the benzenic ring and subsequent electronic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Lecourt
- Institut de Chimie de Nice, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Parc Valrose, CEDEX 2, 06108 Nice, France;
| | - Giorgiana Chietera
- LMR Naturals by IFF, Parc d’Activité les Bois de Grasse, 18 Avenue Joseph Honoré Isnard, 06130 Grasse, France; (G.C.); (B.B.)
| | - Bernard Blerot
- LMR Naturals by IFF, Parc d’Activité les Bois de Grasse, 18 Avenue Joseph Honoré Isnard, 06130 Grasse, France; (G.C.); (B.B.)
| | - Sylvain Antoniotti
- Institut de Chimie de Nice, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Parc Valrose, CEDEX 2, 06108 Nice, France;
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16
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Eisenbrand G, Cohen SM, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Guengerich FP, Hecht SS, Rietjens IMCM, Rosol TJ, Davidsen JM, Harman CL, Taylor SV. FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Eucalyptus oil and other cyclic ether-containing flavoring ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 155:112357. [PMID: 34217737 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In 2015, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) initiated a program for the re-evaluation of the safety of over 250 natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavor ingredients. This publication, the sixth in the series, will summarize the re-evaluation of eight NFCs whose constituent profiles are characterized by significant amounts of eucalyptol and/or other cyclic ethers. This re-evaluation was based on a procedure first published in 2005 and subsequently updated in 2018 that evaluates the safety of naturally occurring mixtures for their intended use as flavoring ingredients. The procedure relies on a complete chemical characterization of the NFC intended for commerce and the organization of its chemical constituents into well-defined congeneric groups. The safety of the NFC is evaluated using the well-established and conservative threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept in addition to data on absorption, metabolism and toxicology of the constituents of the congeneric groups and the NFC under evaluation. Eight NFCs derived from the Eucalyptus, Melaleuca, Origanum, Laurus, Rosmarinus and Salvia genera were affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) under their conditions of intended use as flavor ingredients based on an evaluation of each NFC and the constituents and congeneric groups therein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerhard Eisenbrand
- University of Kaiserslautern, Germany (Retired), Kühler Grund 48/1, 69126, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Samuel M Cohen
- Dept. of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 983135 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-3135, USA
| | - Shoji Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, 2445 Hirasawa, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Nigel J Gooderham
- Dept. of Metabolism, Digestion, Reproduction, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Dept. of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
| | - Stephen S Hecht
- Masonic Cancer Center and Dept. of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Cancer and Cardiovascular Research Building, 2231 6th St. S.E., Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas J Rosol
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, 1 Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Jeanne M Davidsen
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, NW Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | - Christie L Harman
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, NW Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | - Sean V Taylor
- Scientific Secretary to the FEMA Expert Panel, 1101 17th Street, NW Suite 700, Washington, DC, 20036, USA.
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17
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Human Family 1-4 cytochrome P450 enzymes involved in the metabolic activation of xenobiotic and physiological chemicals: an update. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:395-472. [PMID: 33459808 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02971-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This is an overview of the metabolic activation of drugs, natural products, physiological compounds, and general chemicals by the catalytic activity of cytochrome P450 enzymes belonging to Families 1-4. The data were collected from > 5152 references. The total number of data entries of reactions catalyzed by P450s Families 1-4 was 7696 of which 1121 (~ 15%) were defined as bioactivation reactions of different degrees. The data were divided into groups of General Chemicals, Drugs, Natural Products, and Physiological Compounds, presented in tabular form. The metabolism and bioactivation of selected examples of each group are discussed. In most of the cases, the metabolites are directly toxic chemicals reacting with cell macromolecules, but in some cases the metabolites formed are not direct toxicants but participate as substrates in succeeding metabolic reactions (e.g., conjugation reactions), the products of which are final toxicants. We identified a high level of activation for three groups of compounds (General Chemicals, Drugs, and Natural Products) yielding activated metabolites and the generally low participation of Physiological Compounds in bioactivation reactions. In the group of General Chemicals, P450 enzymes 1A1, 1A2, and 1B1 dominate in the formation of activated metabolites. Drugs are mostly activated by the enzyme P450 3A4, and Natural Products by P450s 1A2, 2E1, and 3A4. Physiological Compounds showed no clearly dominant enzyme, but the highest numbers of activations are attributed to P450 1A, 1B1, and 3A enzymes. The results thus show, perhaps not surprisingly, that Physiological Compounds are infrequent substrates in bioactivation reactions catalyzed by P450 enzyme Families 1-4, with the exception of estrogens and arachidonic acid. The results thus provide information on the enzymes that activate specific groups of chemicals to toxic metabolites.
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18
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Schulte-Hubbert R, Küpper JH, Thomas AD, Schrenk D. Estragole: DNA adduct formation in primary rat hepatocytes and genotoxic potential in HepG2-CYP1A2 cells. Toxicology 2020; 444:152566. [PMID: 32853702 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2020.152566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Estragole is a natural constituent in herbs and spices and in products thereof such as essential oils or herbal teas. After cytochrome P450-catalyzed hydroxylation and subsequent sulfation, estragole acts as a genotoxic hepatocarcinogen forming DNA adducts in rodent liver. Because of the genotoxic mode of action and the widespread occurrence in food and phytomedicines a refined risk assessment for estragole is needed. We analyzed the time- and concentration-dependent levels of the DNA adducts N2-(isoestragole-3'-yl)-2'-desoxyguanosine (E3'N2dG) and N6-(isoestragole-3'-yl)-desoxyadenosine (E3'N6dA), reported to be the major adducts formed in rat liver, in rat hepatocytes (pRH) in primary culture after incubation with estragole. DNA adduct levels were measured via UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS using stable isotope dilution analysis. Both adducts were formed in pRH and could already be quantified after an incubation time of 1 h (E3'N6dA at 10 μM, E3'N2dG at 1μM estragole). E3'N2dG, the main adduct at all incubation times and concentrations, could be detected at estragole concentrations < 0.1 μM after 24 h and < 0.5 μM after 48 h. Adduct levels were highest after 6 h and showed a downward trend at later time-points, possibly due to DNA repair and/or apoptosis. While the concentration-response characteristics of adduct formation were apparently linear over the whole concentration range, strong indication for marked hypo-linearity was obtained when the modeling was based on concentrations < 1 μM only. In the micronucleus assay no mutagenic potential of estragole was found in HepG2 cells whereas in HepG2-CYP1A2 cells 1 μM estragole led to a 3.2 fold and 300 μM to a 7.1 fold increase in micronuclei counts. Our findings suggest the existence of a 'practical threshold' dose for DNA adduct formation as an initiating key event of the carcinogenicity of estragole indicating that the default assumption of concentration-response-linearity is questionable, at least for the two major adducts studied here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Schulte-Hubbert
- Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Jan-Heiner Küpper
- Molecular Cell Biology, Brandenburg University of Technology, Senftenberg, Germany
| | - Adam D Thomas
- Centre for the Research in Biosciences (CRIB), UWE, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Dieter Schrenk
- Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany.
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19
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Gooderham NJ, Cohen SM, Eisenbrand G, Fukushima S, Guengerich FP, Hecht SS, Rietjens IMCM, Rosol TJ, Davidsen JM, Harman CL, Murray IJ, Taylor SV. FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Clove, cinnamon leaf and West Indian bay leaf-derived flavoring ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 145:111585. [PMID: 32702506 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In 2015, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association initiated the safety re-evaluation of over 250 natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavor ingredients. This publication, 4th in a series focusing on the safety evaluation of NFCs, presents an evaluation of NFCs rich in hydroxyallylbenzene and hydroxypropenylbenzene constituents using a procedure initially published in 2005 and updated in 2018 that evaluates the safety of naturally occurring mixtures for their intended use as flavoring ingredients. The procedure requires the characterization of the chemical composition for each NFC and subsequent organization of the constituents into defined congeneric groups. The safety of each NFC is evaluated using the conservative threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) approach together with studies on absorption, metabolism and toxicology of the NFC and its constituent congeneric groups. By the application of this procedure, seven NFCs, derived from clove, cinnamon leaf and West Indian bay leaf were affirmed as "generally recognized as safe (GRAS)" under their conditions of intended use as flavor ingredients. An eighth NFC, an oleoresin of West Indian bay leaf, was affirmed based on its estimated intake, which is below the TTC of 0.15 μg/person per day for compounds with structural alerts for genotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nigel J Gooderham
- Dept. of Metabolism, Digestion, Reproduction, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Samuel M Cohen
- Havlik-Wall Professor of Oncology, Dept. of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 983135 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-3135, USA
| | - Gerhard Eisenbrand
- Senior Research Professor of Food Chemistry & Toxicology, University of Kaiserslautern, Germany (Retired), Kühler Grund 48/1, 69126, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Shoji Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, 2445 Hirasawa, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Tadashi Inagami Professor of Biochemistry, Dept. of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146 USA
| | - Stephen S Hecht
- Wallin Professor of Cancer Prevention, Masonic Cancer Center and Dept. of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, MMC 806, 420 Delaware St., S.E., Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Professor of Toxicology, Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas J Rosol
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, 1 Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Jeanne M Davidsen
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC 20036, USA
| | - Christie L Harman
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC 20036, USA
| | - Ian J Murray
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC 20036, USA
| | - Sean V Taylor
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC 20036, USA.
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20
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Liu X, Lv H, Guo Y, Teka T, Wang X, Huang Y, Han L, Pan G. Structure-Based Reactivity Profiles of Reactive Metabolites with Glutathione. Chem Res Toxicol 2020; 33:1579-1593. [PMID: 32347096 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Therapeutic agents can be transformed into reactive metabolites under the action of various metabolic enzymes in vivo and then covalently combine with biological macromolecules (such as protein or DNA), resulting in increasing toxicity. The screening of reactive metabolites in drug discovery and development stages and monitoring of biotransformation in post-market drugs has become an important research field. Generally, reactive metabolites are electrophilic and can be captured by small nucleophiles. Glutathione (GSH) is a small peptide composed of three amino acids (i.e., glutamic acid, cysteine, and glycine). It has a thiol group which can react with electrophilic groups of reactive metabolic intermediates (such as benzoquinone, N-acetyl-p-benzoquinoneimine, and Michael acceptor) to form a stable binding conjugate. This paper aims to provide a review on structure-based reactivity profiles of reactive metabolites with GSH. Furthermore, this review also reveals the relationship between drugs' molecular structures and reactive metabolic toxicity from the perspective of metabolism, giving a reference for drug design and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomei Liu
- Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Hong Lv
- Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Yaqing Guo
- Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Tekleab Teka
- Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Xiaoming Wang
- Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Yuhong Huang
- Second Affiliated Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 300250, China
| | - Lifeng Han
- Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Guixiang Pan
- Second Affiliated Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 300250, China
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21
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FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Lavender, Guaiac Coriander-derived and related flavoring ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 145:111584. [PMID: 32682832 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In 2015, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) initiated a program for the re-evaluation of the safety of over 250 natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavor ingredients. This publication, fifth in the series, evaluates the safety of NFCs containing linalool and/or other characteristic mono- and sesquiterpenoid tertiary alcohols and esters using the safety evaluation procedure published by the FEMA Expert Panel in 2005 and updated in 2018. The procedure relies on a complete chemical characterization of the NFC intended for commerce and organization of the chemical constituents of each NFC into well-defined congeneric groups. The safety of each NFC is evaluated using the well-established and conservative threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept in addition to data on absorption, metabolism and toxicology of both the constituent congeneric groups and the NFCs. Sixteen NFCs, derived from the Lavandula, Aniba, Elettaria, Daucus, Salvia, Coriandrum, Ribes, Guaiacum/Bulnesia, Citrus, Pogostemon, Melaleuca and Michelia genera, were affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) under their conditions of intended use as flavor ingredients based on an evaluation of each NFC and the constituents and congeneric groups therein.
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22
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Kang JC, Valerio LG. Investigating DNA adduct formation by flavor chemicals and tobacco byproducts in electronic nicotine delivery system (ENDS) using in silico approaches. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2020; 398:115026. [PMID: 32353386 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2020.115026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The presence of flavors is one of the commonly cited reasons for use of e-cigarettes by youth; however, the potential harms from inhaling these chemicals and byproducts have not been extensively studied. One mechanism of interest is DNA adduct formation, which may lead to carcinogenesis. We identified two chemical classes of flavors found in tobacco products and byproducts, alkenylbenzenes and aldehydes, documented to form DNA adducts. Using in silico toxicology approaches, we identified structural analogs to these chemicals without DNA adduct information. We conducted a structural similarity analysis and also generated in silico model predictions of these chemicals for genotoxicity, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and skin sensitization. The empirical and in silico data were compared, and we identified strengths and limitations of these models. Good concordance (80-100%) was observed between DNA adduct formation and models predicting mammalian mutagenicity (mouse lymphoma sassy L5178Y) and skin sensitization for both chemical classes. On the other hand, different prediction profiles were observed for the two chemical classes for the modeled endpoints, unscheduled DNA synthesis and bacterial mutagenicity. These results are likely due to the different mode of action between the two chemical classes, as aldehydes are direct acting agents, while alkenylbenzenes require bioactivation to form electrophilic intermediates, which form DNA adducts. The results of this study suggest that an in silico prediction for the mouse lymphoma assay L5178Y, may serve as a surrogate endpoint to help predict DNA adduct formation for chemicals found in tobacco products such as flavors and byproducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jueichuan Connie Kang
- United States Food and Drug Administration, Center for Tobacco Products, Office of Science, Division of Nonclinical Science, 11785 Beltsville Drive, Calverton, MD 20705, USA; US Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, Rockville, MD, USA.
| | - Luis G Valerio
- United States Food and Drug Administration, Center for Tobacco Products, Office of Science, Division of Nonclinical Science, 11785 Beltsville Drive, Calverton, MD 20705, USA
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23
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Hartwig A, Arand M, Epe B, Guth S, Jahnke G, Lampen A, Martus HJ, Monien B, Rietjens IMCM, Schmitz-Spanke S, Schriever-Schwemmer G, Steinberg P, Eisenbrand G. Mode of action-based risk assessment of genotoxic carcinogens. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:1787-1877. [PMID: 32542409 PMCID: PMC7303094 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02733-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The risk assessment of chemical carcinogens is one major task in toxicology. Even though exposure has been mitigated effectively during the last decades, low levels of carcinogenic substances in food and at the workplace are still present and often not completely avoidable. The distinction between genotoxic and non-genotoxic carcinogens has traditionally been regarded as particularly relevant for risk assessment, with the assumption of the existence of no-effect concentrations (threshold levels) in case of the latter group. In contrast, genotoxic carcinogens, their metabolic precursors and DNA reactive metabolites are considered to represent risk factors at all concentrations since even one or a few DNA lesions may in principle result in mutations and, thus, increase tumour risk. Within the current document, an updated risk evaluation for genotoxic carcinogens is proposed, based on mechanistic knowledge regarding the substance (group) under investigation, and taking into account recent improvements in analytical techniques used to quantify DNA lesions and mutations as well as "omics" approaches. Furthermore, wherever possible and appropriate, special attention is given to the integration of background levels of the same or comparable DNA lesions. Within part A, fundamental considerations highlight the terms hazard and risk with respect to DNA reactivity of genotoxic agents, as compared to non-genotoxic agents. Also, current methodologies used in genetic toxicology as well as in dosimetry of exposure are described. Special focus is given on the elucidation of modes of action (MOA) and on the relation between DNA damage and cancer risk. Part B addresses specific examples of genotoxic carcinogens, including those humans are exposed to exogenously and endogenously, such as formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and the corresponding alcohols as well as some alkylating agents, ethylene oxide, and acrylamide, but also examples resulting from exogenous sources like aflatoxin B1, allylalkoxybenzenes, 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f] quinoxaline (MeIQx), benzo[a]pyrene and pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Additionally, special attention is given to some carcinogenic metal compounds, which are considered indirect genotoxins, by accelerating mutagenicity via interactions with the cellular response to DNA damage even at low exposure conditions. Part C finally encompasses conclusions and perspectives, suggesting a refined strategy for the assessment of the carcinogenic risk associated with an exposure to genotoxic compounds and addressing research needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Hartwig
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Institute of Applied Biosciences (IAB), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Adenauerring 20a, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany.
| | - Michael Arand
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Bernd Epe
- Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Mainz, 55099, Mainz, Germany
| | - Sabine Guth
- Department of Toxicology, IfADo-Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, TU Dortmund, Ardeystr. 67, 44139, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Gunnar Jahnke
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Institute of Applied Biosciences (IAB), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Adenauerring 20a, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Alfonso Lampen
- Department of Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hans-Jörg Martus
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Bernhard Monien
- Department of Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Simone Schmitz-Spanke
- Institute and Outpatient Clinic of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Henkestr. 9-11, 91054, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Gerlinde Schriever-Schwemmer
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Institute of Applied Biosciences (IAB), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Adenauerring 20a, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Pablo Steinberg
- Max Rubner-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Haid-und-Neu-Str. 9, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Gerhard Eisenbrand
- Retired Senior Professor for Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Kühler Grund 48/1, 69126, Heidelberg, Germany.
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Kumar S, Bouic PJ, Rosenkranz B. In Vitro Assessment of the Interaction Potential of Ocimum basilicum (L.) Extracts on CYP2B6, 3A4, and Rifampicin Metabolism. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:517. [PMID: 32425779 PMCID: PMC7204527 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocimum basilicum L. or basilicum is a common culinary herb, used as a traditional medicine for various medical conditions including HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis, in Africa. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of methanol, ethanol, aqueous and ethyl acetate extracts of the dried leaves and inflorescence of O. basilicum, on the activity of cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs) CYP2B6 and 3A4, as well as esterase-mediated metabolism of rifampicin to 25-O-desacetyl rifampicin (25ODESRIF). Human liver microsomes (HLM) were used to evaluate inhibition and CYP2B6/3A4 mRNA expression HepG2 assays were used to measure induction. Furthermore, the phytoconstituents likely involved in causing the observed effect were analyzed using biochemical tests and LC-MS. The aqueous and methanolic extracts showed reversible and time-dependent inhibition (TDI) of CYP2B6 with TDI-IC50s 33.35 μg/ml (IC50 shift-fold >1.5) and 4.93 μg/ml (IC50 shift-fold >7) respectively, while the methanolic and ethanolic extracts inhibited 25ODESRIF formation (IC50s 31 μg/ml, 8.94 μg/ml). In HepG2 assays, the methanolic and ethanolic extracts moderately induced CYP2B6, 3A4 mRNA with 38%-, 28%-fold shift, and 22%-, 44%-fold shift respectively. LC-MS full scans identified phenols rosmarinic acid [m/z 359 (M-H)-, approximately 2298 mg/L in aqueous extract] and caftaric acid along with flavones salvigenin [m/z 329 (M+H)+, approximately 1855 mg/L in ethanolic extract], eupatorin [m/z 345 (M+H)+, 668.772 mg/L in ethanolic extract], rutin [m/z 609 (M-H)-] and isoquercetin [m/z 463 (M-H)-] and other compounds—linalool [m/z 153 (M-H)-], hydroxyjasmonic acid [m/z 225 (M-H)-], eucommiol [m/z 187 (M-H)-] and trihydroxy octadecenoic acid [m/z 329 (M-H)-, 530 mg/L in ethanolic extract]. The putative gastrointestinal tract (GIT) concentration for all extracts was calculated as 2,400 μg/ml and hepatic circulation concentrations were estimated at 805.68 μg/ml for the aqueous extract, and 226.56 μg/ml for methanolic extract. Based on the putative GIT concentration, estimated hepatic circulation concentration [I] and inhibition constant Ki, the predicted percentile of inhibition in vivo was highest for the aqueous extract on CYP2B6 (96.7%). The observations indicated that O. basilicum extracts may have the potential to cause clinically relevant herb-drug interactions (HDI) with CYP2B6 and rifampicin metabolism in vivo, if sufficient hepatic concentrations are reached in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saneesh Kumar
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Stellenbosch, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Patrick J Bouic
- Division of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Stellenbosch, Cape Town, South Africa.,Synexa Life Sciences, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Bernd Rosenkranz
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Stellenbosch, Cape Town, South Africa.,Fundisa African Academy of Medicines Development, Cape Town, South Africa
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25
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Cellular levels and molecular dynamics simulations of estragole DNA adducts point at inefficient repair resulting from limited distortion of the double-stranded DNA helix. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:1349-1365. [PMID: 32185416 PMCID: PMC7225201 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02695-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Estragole, naturally occurring in a variety of herbs and spices, can form DNA adducts after bioactivation. Estragole DNA adduct formation and repair was studied in in vitro liver cell models, and a molecular dynamics simulation was used to investigate the conformation dependent (in)efficiency of N2-(trans-isoestragol-3'-yl)-2'-deoxyguanosine (E-3'-N2-dG) DNA adduct repair. HepG2, HepaRG cells, primary rat hepatocytes and CHO cells (including CHO wild-type and three NER-deficient mutants) were exposed to 50 μM estragole or 1'-hydroxyestragole and DNA adduct formation was quantified by LC-MS immediately following exposure and after a period of repair. Results obtained from CHO cell lines indicated that NER plays a role in repair of E-3'-N2-dG adducts, however, with limited efficiency since in the CHO wt cells 80% DNA adducts remained upon 24 h repair. Inefficiency of DNA repair was also found in HepaRG cells and primary rat hepatocytes. Changes in DNA structure resulting from E-3'-N2-dG adduct formation were investigated by molecular dynamics simulations. Results from molecular dynamics simulations revealed that conformational changes in double-stranded DNA by E-3'-N2-dG adduct formation are small, providing a possible explanation for the restrained repair, which may require larger distortions in the DNA structure. NER-mediated enzymatic repair of E-3'-N2-dG DNA adducts upon exposure to estragole will be limited, providing opportunities for accumulation of damage upon repeated daily exposure. The inability of this enzymatic repair is likely due to a limited distortion of the DNA double-stranded helix resulting in inefficient activation of nucleotide excision repair.
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26
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Rietjens IM, Cohen SM, Eisenbrand G, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Guengerich FP, Hecht SS, Rosol TJ, Davidsen JM, Harman CL, Murray IJ, Taylor SV. FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Cinnamomum and Myroxylon-derived flavoring ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 135:110949. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.110949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 11/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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27
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Yang XN, Wang YK, Zhu X, Xiao XR, Dai MY, Zhang T, Qu Y, Yang XW, Qin HB, Gonzalez FJ, Li F. Metabolic Activation of Elemicin Leads to the Inhibition of Stearoyl-CoA Desaturase 1. Chem Res Toxicol 2019; 32:1965-1976. [PMID: 31468958 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.9b00112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Elemicin is a constituent of natural aromatic phenylpropanoids present in many herbs and spices. However, its potential to cause toxicity remains unclear. To examine the potential toxicity and associated mechanism, elemicin was administered to mice for 3 weeks and serum metabolites were examined. Enlarged livers were observed in elemicin-treated mice, which were accompanied by lower ratios of unsaturated- and saturated-lysophosphatidylcholines in plasma, and inhibition of stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (Scd1) mRNA expression in liver. Administration of the unsaturated fatty acid oleic acid reduced the toxicity of 1'-hydroxylelemicin, the primary oxidative metabolite of elemicin, while treatment with the SCD1 inhibitor A939572 potentiated its toxicity. Furthermore, the in vitro use of recombinant human CYPs and chemical inhibition of CYPs in human liver microsomes revealed that CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 were the primary CYPs responsible for elemicin bioactivation. Notably, the CYP1A2 inhibitor α-naphthoflavone could attenuate the susceptibility of mice to elemicin-induced hepatomegaly. This study revealed that metabolic activation of elemicin leads to SCD1 inhibition in liver, suggesting that upregulation of SCD1 may serve as potential intervention strategy for elemicin-induced toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Nan Yang
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming 650201 , China.,Guangxi Key Laboratory of Medicinal Resources Protection and Genetic Improvement , Guangxi Botanical Garden of Medicinal Plant , Nanning 530023 , China
| | - Yi-Kun Wang
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming 650201 , China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
| | - Xu Zhu
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming 650201 , China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
| | - Xue-Rong Xiao
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming 650201 , China
| | - Man-Yun Dai
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming 650201 , China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
| | - Ting Zhang
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming 650201 , China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
| | - Yan Qu
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming 650201 , China
| | - Xiu-Wei Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center , Peking University , Beijing 100191 , China
| | - Hong-Bo Qin
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming 650201 , China
| | - Frank J Gonzalez
- Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research , National Cancer Institute , National Institutes of Health, Bethesda , Maryland 20892 , United States
| | - Fei Li
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming 650201 , China
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28
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Monien BH, Sachse B, Niederwieser B, Abraham K. Detection of N-Acetyl-S-[3′-(4-methoxyphenyl)allyl]-l-Cys (AMPAC) in Human Urine Samples after Controlled Exposure to Fennel Tea: A New Metabolite of Estragole and trans-Anethole. Chem Res Toxicol 2019; 32:2260-2267. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.9b00287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard H. Monien
- Department of Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Benjamin Sachse
- Department of Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Bela Niederwieser
- Department of Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Klaus Abraham
- Department of Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), 10589 Berlin, Germany
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29
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Wen B, Gorycki P. Bioactivation of herbal constituents: mechanisms and toxicological relevance. Drug Metab Rev 2019; 51:453-497. [DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2019.1655570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bo Wen
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, GlaxoSmithKline, Collegeville, PA, USA
| | - Peter Gorycki
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, GlaxoSmithKline, Collegeville, PA, USA
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30
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Wang YK, Yang XN, Zhu X, Xiao XR, Yang XW, Qin HB, Gonzalez FJ, Li F. Role of Metabolic Activation in Elemicin-Induced Cellular Toxicity. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:8243-8252. [PMID: 31271289 PMCID: PMC7385589 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b02137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Elemicin, an alkenylbenzene constituent of natural oils of several plant species, is widely distributed in food, dietary supplements, and medicinal plants. 1'-Hydroxylation is known to cause metabolic activation of alkenylbenzenes leading to their potential toxicity. The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between elemicin metabolism and its toxicity through comparing the metabolic maps between elemicin and 1'-hydroxyelemicin. Elemicin was transformed into a reactive metabolite of 1'-hydroxyelemicin, which was subsequently conjugated with cysteine (Cys) and N-acetylcysteine (NAC). Administration of NAC could significantly ameliorate the elemicin- and 1'-hydroxyelemicin-induced cytotoxicity of HepG2 cells, while depletion of Cys with diethyl maleate (DEM) increased cytotoxicity. Recombinant human CYP screening and CYP inhibition experiments revealed that multiple CYPs, notably CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP3A4, were responsible for the metabolic activation of elemicin. This study revealed that metabolic activation plays a critical role in elemicin cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Kun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiao-Nan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Medicinal Resources Protection and Genetic Improvement, Guangxi Botanical Garden of Medicinal Plant, Nanning 530023, China
| | - Xu Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xue-Rong Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Xiu-Wei Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Hong-Bo Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
- Corresponding Authors. Tel: +86-871-65238010. Fax: +86-871-65238010. . Tel: +86-871-65216953. Fax: +86-871-65216953
| | - Frank J. Gonzalez
- Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Fei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
- Corresponding Authors. Tel: +86-871-65238010. Fax: +86-871-65238010. . Tel: +86-871-65216953. Fax: +86-871-65216953
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31
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Ishii Y, Yokoo Y, Kijima A, Takasu S, Ogawa K, Umemura T. DNA modifications that do not cause gene mutations confer the potential for mutagenicity by combined treatment with food chemicals. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 129:144-152. [PMID: 31029721 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Cell proliferation plays a key role in fixing mutations induced by DNA damage. We clarified whether this phenomenon occurred after combined treatment with chemicals in food. The effects of antibiotic flumequine (FL), a residue of veterinary medicinal products in foodstuffs, on mutagenicity in the liver were examined in mice treated with estragole (ES), a natural food flavouring compound. Gpt delta mice were orally administered 10 or 100 mg/kg/day ES and simultaneously fed a diet containing 0.4% FL for 4 weeks. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen-positive cells and cell cycle-related genes were additively increased in the livers of combined treatment groups as compared with high-dose ES or FL groups. Mutant frequencies (MFs) in gpt after cotreatment with low-dose ES and FL were significantly increased, although treatment with ES alone increased MFs only in the high-dose group. Sult1a1 mRNA levels were unchanged after FL treatment. Liquid chromatography with tandem-mass spectrometry analysis showed that FL did not affect the amount of ES-specific DNA adducts in the livers, indicating that FL treatment did not influence metabolic pathways of ES. Thus, enhancement of the mutagenic potential of a chemical by chemical-induced cell proliferation may occur as a result of the combined effects of chemicals in food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Ishii
- Division of Pathology, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-shi, Kawasaki-ku, Kanagawa, 210-9501, Japan
| | - Yuh Yokoo
- Division of Pathology, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-shi, Kawasaki-ku, Kanagawa, 210-9501, Japan
| | - Aki Kijima
- Division of Pathology, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-shi, Kawasaki-ku, Kanagawa, 210-9501, Japan
| | - Shinji Takasu
- Division of Pathology, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-shi, Kawasaki-ku, Kanagawa, 210-9501, Japan
| | - Kumiko Ogawa
- Division of Pathology, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-shi, Kawasaki-ku, Kanagawa, 210-9501, Japan
| | - Takashi Umemura
- Division of Pathology, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-shi, Kawasaki-ku, Kanagawa, 210-9501, Japan; Faculty of Animal Health Technology, Yamazaki University of Animal Health Technology, 4-7-2, Minami-osawa, Hachihoji, Tokyo, 192-0364, Japan.
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32
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Zehetner P, Höferl M, Buchbauer G. Essential oil components and cytochrome P450 enzymes: a review. FLAVOUR FRAG J 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ffj.3496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Petra Zehetner
- Department of Pharmaceutical ChemistryFaculty of Life SciencesUniversity of Vienna Vienna Austria
| | - Martina Höferl
- Department of Pharmaceutical ChemistryFaculty of Life SciencesUniversity of Vienna Vienna Austria
| | - Gerhard Buchbauer
- Department of Pharmaceutical ChemistryFaculty of Life SciencesUniversity of Vienna Vienna Austria
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Martins C, Rueff J, Rodrigues AS. Genotoxic alkenylbenzene flavourings, a contribution to risk assessment. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 118:861-879. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 06/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Methyl Chavicol and Its Synthetic Analogue as Possible Antioxidant and Antilipase Agents Based on the In Vitro and In Silico Assays. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2018; 2018:2189348. [PMID: 29849872 PMCID: PMC5925050 DOI: 10.1155/2018/2189348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Revised: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the in vitro and in silico biological properties of the methyl chavicol (MC) and its analogue 2-[(4-methoxyphenyl)methyl]oxirane (MPMO), emphasizing the antioxidant and antilipase effects. MPMO was synthesized from MC that reacted with meta-chloroperbenzoic acid and, after separation and purification, was identified by 1H and 13C NMR and GC-MS. The antioxidant activity was investigated by DPPH, cooxidation β-carotene/linoleic acid, and thiobarbituric acid assays. With the use of colorimetric determination, the antilipase effect on the pancreatic lipase was tested, while the molecular interaction profiles were evaluated by docking molecular study. MC (IC50 = 312.50 ± 2.28 μg/mL) and MPMO (IC50 = 8.29 ± 0.80 μg/mL) inhibited the DPPH free radical. The inhibition of lipid peroxidation (%) was 73.08 ± 4.79 and 36.16 ± 4.11 to MC and MPMO, respectively. The malonaldehyde content was significantly reduced in the presence of MC and MPMO. MC and MPMO inhibited the pancreatic lipase in 58.12 and 26.93%, respectively. MC and MPMO (−6.1 kcal·mol−1) produced a binding affinity value lower than did diundecylphosphatidylcholine (−5.6 kcal·mol−1). These findings show that MC and MPMO present antioxidant and antilipase activities, which may be promising molecular targets for the treatment of diseases associated with oxidative damage and lipid metabolism.
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Ning J, Louisse J, Spenkelink B, Wesseling S, Rietjens IMCM. Study on inter-ethnic human differences in bioactivation and detoxification of estragole using physiologically based kinetic modeling. Arch Toxicol 2017; 91:3093-3108. [PMID: 28357488 PMCID: PMC5562778 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-017-1941-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Considering the rapid developments in food safety in the past decade in China, it is of importance to obtain insight into what extent safety and risk assessments of chemicals performed for the Caucasian population apply to the Chinese population. The aim of the present study was to determine physiologically based kinetic (PBK) modeling-based predictions for differences between Chinese and Caucasians in terms of metabolic bioactivation and detoxification of the food-borne genotoxic carcinogen estragole. The PBK models were defined based on kinetic constants for hepatic metabolism derived from in vitro incubations using liver fractions of the two ethnic groups, and used to evaluate the inter-ethnic differences in metabolic activation and detoxification of estragole. The models predicted that at realistic dietary intake levels, only 0.02% of the dose was converted to the ultimate carcinogenic metabolite 1′-sulfooxyestragole in Chinese subjects, whereas this amounted to 0.09% of the dose in Caucasian subjects. Detoxification of 1′-hydroxyestragole, mainly via conversion to 1′-oxoestragole, was similar within the two ethnic groups. The 4.5-fold variation in formation of the ultimate carcinogenic metabolite of estragole accompanied by similar rates of detoxification may indicate a lower risk of estragole for the Chinese population at similar levels of exposure. The study provides a proof of principle for how PBK modeling can identify differences in ethnic sensitivity and provide a more refined risk assessment for a specific ethnic group for a compound of concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Ning
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Jochem Louisse
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Bert Spenkelink
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Sebastiaan Wesseling
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Honda H, Minegawa K, Fujita Y, Yamaguchi N, Oguma Y, Glatt H, Nishiyama N, Kasamatsu T. Modified Ames test using a strain expressing human sulfotransferase 1C2 to assess the mutagenicity of methyleugenol. Genes Environ 2016; 38:1. [PMID: 27350821 PMCID: PMC4918123 DOI: 10.1186/s41021-016-0028-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Several alkenylbenzenes, including methyleugenol (ME), are present in a wide range of botanicals and exhibit carcinogenic and mutagenic properties. Negative results are generally obtained for alkenylbenzenes in standard in vitro genotoxicity tests, including the Ames test. A lack of mutagenicity observed in such tests is thought to result from impaired metabolic activation of alkenylbenzenes via hydroxylation, with subsequent sulfoconjugation to its ultimate mutagenic or carcinogenic form. Although recent studies have reported the mutagenicity of hydroxylated ME metabolites in the Ames test using modified TA100 strains expressing human sulfotransferases (SULTs), to our knowledge, the detection of ME mutagenicity has not yet been reported. Findings Using strain TA100-hSULT1C2, which expresses human SULT1C2, we optimized the protein content of S9 Mix and the pre-incubation time required to promote metabolic activation in the Ames test. This procedure enabled us to obtain a positive response with ME. Conclusions We established Ames-test conditions enabling the detection of ME-induced mutagenicity, using a strain expressing human SULT1C2 in the presence of induced-rat S9 Mix. This simple approach will help assess the mutagenicity of other alkenylbenzenes and related chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Honda
- R&D Safety Science Research, Kao Corporation, 2606 Akabane, Ichikai-Machi, Haga-Gun, Tochigi 321-3497 Japan
| | - Kazuyuki Minegawa
- Tokyo Laboratory, BoZo Research Center Inc., 1-3-11, Hanegi, Setagaya-Ku, Tokyo 156-0042 Japan
| | - Yurika Fujita
- R&D Safety Science Research, Kao Corporation, 2606 Akabane, Ichikai-Machi, Haga-Gun, Tochigi 321-3497 Japan
| | - Noriko Yamaguchi
- Tokyo Laboratory, BoZo Research Center Inc., 1-3-11, Hanegi, Setagaya-Ku, Tokyo 156-0042 Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Oguma
- Tokyo Laboratory, BoZo Research Center Inc., 1-3-11, Hanegi, Setagaya-Ku, Tokyo 156-0042 Japan
| | - Hansruedi Glatt
- Department of Nutritional Toxicology, German Institute of Human Nutrition (DIfE) Potsdam-Rehbruecke, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, D-14558 Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Naohiro Nishiyama
- R&D Safety Science Research, Kao Corporation, 2606 Akabane, Ichikai-Machi, Haga-Gun, Tochigi 321-3497 Japan
| | - Toshio Kasamatsu
- R&D Safety Science Research, Kao Corporation, 2606 Akabane, Ichikai-Machi, Haga-Gun, Tochigi 321-3497 Japan
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Probert PM, Palmer JM, Alhusainy W, Amer AO, Rietjens IMCM, White SA, Jones DE, Wright MC. Progenitor-derived hepatocyte-like (B-13/H) cells metabolise 1'-hydroxyestragole to a genotoxic species via a SULT2B1-dependent mechanism. Toxicol Lett 2015; 243:98-110. [PMID: 26739637 PMCID: PMC4729325 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2015.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Revised: 12/23/2015] [Accepted: 12/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Rat B-13 progenitor cells are readily converted into functional hepatocyte-like B-13/H cells capable of phase I cytochrome P450-dependent activation of pro-carcinogens and induction of DNA damage. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the cells are also capable of Phase II sulphotransferase (SULT)-dependent activation of a pro-carcinogen to an ultimate carcinogen. To this end we therefore examined the bioactivation of the model hepatic (hepato- and cholangio-) carcinogen estragole and its proximate SULT1A1-activated genotoxic metabolite 1'-hydroxyestragole. Exposing B-13 or B-13/H cells to estragole (at concentrations up to 1mM) resulted in the production of low levels of 1'-hydroxyestragole, but did not result in detectable DNA damage. Exposing B-13/H cells - but not B-13 cells - to 1'-hydroxyestragole resulted in a dose-dependent increase in DNA damage in comet assays, confirmed by detection of N(2)-(trans-isoestragol-3'-yl)-2'-deoxyguanosine adducts. Genotoxicity was inhibited by general SULT inhibitors, supporting a role for SULTS in the activation of 1-hydroxyestragole in B-13/H cells. However, B-13 and B-13/H cells did not express biologically significant levels of SULT1A1 as determined by qRT-PCR, Western blotting and its associated 7-hydroxycoumarin sulphation activity. B-13 and B-13/H cells expressed - relative to intact rat liver - high levels of SULT2B1 (primarily the b isoform) and SULT4A1 mRNAs and proteins. B-13 and B-13/H cells also expressed the 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphosulphate synthase 1 required for the generation of activated sulphate cofactor 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphosulphate. However, only B-13/H cells expressed functional SULT activities towards SULT2B1 substrates DHEA, pregnenolone and 4 methylumbelliferone. Since liver progenitor cells are bi-potential and also form cholangiocytes, we therefore hypothesised that B-13 cells express a cholangiocyte-like SULT profile. To test this hypothesis, the expression of SULTs was examined in liver by RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. SULT2B1 - but not SULT1A1 - was determined to be expressed in both rat and human cholangiocytes. Since 1'-hydroxyestragole exposure readily produced DNA injury in B-13/H cells, these data suggest that cholangiocarcinomas generated in rats fed estragole may be dependent, in part, on SULT2B1 activation of the 1'-hydroxyestragole metabolite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip M Probert
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Jeremy M Palmer
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Wasma Alhusainy
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Tuinlaan 5, 6703HE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Aimen O Amer
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Tuinlaan 5, 6703HE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Steven A White
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - David E Jones
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew C Wright
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom.
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38
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Tsai CJ, Li JH, Feng CH. Dual dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction for determination of phenylpropenes in oils by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2015; 1410:60-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2015.07.095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2015] [Revised: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 07/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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39
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Rietjens IMCM, Cohen SM, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Hecht S, Marnett LJ, Smith RL, Adams TB, Bastaki M, Harman CG, Taylor SV. Impact of Structural and Metabolic Variations on the Toxicity and Carcinogenicity of Hydroxy- and Alkoxy-Substituted Allyl- and Propenylbenzenes. Chem Res Toxicol 2014; 27:1092-103. [DOI: 10.1021/tx500109s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- I. M. C. M. Rietjens
- Division
of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Tuinlaan 5, 6703 HE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - S. M. Cohen
- Department
of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 4400 Emile Street, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - S. Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research
Center, 2445, Hirasawa, Hadano-shi, Kanagawa 257-0015, Japan
| | - N. J. Gooderham
- Department
of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - S. Hecht
- Masonic
Cancer Center and Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, MMC 806, 420 Delaware St. SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - L. J. Marnett
- Department
of Biochemistry, Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, 1161 21st Avenue S # T1217, Nashville, Tennessee 37232-0146, United States
| | - R. L. Smith
- Molecular
Toxicology, Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - T. B. Adams
- Verto Solutions, 1101,
17th Street NW Suite 700, Washington,
D.C. 20036, United States
| | - M. Bastaki
- Verto Solutions, 1101,
17th Street NW Suite 700, Washington,
D.C. 20036, United States
| | - C. G. Harman
- Verto Solutions, 1101,
17th Street NW Suite 700, Washington,
D.C. 20036, United States
| | - S. V. Taylor
- Verto Solutions, 1101,
17th Street NW Suite 700, Washington,
D.C. 20036, United States
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40
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Villarini M, Pagiotti R, Dominici L, Fatigoni C, Vannini S, Levorato S, Moretti M. Investigation of the cytotoxic, genotoxic, and apoptosis-inducing effects of estragole isolated from fennel (Foeniculum vulgare). JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2014; 77:773-778. [PMID: 24617303 DOI: 10.1021/np400653p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The present study was undertaken to evaluate, in the HepG2 human hepatoma cell line, the in vitro cytotoxic, genotoxic, and apoptotic activities of estragole (1), contained in the essential oil of Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) and suspected to induce hepatic tumors in susceptible strains of mice. Toward this end, an MTT cytotoxicity assay, a trypan blue dye exclusion test, a double-staining (acridine orange and DAPI) fluorescence viability assay, a single-cell microgel-electrophoresis (comet) assay, a mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) assay, and a DNA fragmentation analysis were conducted. In terms of potential genotoxic effects, the comet assay indicated that estragole (1) was not able to induce DNA damage nor apoptosis under the experimental conditions used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena Villarini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Unit of Public Health), University of Perugia , Via del Giochetto, 06122 Perugia, Italy
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41
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Hégarat LL, Mourot A, Huet S, Vasseur L, Camus S, Chesné C, Fessard V. Performance of Comet and Micronucleus Assays in Metabolic Competent HepaRG Cells to Predict In Vivo Genotoxicity. Toxicol Sci 2014; 138:300-9. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfu004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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42
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Suzuki Y, Umemura T, Ishii Y, Hibi D, Inoue T, Jin M, Sakai H, Kodama Y, Nohmi T, Yanai T, Nishikawa A, Ogawa K. Possible involvement of sulfotransferase 1A1 in estragole-induced DNA modification and carcinogenesis in the livers of female mice. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2012; 749:23-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2012.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Revised: 07/25/2012] [Accepted: 07/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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43
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Bidri M, Conti M, Franetich JF, Tefit M, Mazier D, Arock M, Vouldoukis I. Fresh aromatic herbs containing methylchavicol did not exhibit the pro-oxidative effects of pure methylchavicol on a human hepatoma cell line, HepG2. ANNALES PHARMACEUTIQUES FRANÇAISES 2012; 70:256-63. [PMID: 23020916 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharma.2012.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2012] [Revised: 06/22/2012] [Accepted: 06/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Methylchavicol (CH(3)-CV), an important aromatic constituent of different plants like tarragon and basils, has been shown to be carcinogenic by a mechanism yet unclear, although it has been reported that carcinogenicity of CH(3)-CV in rodent might be linked to its metabolic conversion into a genotoxic electrophilic metabolite generated through a two steps bioactivation pathway catalyzed by cytochrome P450 enzymes and sulfotransferases. The induction of carcinogenesis by certain agents has been associated with the generation of oxidative stress. The aim of the present study was to determine whether pure methylchavicol applied on a human hepatoma cell line, HepG2, could promote oxidative stress and might alter the expression of procarcinogenic biomarkers such as the drug-metabolizing enzyme (CYP2E1), the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and might induce the expression of Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn-SOD) and Mn-SOD that control the redox equilibrium of the cells. CH(3)-CV was shown to cause a significant induction of oxidative stress, as revealed by luminol-dependent chemiluminescence (LDCL) and to alter dramatically the expression of CYP2E1, iNOS and Mn-SOD, indicating that the toxic effect of CH(3)-CV could be mediated through a nitric oxide dependent mechanism. Under similar experimental conditions, the extracts from tarragon, chervil and basil did not induce such biological changes. These results provide evidence that the generation of an oxidative stress may be a significant event occurring during CH(3)-CV-induced toxicity. It also suggests that natural extracts containing different amounts of CH(3)-CV (tarragon, chervil and basil) did not elicit such toxicity and might contain compounds able to counteract this detrimental property.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Bidri
- Laboratoire de biologie des urgences, CHU Pitié-Salpêtrière, 83, boulevard de l'Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France
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Martins C, Cação R, Cole KJ, Phillips DH, Laires A, Rueff J, Rodrigues AS. Estragole: a weak direct-acting food-borne genotoxin and potential carcinogen. Mutat Res 2012; 747:86-92. [PMID: 22561883 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2012.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2011] [Revised: 12/29/2011] [Accepted: 04/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
We evaluated the genotoxicity of the food-flavouring agent estragole in V79 cells using the sister chromatid exchange (SCE) assay and the alkaline comet assay. Unexpectedly, we observed an increase in SCE without an exogenous biotransformation system (S9) and a decrease in its presence. Positive results were also observed in the alkaline comet assay without S9, indicating DNA strand breakage. To ascertain repair of damage, we performed the comet assay in V79 cells after two hours of recovery, and observed a reduction of the genotoxic response. Estragole did not produce strand breaks in plasmid DNA in vitro. We then evaluated the formation of DNA adducts in V79 cells by use of the (32)P-postlabelling assay and detected a dose-dependent formation of DNA adducts, which may be responsible for its genotoxicity. We then assayed estragole in the comet assay with two CHO cell lines, a parental AA8 cell line, and an XRCC1-deficient cell line, EM9. Results confirmed the genotoxicity of estragole without biotransformation in both cell lines, although the genotoxicity in EM9 cells compared with that in AA8 cells was not significantly different, suggesting that the XRCC1 protein is not involved in the repair of estragole-induced lesions. Estragole induces apoptosis, but only with high doses (2000μM), and after long treatment periods (24h). Overall, our results suggest that estragole, besides being metabolized to genotoxic metabolites, is a weak direct-acting genotoxin that forms DNA adducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Célia Martins
- CIGMH, Department of Genetics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, R. da Junqueira 100, P 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Raquel Cação
- CIGMH, Department of Genetics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, R. da Junqueira 100, P 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Kathleen J Cole
- Institute of Cancer Research, Brookes Lawley Building, Cotswold Road, Sutton SM2 5NG, UK
| | - David H Phillips
- Institute of Cancer Research, Brookes Lawley Building, Cotswold Road, Sutton SM2 5NG, UK
| | - António Laires
- CIGMH, Department of Genetics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, R. da Junqueira 100, P 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal; Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
| | - José Rueff
- CIGMH, Department of Genetics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, R. da Junqueira 100, P 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - António S Rodrigues
- CIGMH, Department of Genetics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, R. da Junqueira 100, P 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal.
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Yamazoe Y, Ito K, Yoshinari K. Construction of a CYP2E1-template system for prediction of the metabolism on both site and preference order. Drug Metab Rev 2012; 43:409-39. [PMID: 22017508 DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2011.624103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
We have constructed an in silico system for the prediction of CYP2E1-mediated reaction using a two-dimensional template derived from substrate structures. Although CYP2E1 prefers small-size molecules for the substrates, the enzyme mediates oxidations of large-size molecules, such as benzo[a]pyrene. Overlays of these substrates, to assemble their sites of oxidation into a specific area, suggested a range of regions frequently occupied. The region, having a benzo[a]pyrene-like shape, was thus used as a CYP2E1 template. In this system, atoms in substrates, except for hydrogen atoms, were placed on corners of honeycomb structures of the template after having expanded the structures. Using published data for the metabolism on more than 80 substrates of CYP2E1, the core template was further refined to verify the adjacent area and to define the relative contribution of template positions for the catalysis. The positions on the template were classified into four different point (0-3) groups, depending on relative usage. In addition, we set independent points (-5 to 3) for specific positions to incorporate three-dimensional or functional information. Total scores from both position-occupancy and -function points were calculated for all the orientations of possible conformers of test substrates, and the scores were found to predict the relative abundance (i.e., order) as well as the regioselectivity of human CYP2E1 reactions with high fidelities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasushi Yamazoe
- Division of Drug Metabolism and Molecular Toxicology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University , Sendai , Japan
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46
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Paini A, Punt A, Scholz G, Gremaud E, Spenkelink B, Alink G, Schilter B, van Bladeren PJ, Rietjens IM. In vivo validation of DNA adduct formation by estragole in rats predicted by physiologically based biodynamic modelling. Mutagenesis 2012; 27:653-63. [DOI: 10.1093/mutage/ges031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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Abstract
Considerable support exists for the roles of metabolism in modulating the carcinogenic properties of chemicals. In particular, many of these compounds are pro-carcinogens that require activation to electrophilic forms to exert genotoxic effects. We systematically analyzed the existing literature on the metabolism of carcinogens by human enzymes, which has been developed largely in the past 25 years. The metabolism and especially bioactivation of carcinogens are dominated by cytochrome P450 enzymes (66% of bioactivations). Within this group, six P450s--1A1, 1A2, 1B1, 2A6, 2E1, and 3A4--accounted for 77% of the P450 activation reactions. The roles of these P450s can be compared with those estimated for drug metabolism and should be considered in issues involving enzyme induction, chemoprevention, molecular epidemiology, interindividual variations, and risk assessment.
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48
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Cartus AT, Herrmann K, Weishaupt LW, Merz KH, Engst W, Glatt H, Schrenk D. Metabolism of Methyleugenol in Liver Microsomes and Primary Hepatocytes: Pattern of Metabolites, Cytotoxicity, and DNA-Adduct Formation. Toxicol Sci 2012; 129:21-34. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfs181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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49
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Minet EF, Daniela G, Meredith C, Massey ED. A comparativein vitrokinetic study of [14C]-eugenol and [14C]-methyleugenol activation and detoxification in human, mouse, and rat liver and lung fractions. Xenobiotica 2011; 42:429-41. [DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2011.637582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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50
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Fang ZZ, Zhang YY, Wang XL, Cao YF, Huo H, Yang L. Bioactivation of herbal constituents: simple alerts in the complex system. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2011; 7:989-1007. [DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2011.586335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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