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Friends or Foes: Matrix Metalloproteinases and Their Multifaceted Roles in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Mediators Inflamm 2015; 2015:620581. [PMID: 26538832 PMCID: PMC4619970 DOI: 10.1155/2015/620581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Revised: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegeneration is a chronic progressive loss of neuronal cells leading to deterioration of central nervous system (CNS) functionality. It has been shown that neuroinflammation precedes neurodegeneration in various neurodegenerative diseases. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), a protein family of zinc-containing endopeptidases, are essential in (neuro)inflammation and might be involved in neurodegeneration. Although MMPs are indispensable for physiological development and functioning of the organism, they are often referred to as double-edged swords due to their ability to also inflict substantial damage in various pathological conditions. MMP activity is strictly controlled, and its dysregulation leads to a variety of pathologies. Investigation of their potential use as therapeutic targets requires a better understanding of their contributions to the development of neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we review MMPs and their roles in neurodegenerative diseases: Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington's disease (HD), and multiple sclerosis (MS). We also discuss MMP inhibition as a possible therapeutic strategy to treat neurodegenerative diseases.
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Andreasson U, Portelius E, Andersson ME, Blennow K, Zetterberg H. Aspects of beta-amyloid as a biomarker for Alzheimer's disease. Biomark Med 2010; 1:59-78. [PMID: 20477461 DOI: 10.2217/17520363.1.1.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder that results in progressive cognitive impairment and death. The accumulation of beta-amyloid (Abeta) in specific brain regions is believed by many to represent the earliest event in the pathogenesis of the disease. Here, we review the key aspects of Abeta as a biomarker for Alzheimer's disease, including the pathogenicity of Abeta, the possible biological functions of its precursor protein, the Abeta metabolism and homeostasis, the diagnostic performance of different Abeta assays in different settings and the potential usefulness of Abeta as a surrogate marker for treatment efficacy in clinical trials of novel Abeta-targeting drugs against Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulf Andreasson
- Sahlgrenska University Hospital/Mölndal, Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory/Mölndal, S-431 80, Göteborg University, Mölndal, Sweden
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Rao RR, Kisaalita WS. Biochemical and electrophysiological differentiation profile of a human neuroblastoma (IMR-32) cell line. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2002; 38:450-6. [PMID: 12605539 DOI: 10.1290/1071-2690(2002)038<0450:baedpo>2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
A human neuroblastoma cell line (IMR-32), when differentiated, mimics large projections of the human cerebral cortex and under certain tissue culture conditions, forms intracellular fibrillary material, commonly observed in brains of patients affected with Alzheimer's disease. Our purpose is to use differentiated IMR-32 cells as an in vitro system for magnetic field exposure studies. We have previously studied in vitro differentiation of murine neuroblastoma (N1E-115) cells with respect to resting membrane potential development. The purpose of this study was to extend our investigation to IMR-32 cells. Electrophysiological (resting membrane potential, V(m)) and biochemical (neuron-specific enolase activity [NSE]) measurements were taken every 2 d for a period of 16 d. A voltage-sensitive oxonol dye together with flow cytometry was used to measure relative changes in V(m). To rule out any effect due to mechanical cell detachment, V(m) was indirectly measured by using a slow potentiometric dye (tetramethylrhodamine methyl ester) together with confocal digital imaging microscopy. Neuron-specific enolase activity was measured by following the production of phosphoenolpyruvate from 2-phospho-d-glycerate at 240 nm. Our results indicate that in IMR-32, in vitro differentiation as characterized by an increase in NSE activity is not accompanied by resting membrane potential development. This finding suggests that pathways for morphological-biochemical and electrophysiological differentiations in IMR-32 cells are independent of one another.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raj R Rao
- Cellular Bioengineering Laboratory, Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department, Driftmier Engineering Center, University of Georgia, Athens 30602, USA
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Abstract
Prior studies using rat primary hippocampal cultures indicated induction of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in response to beta-amyloid (A beta). Hence, it was of interest to determine whether MMP activity in a human cell line is influenced by A beta. A beta, but not interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS), stimulated an active form of MMP-2 in human U87 glioblastoma cells, as well as increased the expression of the well-known activator of MMP-2, membrane-type (MT)-MMP. Activation experiments carried out with amino phenyl mercuric acetate (APMA), immunoprecipitation, as well as immunoblotting, suggest that the lower molecular weight, gelatin-degrading activity was an activated form of MMP-2. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that a synthetic furin convertase inhibitor, decanoyl-Arg-Val-Lys-Arg-chloromethylketone, decreased the production of A beta-induced active MMP-2 in U87 cells. The induction of MMP-3 by cytokines, but not by A beta, suggests that the effect of A beta on MMP-2 is selective. Although A beta stimulated tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1), there was no obvious effect of A beta on TIMP-2 production in U87 cells. These results demonstrate that A beta induces an active form of MMP-2 likely by increasing the expression of MT-MMP in a human glioblastoma cell line. Active MMP-2 may degrade A beta or act on ECM components critical in neuronal survival mechanisms and possibly play a role in Alzheimer's disease (AD) neuropathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Deb
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of South Florida, College of Medicine, Tampa 33612-4799, USA
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Qiu WQ, Walsh DM, Ye Z, Vekrellis K, Zhang J, Podlisny MB, Rosner MR, Safavi A, Hersh LB, Selkoe DJ. Insulin-degrading enzyme regulates extracellular levels of amyloid beta-protein by degradation. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:32730-8. [PMID: 9830016 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.49.32730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 631] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Excessive cerebral accumulation of the 42-residue amyloid beta-protein (Abeta) is an early and invariant step in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Many studies have examined the cellular production of Abeta from its membrane-bound precursor, including the role of the presenilin proteins therein, but almost nothing is known about how Abeta is degraded and cleared following its secretion. We previously screened neuronal and nonneuronal cell lines for the production of proteases capable of degrading naturally secreted Abeta under biologically relevant conditions and concentrations. The major such protease identified was a metalloprotease released particularly by a microglial cell line, BV-2. We have now purified and characterized the protease and find that it is indistinguishable from insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), a thiol metalloendopeptidase that degrades small peptides such as insulin, glucagon, and atrial natriuretic peptide. Degradation of both endogenous and synthetic Abeta at picomolar to nanomolar concentrations was completely inhibited by the competitive IDE substrate, insulin, and by two other IDE inhibitors. Immunodepletion of conditioned medium with an IDE antibody removed its Abeta-degrading activity. IDE was present in BV-2 cytosol, as expected, but was also released into the medium by intact, healthy cells. To confirm the extracellular occurrence of IDE in vivo, we identified intact IDE in human cerebrospinal fluid of both normal and Alzheimer subjects. In addition to its ability to degrade Abeta, IDE activity was unexpectedly found be associated with a time-dependent oligomerization of synthetic Abeta at physiological levels in the conditioned media of cultured cells; this process, which may be initiated by IDE-generated proteolytic fragments of Abeta, was prevented by three different IDE inhibitors. We conclude that a principal protease capable of down-regulating the levels of secreted Abeta extracellularly is IDE.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Q Qiu
- Department of Neurology and Program in Neuroscience, Harvard Medical School and Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115-5716, USA
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Parvathy S, Hussain I, Karran EH, Turner AJ, Hooper NM. Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein alpha-secretase is inhibited by hydroxamic acid-based zinc metalloprotease inhibitors: similarities to the angiotensin converting enzyme secretase. Biochemistry 1998; 37:1680-5. [PMID: 9484239 DOI: 10.1021/bi972034y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The 4 kDa beta-amyloid peptide that forms the amyloid fibrils in the brain parenchyma of Alzheimer's disease patients is derived from the larger integral membrane protein, the amyloid precursor protein. In the nonamyloidogenic pathway, alpha-secretase cleaves the amyloid precursor protein within the beta-amyloid domain, releasing an extracellular portion and thereby preventing deposition of the intact amyloidogenic peptide. The release of the amyloid precursor protein from both SH-SY5Y and IMR-32 neuronal cells by alpha-secretase was blocked by batimastat and other related synthetic hydroxamic acid-based zinc metalloprotease inhibitors, but not by the structurally unrelated zinc metalloprotease inhibitors enalaprilat and phosphoramidon. Batimastat inhibited the release of the amyloid precursor protein from both cell lines with an I50 value of 3 microM. Removal of the thienothiomethyl substituent adjacent to the hydroxamic acid moiety or the substitution of the P2' substituent decreased the inhibitory potency of batimastat toward alpha-secretase. In the SH-SY5Y cells, both the basal and the carbachol-stimulated release of the amyloid precursor protein were blocked by batimastat. In contrast, neither the level of full-length amyloid precursor protein nor its cleavage by beta-secretase were inhibited by any of the zinc metalloprotease inhibitors examined. In transfected IMR-32 cells, the release of both the amyloid precursor protein and angiotensin converting enzyme was inhibited by batimastat, marimastat, and BB2116 with I50 values in the low micromolar range, while batimastat and BB2116 inhibited the release of both proteins from HUVECs. The profile of inhibition of alpha-secretase by batimastat and structurally related compounds is identical with that observed with the angiotensin converting enzyme secretase suggesting that the two are closely related zinc metalloproteases.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Parvathy
- School of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, U.K
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Yong VW, Krekoski CA, Forsyth PA, Bell R, Edwards DR. Matrix metalloproteinases and diseases of the CNS. Trends Neurosci 1998; 21:75-80. [PMID: 9498303 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-2236(97)01169-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 466] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are increasingly being implicated in the pathogenesis of several CNS diseases. In multiple sclerosis, MMPs could be responsible for the influx of inflammatory mononuclear cells into the CNS, contribute to myelin destruction and disrupt the integrity of the blood-brain barrier; in Alzheimer's disease, MMPs might mediate the deposition of amyloid beta-proteins; and MMPs are known to contribute to the invasiveness of malignant glioma cells and might regulate their angiogenic capacity. Nonetheless, MMPs could also have beneficial roles in recovery from CNS injury.Therefore, both the identity of the MMP and its cellular origin could determine whether disease pathogenesis or regeneration occurs, and thus synthetic MMP inhibitors might be valuable for treating some CNS diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- V W Yong
- Dept of Oncology, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Itoh T, Ikeda T, Gomi H, Nakao S, Suzuki T, Itohara S. Unaltered secretion of beta-amyloid precursor protein in gelatinase A (matrix metalloproteinase 2)-deficient mice. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:22389-92. [PMID: 9278386 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.36.22389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 279] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The beta-amyloid peptide, which forms extracellular cerebral deposits in Alzheimer's disease, is derived from a large membrane-spanning glycoprotein referred to as the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP). The APP is normally cleaved within the beta-amyloid region by a putative proteinase (alpha-secretase) to generate large soluble amino-terminal derivatives of APP, and this event prevents the beta-amyloid peptide formation. It has been suggested that the gelatinase A (matrix metalloproteinase 2, a 72-kDa type IV collagenase) may act either as alpha-secretase or as beta-secretase. Mice devoid of gelatinase A generated by gene targeting develop normally, except for a subtle delay in their growth, thus providing a useful system to examine the role of gelatinase A in the cleavage and secretion of APP in vivo. We show here that APP is cleaved within the beta-amyloid region and secreted into the extracellular milieu of brain and cultured fibroblasts without gelatinase A activity. The data suggest that gelatinase A does not play an essential role in the generation and release of soluble derivatives of APP at physiological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Itoh
- Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University, 53 Kawahara, Syogo-in, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-01, Japan
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LePage RN, Fosang AJ, Fuller SJ, Murphy G, Evin G, Beyreuther K, Masters CL, Small DH. Gelatinase A possesses a beta-secretase-like activity in cleaving the amyloid protein precursor of Alzheimer's disease. FEBS Lett 1995; 377:267-70. [PMID: 8543065 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(95)01358-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The ability of the 72 kDa gelatinase A to cleave the amyloid protein precursor (APP) was investigated. HeLa cells were transfected with an APP695 plasmid. The cells were incubated with gelatinase A, which cleaved the 110 kDa cell-surface APP, releasing a 100 kDa form of the protein. A peptide homologous to the beta-secretase site was cleaved by gelatinase A adjacent to a glutamate residue at position -3 (beta A4 numbering system). A peptide homologous to the alpha-secretase site was not cleaved. The results demonstrate that 72 kDa gelatinase A is not an alpha-secretase, but that it may have a beta-secretase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- R N LePage
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia
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Eikelenboom P, Zhan SS, van Gool WA, Allsop D. Inflammatory mechanisms in Alzheimer's disease. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1994; 15:447-50. [PMID: 7886816 DOI: 10.1016/0165-6147(94)90057-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is aetiologically heterogeneous, but the pathogenesis is often considered to be initiated by the deposition of amyloid fibrils, followed by neuritic tau pathology and neuronal death. A variety of inflammatory proteins has been identified in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease post mortem. In this article, Piet Eikelenboom and colleagues review evidence to suggest that the inflammatory processes are intimately involved in several crucial events in the pathological cascade. This suggests possibilities for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease with anti-inflammatory drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Eikelenboom
- Graduate School Neurosciences Amsterdam, Research Institute Neurosciences Vrije Universiteit, Department of Psychiatry, The Netherlands
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Neill D, Hughes D, Edwardson JA, Rima BK, Allsop D. Human IMR-32 neuroblastoma cells as a model cell line in Alzheimer's disease research. J Neurosci Res 1994; 39:482-93. [PMID: 7884825 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.490390415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The present study investigated expression and processing of amyloid precursor protein by neuronally differentiated IMR-32 neuroblastoma cells. APP mRNA in these cells was found to consist of approximately 58% APP695, 38% APP751, and < 4% APP770. APP-immunoreactive bands detected in western blots of cellular protein extracts were only detected by anti-APP antibodies to peptides with strong homology to APLP2, suggesting that these bands represent APP-like proteins and not APP itself. This result suggests that previous studies claiming immunodetection of cellular forms of APP may have to be re-evaluated. Four main species of C-terminal truncated, secreted APP were detected in blots of protein extracts from medium conditioned by these cells. The immunoreactive profile of these bands suggested a cleavage site N-terminal to the Lys16-Leu17 bond of alpha-secretase. This, together with differences in number and molecular mass of APP-immunoreactive bands between secreted APP from IMR-32 cells and that from the commonly used PC-12 cells, suggests differences in APP processing between these two neuronally differentiated cell lines. In theory, IMR-32 cells being of human neuronal origin may be a more appropriate cell line to study APP-processing in relation to Alzheimer's disease than the rat phaeochromocytoma PC-12 cell line. Therefore, these detected differences warrant further investigation. Additionally IMR-32 cells under certain tissue culture conditions can form intracellular fibrillary material that reacts with anti-PHF specific antibodies. Neuronally differentiated IMR-32 cells could therefore be used as a model system to investigate possible interactions between APP-processing and PHF formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Neill
- School of Biology and Biochemistry, Queen's University of Belfast, Northern Ireland
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