Engineering liposomal nanoparticles for targeted gene therapy

Development of a gold nanoparticle-based colorimetric sensor utilizing cysteine-loaded liposomes in acidic buffer solutions

This study presents the development of a colorimetric sensing system, utilizing gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and cysteine (Cys)-encapsulated liposomes (CELPs) as sensing probes, that functions in a variety of buffer solutions. Triton X-100 (TX-100), a nonionic surfactant, was used to simulate a biological activity that disrupts the liposome membrane. The Cys released from the CELPs by TX-100 triggered the aggregation of AuNPs, causing a noticeable red-to-blue color change, which was enhanced by Cu2+ chelation. The AuNP-CELP/TX-100 system was tested at pH 5-7.4 in various buffers. At neutral pH (7.0-7.4), the system with citrate-capped AuNPs (cit-AuNPs) displayed a distinctive colorimetric response in the presence of Cu2+ (0.3 mM), transitioning from red to blue with a UV-vis absorption shift from 525 nm to approximately 660 nm. However, the cit-AuNPs showed a limited stability in acidic buffers, and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)-capped AuNPs (cit-AuNPs-CTAB) were employed as an alternative at acidic pH. Overall, the AuNP-CELP/TX-100 sensing system, utilizing the cit-AuNPs-CTAB and Cu2+ chelation to Cys, exhibited the potential to be an effective sensing method working in acidic media. The test results with TX-100, which disrupts the liposome membrane, suggest that this system can be used to visualize diverse biological interactions involving membrane disruption, such as viral attacks, in acidic solutions with diverse ionic compositions.

Characterisation of polymeric nanoparticles for drug delivery

Polymeric nanoparticles represent an innovative approach to drug delivery, particularly for addressing complex diseases like cancer. Their nanoscale dimensions facilitate targeted cellular uptake and effective navigation of biological barriers. With a broad range of polymerisation and functionalisation techniques, these nanoparticles can enable precise drug release, enhanced stability, and improved bioavailability while minimising side effects. Compared to conventional carriers, polymeric nanoparticles offer superior stability and versatility. However, despite these beneficial attributes, challenges remain in understanding their dynamic behaviour and interactions within biological systems. This mini-review aims to highlight key characterisation methods for studying polymeric nanocarriers, explore recent advances, and examine current challenges that must be addressed to optimise their therapeutic potential and advance these promising targeted drug delivery systems.

Bacterial Autonomous Intelligent Microrobots for Biomedical Applications

Micro/nanorobots are being increasingly utilized as new diagnostic and therapeutic platforms in the biomedical field, enabling remote navigation to hard-to-reach tissues and the execution of various medical procedures. Although significant progress has been made in the development of biomedical micro/nanorobots, how to achieve closed-loop control of them from sensing, memory, and precise trajectory planning to feedback to carry out biomedical tasks remains a challenge. Bacteria with self-propulsion and autonomous intelligence properties are well suited to be engineered as microrobots to achieve closed-loop control for biomedical applications. By virtue of synthetic biology, bacterial microrobots possess an expanded genetic toolbox, allowing them to load input sensors to respond or remember external signals. To achieve accurate control in the complex physiological environment, the development of bacterial microrobots should be matched with the corresponding control system design. In this review, a detailed summary of the sensing and control mechanisms of bacterial microrobots is presented. The engineering and applications of bacterial microrobots in the biomedical field are highlighted. Their future directions of bacterial autonomous intelligent microrobots for precision medicine are forecasted.

Double-targeted liposomes coated with matrix metallopeptidase-2-responsive polypeptide nanogel for chemotherapy and enhanced immunotherapy against cervical cancer

Immunotherapy is a cornerstone in cancer treatment, celebrated for its precision, ability to eliminate residual cancer cells, and potential to avert tumor recurrence. Nonetheless, its effectiveness is frequently undermined by the immunosuppressive milieu created by tumors. This study presents a novel nanogel-based drug delivery system, DOX-4PI@CpG@Lipo@Gel (DPCLG), engineered to respond to Matrix Metallopeptidase-2 (MMP-2)-a protease abundant in the tumor microenvironment (TME). This system enables the controlled release of two distinct types of liposomes within the TME. The first, DOX-4PI@Liposome (DPL), carries doxorubicin (DOX) and 4-phenylimidazole (4PI), targeting cancer cells to provide chemotherapeutic effects while diminishing the immunosuppressive environment. The second, a mannosyl-modified cationic liposome (CL), is loaded with Cytosine phosphate guanine (CpG) oligodeoxynucleotides to specifically target M2 phenotype macrophages, reversing their tumor-associated phenotype (TAM) and activating immune cytokines to promote tumor destruction. Our findings indicate that DPCLG significantly curtails tumor growth, both in vitro and in vivo, mitigates the immunosuppressive TME, and triggers a potent systemic immune response. This study underscores the potential of DPCLG as an advanced, dual-targeting drug delivery system for comprehensive cancer therapy.

Lipid-based Non-viral Vector: Promising Approach for Gene Delivery

OBJECTIVES

The present review aims to discuss various strategies to overcome intracellular and extracellular barriers involved in gene delivery as well as the advantages, challenges, and mechanisms of gene delivery using non-viral vectors. Additionally, patents, clinical studies, and various formulation approaches related to lipid-based carrier systems are discussed.

METHODS

Data were searched and collected from Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Springer.

RESULTS

In this review, we have investigated the advantages of non-viral vectors over viral vectors. The advantage of using non-viral vectors are that they seek more attention in different fields. They play an important role in delivering the genetic materials. However, few non-viral vector-based carrier systems have been found in clinical settings. Challenges are developing more stable, site-specific gene delivery and conducting thorough safety assessments to minimize the undesired effects.

CONCLUSION

In comparison to viral vectors, non-viral vector-based lipid nanocarriers have more advantages for gene delivery. Gene therapy research shows promise in addressing health concerns. Lipid-based nanocarriers can overcome intracellular and extracellular barriers, allowing efficient delivery of genetic materials. Nonviral vectors are more attractive due to their biocompatibility, ease of synthesis, and cost-effectiveness. They can deliver various nucleic acids and have improved gene delivery efficacy by avoiding degradation steps. Despite limited clinical use, many patents have been filed for mRNA vaccine delivery using non-viral vectors.

Sonogenetics in the Treatment of Chronic Diseases: A New Method for Cell Regulation

Sonogenetics is an innovative technology that integrates ultrasound with genetic editing to precisely modulate cellular activities in a non-invasive manner. This method entails introducing and activating mechanosensitive channels on the cell membrane of specific cells using gene delivery vectors. When exposed to ultrasound, these channels can be manipulated to open or close, thereby impacting cellular functions. Sonogenetics is currently being used extensively in the treatment of various chronic diseases, including Parkinson's disease, vision restoration, and cancer therapy. This paper provides a comprehensive review of key components of sonogenetics and focuses on evaluating its prospects and potential challenges in the treatment of chronic disease.

Self-assembled lipid-based nanoparticles for chemotherapy against breast cancer

Self-assembled lipid-based nanoparticles have been shown to have improved therapeutic efficacy and lower toxic side effects. Breast cancer is a common type of malignant tumor in women. Conventional drugs such as doxorubicin (DOX) have shown low therapeutic efficacy and high drug toxicity in antitumor therapy. This paper surveys research on self-assembled lipid-based nanoparticles by categorizing them under three groups: self-assembled liposomal nanostructures, self-assembled niosomes, and self-assembled lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles. Subsequently, the structural features and operating mechanisms of each group are summarized individually along with examples of representative drugs from each group.

Strategic Developments in Polymer-Functionalized Liposomes for Targeted Colon Cancer Therapy: An Updated Review of Clinical Trial Data and Future Horizons

Liposomes, made up of phospholipid bilayers, are efficient nanocarriers for drug delivery because they can encapsulate both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs. Conventional cancer treatments sometimes involve considerable toxicities and adverse drug reactions (ADRs), which limits their clinical value. Despite liposomes' promise in addressing these concerns, clinical trials have revealed significant limitations, including stability, targeted distribution, and scaling challenges. Recent clinical trials have focused on enhancing liposome formulations to increase therapeutic efficacy while minimizing negative effects. Notably, the approval of liposomal medications like Doxil demonstrates their potential in cancer treatment. However, the intricacy of liposome preparation and the requirement for comprehensive regulatory approval remain substantial impediments. Current clinical trial updates show continued efforts to improve liposome stability, targeting mechanisms, and payload capacity in order to address these issues. The future of liposomal drug delivery in cancer therapy depends on addressing these challenges in order to provide patients with more effective and safer treatment alternatives.

Liposomal drug delivery systems for organ-specific cancer targeting: early promises, subsequent problems, and recent breakthroughs

INTRODUCTION

Targeted liposomal systems for cancer intention have been recognized as a specific and robust approach compared to conventional liposomal delivery systems. Cancer cells have a unique microenvironment with special over-expressed receptors on their surface, providing opportunities for discovering novel and effective drug delivery systems using active targeting.

AREAS COVERED

Smartly targeted liposomes, responsive to internal or external stimulations, enhance the delivery efficiency by increasing accumulation of the encapsulated anti-cancer agent in the tumor site. The application of antibodies and aptamers against the prevalent cell surface receptors is a potent and ever-growing field. Moreover, immuno-liposomes and cancer vaccines as adjuvant chemotherapy are also amenable to favorable immune modulation. Combinational and multi-functional systems are also attractive in this regard. However, potentially active targeted liposomal drug delivery systems have a long path to clinical acceptance, chiefly due to cross-interference and biocompatibility affairs of the functionalized moieties.

EXPERT OPINION

Engineered liposomal formulations have to be designed based on tissue properties, including surface chemistry, charge, and microvasculature. In this paper, we aimed to investigate the updated targeted liposomal systems for common cancer therapy worldwide.

Determining the Role of Surfactant on the Cytosolic Delivery of DNA Cross-Linked Micelles

Nucleic Acid Nanocapsules (NANs) are nucleic acid nanostructures that radially display oligonucleotides on the surface of cross-linked surfactant micelles. Their chemical makeup affords the stimuli-responsive release of therapeutically active DNA-surfactant conjugates into the cells. While NANs have so far demonstrated the effective cytosolic delivery of their nucleic acid cargo, as seen indirectly by their gene regulation capabilities, there remain gaps in the molecular understanding of how this process happens. Herein, we examine the enzymatic degradation of NANs and confirm the identity of the DNA-surfactant conjugates formed by using mass spectrometry (MS). With surface enhanced (resonance) Raman spectroscopy (SE(R)RS), we also provide evidence that the energy-independent translocation of such DNA-surfactant conjugates is contingent upon their release from the NAN structure, which, when intact, otherwise buries the hydrophobic surfactant tail in its interior. Such information suggests a critical role of the surfactant in the lipid disruption capability of the DNA surfactant conjugates generated from degradation of the NANs. Using NANs made with different tail lengths (C12 and C10), we show that this mechanism likely holds true despite significant differences in the physical properties (i.e., critical micelle concentration (CMC), surfactants per micelle, Nagg) of the resultant particles (C12 and C10 NANs). While the total cellular uptake efficiencies of C12 and C10 NANs are similar, there were differences observed in their cellular distribution and localized trafficking, even after ensuring that the total concentration of DNA was the same for both particles. Ultimately, C10 NANs appeared less diffuse within cells and colocalized less with lysosomes over time, achieving more significant knockdown of the target gene investigated, suggesting more effective endosomal escape. These differences indicate that the surfactant assembly and disassembly properties, including the number of surfactants per particle and the CMC can have important implications for the cellular delivery efficacy of DNA micelles and surfactant conjugates.

Advances in Intrathecal Nanoparticle Delivery: Targeting the Blood-Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier for Enhanced CNS Drug Delivery

The blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB) tightly regulates molecular exchanges between the bloodstream and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), creating challenges for effective central nervous system (CNS) drug delivery. This review assesses intrathecal (IT) nanoparticle (NP) delivery systems that aim to enhance drug delivery by circumventing the BCSFB, complementing approaches that target the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) face hurdles like restricted CNS distribution and rapid clearance, which diminish the efficacy of IT therapies. NPs can be engineered to extend drug circulation times, improve CNS penetration, and facilitate sustained release. This review discusses key pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters essential for the effectiveness of these systems. NPs can quickly traverse the subarachnoid space and remain within the leptomeninges for extended periods, often exceeding three weeks. Some designs enable deeper brain parenchyma penetration. Approximately 80% of NPs in the CSF are cleared through the perivascular glymphatic pathway, with microglia-mediated transport significantly contributing to their paravascular clearance. This review synthesizes recent progress in IT-NP delivery across the BCSFB, highlighting critical findings, ongoing challenges, and the therapeutic potential of surface modifications and targeted delivery strategies.

Effects of folate-chicory acid liposome on macrophage polarization and TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in ulcerative colitis mouse

BACKGROUND

Chichoric acid (CA) is a major active ingredient found in chicory and Echinacea. As a derivative of caffeic acid, it has various pharmacological effects.

PURPOSE

Due to the unclear etiology and disease mechanisms, effective treatment methods for ulcerative colitis (UC) are currently lacking. The study investigated the therapeutic effects of the folate-chicory acid liposome on both LPS-induced macrophage inflammation models and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced mouse UC models.

METHODS

Folate-chicory acid liposome was prepared using the double emulsion ultrasonic method with the aim of targeting folate receptors specifically expressed on macrophages. The study investigated the therapeutic effects of the folate-chicory acid liposome on both LPS-induced macrophage inflammation models and DSS -induced mouse UC models. Furthermore, the effects of the liposomes on macrophage polarization and their underlying mechanisms in UC were explored.

RESULTS

The average particle size of folate-chicory acid liposome was 120.4 ± 0.46 nm, with an encapsulation efficiency of 77.32 ± 3.19 %. The folate-chicory acid liposome could alleviate macrophage apoptosis induced by LPS, decrease the expression of inflammatory factors in macrophages, enhance the expression of anti-inflammatory factors, inhibit macrophage polarization towards the M1 phenotype, and mitigate cellular inflammation in vetro. In vivo test, folate-chicory acid liposome could attenuate clinical symptoms, increased colon length, reduced DAI scores, CMDI scores, and alleviated the severity of colonic histopathological damage in UC mice. Furthermore, it inhibited the polarization of macrophages towards the M1 phenotype in the colon and downregulated the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway, thereby ameliorating UC in mice.

CONCLUSION

Folate-chicory acid liposome exhibited a uniform particle size distribution and high encapsulation efficiency. It effectively treated UC mice by inhibiting the polarization of macrophages towards the M1 phenotype in the colon and downregulating the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Understanding the Novel Approach of Nanoferroptosis for Cancer Therapy

As a new form of regulated cell death, ferroptosis has unraveled the unsolicited theory of intrinsic apoptosis resistance by cancer cells. The molecular mechanism of ferroptosis depends on the induction of oxidative stress through excessive reactive oxygen species accumulation and glutathione depletion to damage the structural integrity of cells. Due to their high loading and structural tunability, nanocarriers can escort the delivery of ferro-therapeutics to the desired site through enhanced permeation or retention effect or by active targeting. This review shed light on the necessity of iron in cancer cell growth and the fascinating features of ferroptosis in regulating the cell cycle and metastasis. Additionally, we discussed the effect of ferroptosis-mediated therapy using nanoplatforms and their chemical basis in overcoming the barriers to cancer therapy.

Emerging strategies for nanomedicine in autoimmunity

Autoimmune disorders have risen to be among the most prevalent chronic diseases across the globe, affecting approximately 5-7% of the population. As autoimmune diseases steadily rise in prevalence, so do the number of potential therapeutic strategies to combat them. In recent years, fundamental research investigating autoimmune pathologies has led to the emergence of several cellular targets that provide new therapeutic opportunities. However, key challenges persist in terms of accessing and specifically combating the dysregulated, self-reactive cells while avoiding systemic immune suppression and other off-target effects. Fortunately, the continued advancement of nanomedicines may provide strategies to address these challenges and bring innovative autoimmunity therapies to the clinic. Through precise engineering and rational design, nanomedicines can possess a variety of physicochemical properties, surface modifications, and cargoes, allowing for specific targeting of therapeutics to pathological cell and organ types. These advances in nanomedicine have been demonstrated in cancer therapies and have the broad potential to advance applications in autoimmunity therapies as well. In this review, we focus on leveraging the power of nanomedicine for prevalent autoimmune disorders throughout the body. We expand on three key areas for the development of autoimmunity therapies - avoiding systemic immunosuppression, balancing interactions with the immune system, and elevating current platforms for delivering complex cargoes - and emphasize how nanomedicine-based strategies can overcome these barriers and enable the development of next-generation, clinically relevant autoimmunity therapies.

Advancements in gene therapy approaches for atrial fibrillation: Targeted delivery, mechanistic insights and future prospects

Atrial fibrillation (AF) remains a complex and challenging arrhythmia to treat, necessitating innovative therapeutic strategies. This review explores the evolving landscape of gene therapy for AF, focusing on targeted delivery methods, mechanistic insights, and future prospects. Direct myocardial injection, reversible electroporation, and gene painting techniques are discussed as effective means of delivering therapeutic genes, emphasizing their potential to modulate both structural and electrical aspects of the AF substrate. The importance of identifying precise targets for gene therapy, particularly in the context of AF-associated genetic, structural, and electrical abnormalities, is highlighted. Current studies employing animal models, such as mice and large animals, provide valuable insights into the efficacy and limitations of gene therapy approaches. The significance of imaging methods for detecting atrial fibrosis and guiding targeted gene delivery is underscored. Activation mapping techniques offer a nuanced understanding of AF-specific mechanisms, enabling tailored gene therapy interventions. Future prospects include the integration of advanced imaging, activation mapping, and percutaneous catheter-based techniques to refine transendocardial gene delivery, with potential applications in both ventricular and atrial contexts. As gene therapy for AF progresses, bridging the translational gap between preclinical models and clinical applications is imperative for the successful implementation of these promising approaches.

Microfluidic synthesis of lipid-based nanoparticles for drug delivery: recent advances and opportunities

Microfluidic technologies are revolutionizing the synthesis of nanoscale lipid particles and enabling new opportunities for the production of lipid-based nanomedicines. By harnessing the benefits of microfluidics for controlling diffusive and advective transport within microfabricated flow cells, microfluidic platforms enable unique capabilities for lipid nanoparticle synthesis with precise and tunable control over nanoparticle properties. Here we present an assessment of the current state of microfluidic technologies for lipid-based nanoparticle and nanomedicine production. Microfluidic techniques are discussed in the context of conventional production methods, with an emphasis on the capabilities of microfluidic systems for controlling nanoparticle size and size distribution. Challenges and opportunities associated with the scaling of manufacturing throughput are discussed, together with an overview of emerging microfluidic methods for lipid nanomedicine post-processing. The impact of additive manufacturing on current and future microfluidic platforms is also considered.

DNA-Based Nonviral Gene Therapy─Challenging but Promising

Over the past decades, significant progress has been made in utilizing nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA molecules, for therapeutic purposes. For DNA molecules, although various DNA delivery systems have been established, viral vector systems are the go-to choice for large-scale commercial applications. However, viral systems have certain disadvantages such as immune response, limited payload capacity, insertional mutagenesis and pre-existing immunity. In contrast, nonviral systems are less immunogenic, not size limited, safer, and easier for manufacturing compared with viral systems. What's more, nonviral DNA vectors have demonstrated their capacity to mediate specific protein expression in vivo for diverse therapeutic objectives containing a wide range of diseases such as cancer, rare diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and infectious diseases, yielding promising therapeutic outcomes. However, exogenous plasmid DNA is prone to degrade and has poor immunogenicity in vivo. Thus, various strategies have been developed: (i) designing novel plasmids with special structures, (ii) optimizing plasmid sequences for higher expression, and (iii) developing more efficient nonviral DNA delivery systems. Based on these strategies, many interesting clinical results have been reported. This Review discusses the development of DNA-based nonviral gene therapy, including novel plasmids, nonviral delivery systems, clinical advances, and prospects. These developments hold great potential for enhancing the efficacy and safety of nonviral gene therapy and expanding its applications in the treatment of various diseases.

Ultrasound-mediated HGF Gene Microbubbles Mitigate Hyperkinetic Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension in Rabbits

AIM

Hyperkinetic pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a complication of congenital heart disease. Gene therapy is a new experimental treatment for PAH, and ultrasound-mediated gene-carrying microbubble targeted delivery is a promising development for gene transfer.

METHODS

This study successfully established a hyperkinetic PAH rabbit model by a common carotid artery and jugular vein shunt using the cuff style method. Liposome microbubbles carrying the hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) gene were successfully constructed. An in vitro experiment evaluated the appropriate intensity of ultrasonic radiation by Western blots and 3H-TdR incorporation assays. In an in vivo experiment, after transfection of ultrasound-mediated HGF gene microbubbles, catheterisation was applied to collect haemodynamic data. Hypertrophy of the right ventricle was evaluated by measuring the right ventricle hypertrophy index. Western blot and immunohistochemistry analyses were used to detect the expression of human (h)HGF and angiogenic effects, respectively.

RESULTS

The most appropriate ultrasonic radiation intensity was 1.0 W/cm2 for 5 minutes. Two weeks after transfection, both systolic pulmonary arterial pressure and mean pulmonary arterial pressure were attenuated. Hypertrophy of the right ventricle was reversed. hHGF was transplanted into the rabbits, resulting in a high expression of hHGF protein and an increase in the number of small pulmonary arteries. Ultrasound-mediated HGF gene microbubble therapy was more effective at attenuating PAH and increasing the density of small pulmonary arteries than single HGF plasmid transfection.

CONCLUSIONS

Ultrasound-mediated HGF gene microbubbles significantly improved the target of gene therapy in a rabbit PAH model and enhanced the tropism and transfection rates. Thus, the technique can effectively promote small pulmonary angiogenesis and play a role in the treatment of PAH without adverse reactions.

The next-generation DNA vaccine platforms and delivery systems: advances, challenges and prospects

Vaccines have proven effective in the treatment and prevention of numerous diseases. However, traditional attenuated and inactivated vaccines suffer from certain drawbacks such as complex preparation, limited efficacy, potential risks and others. These limitations restrict their widespread use, especially in the face of an increasingly diverse range of diseases. With the ongoing advancements in genetic engineering vaccines, DNA vaccines have emerged as a highly promising approach in the treatment of both genetic diseases and acquired diseases. While several DNA vaccines have demonstrated substantial success in animal models of diseases, certain challenges need to be addressed before application in human subjects. The primary obstacle lies in the absence of an optimal delivery system, which significantly hampers the immunogenicity of DNA vaccines. We conduct a comprehensive analysis of the current status and limitations of DNA vaccines by focusing on both viral and non-viral DNA delivery systems, as they play crucial roles in the exploration of novel DNA vaccines. We provide an evaluation of their strengths and weaknesses based on our critical assessment. Additionally, the review summarizes the most recent advancements and breakthroughs in pre-clinical and clinical studies, highlighting the need for further clinical trials in this rapidly evolving field.

Biomedical Application of Porphyrin-Based Amphiphiles and Their Self-Assembled Nanomaterials

Porphyrins have been vastly explored and applied in many cutting-edge fields with plenty of encouraging achievements because of their excellent properties. As important derivatives of porphyrins, porphyrin-based amphiphiles (PBAs) not only maintain the advanced properties of porphyrins (catalysis, imaging, and energy transfer) but also possess self-assembly and encapsulation capability in aqueous solution. Accordingly, PBAs and their self-assembles have had important roles in diagnosing and treating tumors and inflammation lesions in vivo, but not limited to these. In this article, we introduce the research progress of PBAs, including their constitution, structure design strategies, and performances in tumor and inflammation lesion diagnosis and treatments. On that basis, the defects of synthesized PBAs during their application and the possible effective strategies to overcome the limitations are also proposed. Finally, perspectives on PBAs exploration are updated based on our knowledge. We hope this review will bring researchers from various domains insights about PBAs.

Silk Fibroin-Modified Liposome/Gene Editing System Knocks out the PLK1 Gene to Suppress the Growth of Lung Cancer Cells

Polo-like protein kinase 1 (PLK1) plays a key role in lung cancer cell mitosis. The knockout of PLK1 gene by the CRISPR-Cas9 system can effectively inhibit the proliferation of tumor cells, but there is no suitable vector for in vivo delivery. In this study, CRISPR-Cas9 gene knockout plasmids encoding sgRNA, Cas9 and green fluorescent protein were constructed. Then, the plasmids were packaged with liposome (Lip) and cholesterol-modified Antheraea pernyi silk fibroin (CASF) to obtain the CASF/Lip/pDNA ternary complex. The CASF/Lip/pDNA complex was transfected into lung cancer cells A549 to investigate the transfection efficiency, the PLK1 gene knockout effect and the inhibitory effect on lung cancer cells. The results showed that the transfection efficiency of the CASF/Lip/pDNA complex was significantly higher than that of the Lip/pDNA binary complex, and the expression of PLK1 in cells transfected with CASF/Lip/pDNA complexes was significantly lower than that in cells transfected with Lip/pDNA complexes. The CASF/Lip/pDNA complex significantly increased the apoptosis rate and decreased the proliferation activity of lung cancer cells compared with Lip/pDNA complexes. The cytotoxicity of the complexes was evaluated by coculture with the human bronchial epithelial cells BEAS2B. The results showed that CASF/Lip/pDNA complexes exhibited lower cytotoxicity than Lip/pDNA complexes. The fibroin-modified liposome/PLK1 gene knockout system not only effectively inhibited the growth of lung cancer cells but also showed no obvious toxicity to normal cells, showing potential for clinical application in lung cancer therapy.

Site-specific delivery of cisplatin and paclitaxel mediated by liposomes: A promising approach in cancer chemotherapy

The site-specific delivery of drugs, especially anti-cancer drugs has been an interesting field for researchers and the reason is low accumulation of cytotoxic drugs in cancer cells. Although combination cancer therapy has been beneficial in providing cancer drug sensitivity, targeted delivery of drugs appears to be more efficient. One of the safe, biocompatible and efficient nano-scale delivery systems in anti-cancer drug delivery is liposomes. Their particle size is small and they have other properties such as adjustable physico-chemical properties, ease of functionalization and high entrapment efficiency. Cisplatin is a chemotherapy drug with clinical approval in patients, but its accumulation in cancer cells is low due to lack of targeted delivery and repeated administration results in resistance development. Gene and drug co-administration along with cisplatin/paclitaxel have resulted in increased sensitivity in tumor cells, but there is still space for more progress in cancer therapy. The delivery of cisplatin/paclitaxel by liposomes increases accumulation of drug in tumor cells and impairs activity of efflux pumps in promoting cytotoxicity. Moreover, phototherapy along with cisplatin/paclitaxel delivery can increase potential in tumor suppression. Smart nanoparticles including pH-sensitive nanoparticles provide site-specific delivery of cisplatin/paclitaxel. The functionalization of liposomes can be performed by ligands to increase targetability towards tumor cells in mediating site-specific delivery of cisplatin/paclitaxel. Finally, liposomes can mediate co-delivery of cisplatin/paclitaxel with drugs or genes in potentiating tumor suppression. Since drug resistance has caused therapy failure in cancer patients, and cisplatin/paclitaxel are among popular chemotherapy drugs, delivery of these drugs mediates targeted suppression of cancers and prevents development of drug resistance. Because of biocompatibility and safety of liposomes, they are currently used in clinical trials for treatment of cancer patients. In future, the optimal dose of using liposomes and optimal concentration of loading cisplatin/paclitaxel on liposomal nanocarriers in clinical trials should be determined.

Research Status of Dendrimer Micelles in Tumor Therapy for Drug Delivery

Dendrimers are a family of polymers with highly branched structure, well-defined composition, and extensive functional groups, which have attracted great attention in biomedical applications. Micelles formed by dendrimers are ideal nanocarriers for delivering anticancer agents due to the explicit study of their characteristics of particle size, charge, and biological properties such as toxicity, blood circulation time, biodistribution, and cellular internalization. Here, the classification, preparation, and structure of dendrimer micelles are reviewed, and the specific functional groups modified on the surface of dendrimers for tumor active targeting, stimuli-responsive drug release, reduced toxicity, and prolonged blood circulation time are discussed. In addition, their applications are summarized as various platforms for biomedical applications related to cancer therapy including drug delivery, gene transfection, nano-contrast for imaging, and combined therapy. Other applications such as tissue engineering and biosensor are also involved. Finally, the possible challenges and perspectives of dendrimer micelles for their further applications are discussed.

RNA Combined with Nanoformulation to Advance Therapeutic Technologies

Nucleic acid-based therapies have the potential to address numerous diseases that pose significant challenges to more traditional methods. RNA-based therapies have emerged as a promising avenue, utilizing nanoformulation treatments to target a range of pathologies. Nanoformulation offers several advantages compared to other treatment modalities, including targeted delivery, low toxicity, and bioactivity suitable for drug loading. At present, various types of nanoformulations are available, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), magnetic NPs, nanoshells, and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs). RNA-based therapy utilizes intracellular gene nanoparticles with messenger RNA (mRNA) emerging prominently in cancer therapy and immunotechnology against infectious diseases. The approval of mRNA-based technology opens doors for future technological advancements, particularly self-amplifying replicon RNA (repRNA). RepRNA is a novel platform in gene therapy, comprising viral RNA with a unique molecular property that enables the amplification of all encoded genetic information countless times. As a result, repRNA-based therapies have achieved significant levels of gene expression. In this context, the primary objective of this study is to furnish a comprehensive review of repRNA and its applications in nanoformulation treatments, with a specific focus on encapsulated nanoparticles. The overarching goal is to provide an extensive overview of the use of repRNA in conjunction with nanoformulations across a range of treatments and therapies.

Tarin-Loaded Nanoliposomes Activate Apoptosis and Autophagy and Inhibit the Migration of Human Mammary Adenocarcinoma Cells

Background

Tarin, a lectin purified from Colocasia esculenta, promotes in vitro and in vivo immunomodulatory effects allied to promising anticancer and antimetastatic effects against human adenocarcinoma mammary cells. This makes this 47 kDa-protein a natural candidate against human breast cancer, a leading cause of death among women. Tarin encapsulated in pegylated nanoliposomes displays increased effectiveness in controlling the proliferation of a mammary adenocarcinoma lineage comprising MDA-MB-231 cells.

Methods

The mechanisms enrolled in anticancer and antimetastatic responses were investigated by treating MDA-MB-231 cells with nano-encapsulated tarin at 72 μg/mL for up to 48h through flow cytometry and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The safety of nano-encapsulated tarin towards healthy tissue was also assessed by the resazurin viability assay, and the effect of nanoencapsulated tarin on cell migration was evaluated by scratch assays.

Results

Ultrastructural analyses of MDA-MB-231 cells exposed to nanoencapsulated tarin revealed the accumulation of autophagosomes and damaged organelles, compatible with autophagy-dependent cell death. On the other hand, the flow cytometry investigation detected the increased occurrence of acidic vacuolar organelles, a late autophagosome trait, along with the enhanced presence of apoptotic cells, activated caspase-3/7, and cell cycle arrest at G0/G1. No deleterious effects were observed in healthy fibroblast cells following tarin nanoencapsulated exposition, in contrast to reduced viability in cells exposed to free tarin. The migration of MDA-MB-231 cells was inhibited by nano-encapsulated tarin, with delayed movement by 24 h compared to free tarin.

Conclusion

The nanoliposome formulation delivers tarin in a delayed and sustained manner, as evidenced by the belated and potent antitumoral and anti-migration effects on adenocarcinoma cells, with no toxicity to healthy cells. Although further investigations are required to fully understand antitumorigenic tarin mechanisms, the activation of both apoptotic and autophagic machineries along with the caspase-3/7 pathway, and cell cycle arrest may comprise a part of these mechanisms.

The use of liposomes functionalized with the NFL-TBS.40-63 peptide as a targeting agent to cross the in vitro blood-brain barrier and target glioblastoma cells

Glioblastoma is the most common and aggressive brain tumor. Current treatments do not allow to cure the patients. This is partly due to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which limits the delivery of drugs to the pathological site. To overcome this, we developed liposomes functionalized with a neurofilament-derived peptide, NFL-TBS.40-63 (NFL), known for its highly selective targeting of glioblastoma cells. First, in vitro BBB model was developed to check whether the NFL can also promote barrier crossing in addition to its active targeting capacity. Permeability experiments showed that the NFL peptide was able to cross the BBB. Moreover, when the BBB was in a pathological situation, i.e., an in vitro blood-brain tumor barrier (BBTB), the passage of the NFL peptide was greater while maintaining its glioblastoma targeting capacity. When the NFL peptide was associated to liposomes, it enhanced their ability to be internalized into glioblastoma cells after passage through the BBTB, compared to liposomes without NFL. The cellular uptake of liposomes was limited in the endothelial cell monolayer in comparison to the glioblastoma one. These data indicated that the NFL peptide is a promising cell-penetrating peptide tool when combined with drug delivery systems for the treatment of glioblastoma.

Invasion by exogenous RNA: cellular defense strategies and implications for RNA inference

Exogenous RNA poses a continuous threat to genome stability and integrity across various organisms. Accumulating evidence reveals complex mechanisms underlying the cellular response to exogenous RNA, including endo-lysosomal degradation, RNA-dependent repression and innate immune clearance. Across a variety of mechanisms, the natural anti-sense RNA-dependent defensive strategy has been utilized both as a powerful gene manipulation tool and gene therapy strategy named RNA-interference (RNAi). To optimize the efficiency of RNAi silencing, a comprehensive understanding of the whole life cycle of exogenous RNA, from cellular entry to its decay, is vital. In this paper, we review recent progress in comprehending the recognition and elimination of foreign RNA by cells, focusing on cellular entrance, intracellular transportation, and immune-inflammatory responses. By leveraging these insights, we highlight the potential implications of these insights for advancing RNA interference efficiency, underscore the need for future studies to elucidate the pathways and fates of various exogenous RNA forms, and provide foundational information for more efficient RNA delivery methods in both genetic manipulation and therapy in different organisms.

Emerging biotechnologies and biomedical engineering technologies for hearing reconstruction

Hearing impairment is a global health problem that affects social communications and the economy. The damage and loss of cochlear hair cells and spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) as well as the degeneration of neurites of SGNs are the core causes of sensorineural hearing loss. Biotechnologies and biomedical engineering technologies provide new hope for the treatment of auditory diseases, which utilizes biological strategies or tissue engineering methods to achieve drug delivery and the regeneration of cells, tissues, and even organs. Here, the advancements in the applications of biotechnologies (including gene therapy and cochlear organoids) and biomedical engineering technologies (including drug delivery, electrode coating, electrical stimulation and bionic scaffolds) in the field of hearing reconstruction are presented. Moreover, we summarize the challenges and provide a perspective on this field.

Delivery of biologics: Topical administration

Biologics are unaffordable to a large majority of the global population because of prohibitively expensive fermentation systems, purification and the requirement for cold chain for storage and transportation. Limitations of current production and delivery systems of biologics were evident during the recent pandemic when <2.5% of vaccines produced were available to low-income countries and ∼19 million doses were discarded in Africa due to lack of cold-chain infrastructure. Among FDA-approved biologics since 2015, >90% are delivered using invasive methods. While oral or topical drugs are highly preferred by patients because of their affordability and convenience, only two oral drugs have been approved by FDA since 2015. A newly launched oral biologic costs only ∼3% of the average cost of injectable biologics because of the simplified regulatory approval process by elimination of prohibitively expensive fermentation, purification, cold storage/transportation. In addition, the cost of developing a new biologic injectable product (∼$2.5 billion) has been dramatically reduced through oral or topical delivery. Topical delivery has the unique advantage of targeted delivery of high concentration protein drugs, without getting diluted in circulating blood. However, only very few topical drugs have been approved by the FDA. Therefore, this review highlights recent advances in oral or topical delivery of proteins at early or advanced stages of human clinical trials using chewing gums, patches or sprays, or nucleic acid drugs directly, or in combination with, nanoparticles and offers future directions.

Supermolecular nanovehicles co-delivering TLR7/8-agonist and anti-CD47 siRNA for enhanced tumor immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy is the most promising method for tumor therapy in recent years, among which the macrophages play a critical role in the antitumor immune response. However, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) usually display the tumor-promoting M2 phenotype rather than the tumor-killing M1 phenotype. Moreover, the over-expressed CD47 on tumor cells severely hinders the function of macrophages by blocking the CD47/SIRPα pathway. Herein, a nano-assembly system of CHTR/siRNA was constructed through the host-guest interaction of a hyperbranched amino-functionalized β-cyclodextrin and immune agonist imiquimod (R848), while CD47 siRNA was loaded inside through electrostatic interaction. The Toll-like receptor (TLR) 7/8 agonist R848 can "re-educate" macrophages from the protumoral M2 phenotype to antitumoral M1 phenotype, while CD47 siRNA can down-regulate the "don't eat me" CD47 signal on the surface of cancer cells and enhance the phagocytosis of cancer cells by macrophages. Through the dual regulation of TAMs, the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment was relieved, and the host-guest drug-carrying system resulted in synergistic immunotherapy effect on tumors and inhibited tumor growth. The facile self-assembly of nanodrug offers a new strategy in co-delivery of multiple therapeutic agents for cascade cancer immunotherapy.

Probing neural circuit mechanisms in Alzheimer's disease using novel technologies

The study of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) has traditionally focused on neuropathological mechanisms that has guided therapies that attenuate neuropathological features. A new direction is emerging in AD research that focuses on the progressive loss of cognitive function due to disrupted neural circuit mechanisms. Evidence from humans and animal models of AD show that dysregulated circuits initiate a cascade of pathological events that culminate in functional loss of learning, memory, and other aspects of cognition. Recent progress in single-cell, spatial, and circuit omics informs this circuit-focused approach by determining the identities, locations, and circuitry of the specific cells affected by AD. Recently developed neuroscience tools allow for precise access to cell type-specific circuitry so that their functional roles in AD-related cognitive deficits and disease progression can be tested. An integrated systems-level understanding of AD-associated neural circuit mechanisms requires new multimodal and multi-scale interrogations that longitudinally measure and/or manipulate the ensemble properties of specific molecularly-defined neuron populations first susceptible to AD. These newly developed technological and conceptual advances present new opportunities for studying and treating circuits vulnerable in AD and represent the beginning of a new era for circuit-based AD research.

Toxicologic Neuropathology of Novel Biotherapeutics

Biotherapeutic modalities such as cell therapies, gene therapies, nucleic acids, and proteins are increasingly investigated as disease-modifying treatments for severe and life-threatening neurodegenerative disorders. Such diverse bio-derived test articles are fraught with unique and often unpredictable biological consequences, while guidance regarding nonclinical experimental design, neuropathology evaluation, and interpretation is often limited. This paper summarizes key messages offered during a half-day continuing education course on toxicologic neuropathology of neuro-targeted biotherapeutics. Topics included fundamental neurobiology concepts, pharmacology, frequent toxicological findings, and their interpretation including adversity decisions. Covered biotherapeutic classes included cell therapies, gene editing and gene therapy vectors, nucleic acids, and proteins. If agents are administered directly into the central nervous system, initial screening using hematoxylin and eosin (H&E)-stained sections of currently recommended neural organs (brain [7 levels], spinal cord [3 levels], and sciatic nerve) may need to expand to include other components (e.g., more brain levels, ganglia, and/or additional nerves) and/or special neurohistological procedures to characterize possible neural effects (e.g., cell type-specific markers for reactive glial cells). Scientists who evaluate the safety of novel biologics will find this paper to be a practical reference for preclinical safety testing and risk assessment.

Bioactive Materials for Bone Regeneration: Biomolecules and Delivery Systems

Novel tissue regeneration strategies are constantly being developed worldwide. Research on bone regeneration is noteworthy, as many promising new approaches have been documented with novel strategies currently under investigation. Innovative biomaterials that allow the coordinated and well-controlled repair of bone fractures and bone loss are being designed to reduce the need for autologous or allogeneic bone grafts eventually. The current engineering technologies permit the construction of synthetic, complex, biomimetic biomaterials with properties nearly as good as those of natural bone with good biocompatibility. To ensure that all these requirements meet, bioactive molecules are coupled to structural scaffolding constituents to form a final product with the desired physical, chemical, and biological properties. Bioactive molecules that have been used to promote bone regeneration include protein growth factors, peptides, amino acids, hormones, lipids, and flavonoids. Various strategies have been adapted to investigate the coupling of bioactive molecules with scaffolding materials to sustain activity and allow controlled release. The current manuscript is a thorough survey of the strategies that have been exploited for the delivery of biomolecules for bone regeneration purposes, from choosing the bioactive molecule to selecting the optimal strategy to synthesize the scaffold and assessing the advantages and disadvantages of various delivery strategies.

Lipid-Based Inhalable Micro- and Nanocarriers of Active Agents for Treating Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) afflicts about 2 million people worldwide, with both genetic (familial) and environmental factors contributing to its development and spread. The inadequacy of currently available therapeutic techniques, such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy, in addressing NSCLC is reflected in the very low survival rate of this disease. Therefore, newer approaches and combination therapy regimens are required to reverse this dismal scenario. Direct administration of inhalable nanotherapeutic agents to the cancer sites can potentially lead to optimal drug use, negligible side effects, and high therapeutic gain. Lipid-based nanoparticles are ideal agents for inhalable delivery owing to their high drug loading, ideal physical traits, sustained drug release, and biocompatibility. Drugs loaded within several lipid-based nanoformulations, such as liposomes, solid-lipid nanoparticles, lipid-based micelles, etc., have been developed as both aqueous dispersed formulations as well as dry-powder formulations for inhalable delivery in NSCLC models in vitro and in vivo. This review chronicles such developments and charts the future prospects of such nanoformulations in the treatment of NSCLC.

Multifunctional magnetoliposomes as drug delivery vehicles for the potential treatment of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, development of novel technologies and strategies to treat PD is a global health priority. Current treatments include administration of Levodopa, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitors, and anticholinergic drugs. However, the effective release of these molecules, due to the limited bioavailability, is a major challenge for the treatment of PD. As a strategy to solve this challenge, in this study we developed a novel multifunctional magnetic and redox-stimuli responsive drug delivery system, based on the magnetite nanoparticles functionalized with the high-performance translocating protein OmpA and encapsulated into soy lecithin liposomes. The obtained multifunctional magnetoliposomes (MLPs) were tested in neuroblastoma, glioblastoma, primary human and rat astrocytes, blood brain barrier rat endothelial cells, primary mouse microvascular endothelial cells, and in a PD-induced cellular model. MLPs demonstrated excellent performance in biocompatibility assays, including hemocompatibility (hemolysis percentages below 1%), platelet aggregation, cytocompatibility (cell viability above 80% in all tested cell lines), mitochondrial membrane potential (non-observed alterations) and intracellular ROS production (negligible impact compared to controls). Additionally, the nanovehicles showed acceptable cell internalization (covered area close to 100% at 30 min and 4 h) and endosomal escape abilities (significant decrease in lysosomal colocalization after 4 h of exposure). Moreover, molecular dynamics simulations were employed to better understand the underlying translocating mechanism of the OmpA protein, showing key findings regarding specific interactions with phospholipids. Overall, the versatility and the notable in vitro performance of this novel nanovehicle make it a suitable and promising drug delivery technology for the potential treatment of PD.

Multifunctionalized Cationic Chitosan Polymeric Micelles Polyplexed with pVGF for Noninvasive Delivery to the Mouse Brain through the Intranasal Route for Developing Therapeutics for Alzheimer's Disease

Multifunctionalized Chitosan-based polymeric micelles were used to deliver pVGF to the brain. VGF (non-acronymic) plays significant roles in neurogenesis and learning as well as synaptic and cognitive functions. Therefore, VGF gene therapy could be a better approach in developing effective therapeutics against Alzheimer's disease. Multifunctionalized chitosan polymeric micelles were developed by grafting oleic acid (OA) on the chitosan (CS) skeleton followed by penetratin (PEN) and mannose (MAN) conjugation. The OA-g-CS-PEN-MAN graft polymer formed cationic nanomicelles in an aqueous medium and polyplexed with pVGF. The polymeric micelles were nontoxic and cationic in charge and had an average hydrodynamic diameter of 199.8 ± 15.73 nm. Qualitative in vitro transfection efficiency of OA-g-CS-PEN-MAN/pGFP polyplex was investigated in bEnd.3, primary neurons, and astrocyte cells. In vivo transfection efficiency of OA-g-CS-PEN-MAN/pVGF polyplexes was analyzed in C57BL6/J mice after intranasal administration for 7 days. The VGF expression levels in primary astrocytes and neurons after OA-g-CS-PEN-MAN/pVGF treatment were 2.4 ± 0.24 and 1.49 ± 0.02 pg/μg of protein, respectively. The VGF expression in the OA-g-CS-PEN-MAN/pVGF polyplex-treated animal group was 64.9 ± 12.7 pg/mg of protein, significantly higher (p < 0.01) than that of the unmodified polymeric micelles. The in vivo transfection outcomes revealed that the developed multifunctionalized OA-g-CS-PEN-MAN polymeric micelles could effectively deliver pVGF to the brain, transfect brain cells, and express VGF in the brain after noninvasive intranasal administration.

Gene knockdown in HaCaT cells by small interfering RNAs entrapped in grapefruit-derived extracellular vesicles using a microfluidic device

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) knockdown the expression of target genes by causing mRNA degradation and are a promising therapeutic modality. In clinical practice, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are used to deliver RNAs, such as siRNA and mRNA, into cells. However, these artificial nanoparticles are toxic and immunogenic. Thus, we focused on extracellular vesicles (EVs), natural drug delivery systems, for the delivery of nucleic acids. EVs deliver RNAs and proteins to specific tissues to regulate various physiological phenomena in vivo. Here, we propose a novel method for the preparation siRNAs encapsulated in EVs using a microfluidic device (MD). MDs can be used to generate nanoparticles, such as LNPs, by controlling flow rate to the device, but the loading of siRNAs into EVs using MDs has not been reported previously. In this study, we demonstrated a method for loading siRNAs into grapefruit-derived EVs (GEVs), which have gained attention in recent years for being plant-derived EVs developed using an MD. GEVs were collected from grapefruit juice using the one-step sucrose cushion method, and then GEVs-siRNA-GEVs were prepared using an MD device. The morphology of GEVs and siRNA-GEVs was observed using a cryogenic transmission electron microscope. Cellular uptake and intracellular trafficking of GEVs or siRNA-GEVs to human keratinocytes were evaluated by microscopy using HaCaT cells. The prepared siRNA-GEVs encapsulated 11% of siRNAs. Moreover, intracellular delivery of siRNA and gene suppression effects in HaCaT cells were achieved using these siRNA-GEVs. Our findings suggested that MDs can be used to prepare siRNA-EV formulations.

Nanosystems for gene therapy targeting brain damage caused by viral infections

Several human pathogens can cause long-lasting neurological damage. Despite the increasing clinical knowledge about these conditions, most still lack efficient therapeutic interventions. Gene therapy (GT) approaches comprise strategies to modify or adjust the expression or function of a gene, thus providing therapy for human diseases. Since recombinant nucleic acids used in GT have physicochemical limitations and can fail to reach the desired tissue, viral and non-viral vectors are applied to mediate gene delivery. Although viral vectors are associated to high levels of transfection, non-viral vectors are safer and have been further explored. Different types of nanosystems consisting of lipids, polymeric and inorganic materials are applied as non-viral vectors. In this review, we discuss potential targets for GT intervention in order to prevent neurological damage associated to infectious diseases as well as the role of nanosized non-viral vectors as agents to help the selective delivery of these gene-modifying molecules. Application of non-viral vectors for delivery of GT effectors comprise a promising alternative to treat brain inflammation induced by viral infections.

Biomaterials Based on Organic Polymers and Layered Double Hydroxides Nanocomposites: Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering

The development of biomaterials has a substantial role in pharmaceutical and medical strategies for the enhancement of life quality. This review work focused on versatile biomaterials based on nanocomposites comprising organic polymers and a class of layered inorganic nanoparticles, aiming for drug delivery (oral, transdermal, and ocular delivery) and tissue engineering (skin and bone therapies). Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are 2D nanomaterials that can intercalate anionic bioactive species between the layers. The layers can hold metal cations that confer intrinsic biological activity to LDHs as well as biocompatibility. The intercalation of bioactive species between the layers allows the formation of drug delivery systems with elevated loading capacity and modified release profiles promoted by ion exchange and/or solubilization. The capacity of tissue integration, antigenicity, and stimulation of collagen formation, among other beneficial characteristics of LDH, have been observed by in vivo assays. The association between the properties of biocompatible polymers and LDH-drug nanohybrids produces multifunctional nanocomposites compatible with living matter. Such nanocomposites are stimuli-responsive, show appropriate mechanical properties, and can be prepared by creative methods that allow a fine-tuning of drug release. They are processed in the end form of films, beads, gels, monoliths etc., to reach orientated therapeutic applications. Several studies attest to the higher performance of polymer/LDH-drug nanocomposite compared to the LDH-drug hybrid or the free drug.

Lipid Nanoparticles and Liposomes for Bone Diseases Treatment

Because of their outstanding biocompatibility, sufficient capacity to control drug release, and passive targeting capability, lipid nanoparticles are one of the world's most widely utilized drug delivery systems. However, numerous disadvantages limit the use of lipid nanoparticles in clinical settings, especially in bone regeneration, such as challenges in transporting, storing, and maintaining drug concentration in the local area. Scaffolds are frequently employed as implants to provide mechanical support to the damaged area or as diagnostic and imaging tools. On the other hand, unmodified scaffolds have limited powers in fostering tissue regeneration and curing illnesses. Liposomes offer a solid foundation for the long-term development of various commercial solutions for the effective drug delivery-assisted treatment of medical conditions. As drug delivery vehicles in medicine, adjuvants in vaccination, signal enhancers/carriers in medical diagnostics and analytical biochemistry, solubilizers for various ingredients as well as support matrices for various ingredients, and penetration enhancers in cosmetics are just a few of the industrial applications for liposomes. This review introduces and discusses the use of lipid nanoparticles and liposomes and the application of lipid nanoparticles and liposome systems based on different active substances in bone diseases.

Recent advances in near-infrared-II hollow nanoplatforms for photothermal-based cancer treatment

Near-infrared-II (NIR-II, 1000–1700 nm) light-triggered photothermal therapy (PTT) has been regarded as a promising candidate for cancer treatment, but PTT alone often fails to achieve satisfactory curative outcomes. Hollow nanoplatforms prove to be attractive in the biomedical field owing to the merits including good biocompatibility, intrinsic physical-chemical nature and unique hollow structures, etc. On one hand, hollow nanoplatforms themselves can be NIR-II photothermal agents (PTAs), the cavities of which are able to carry diverse therapeutic units to realize multi-modal therapies. On the other hand, NIR-II PTAs are capable of decorating on the surface to combine with the functions of components encapsulated inside the hollow nanoplatforms for synergistic cancer treatment. Notably, PTAs generally can serve as good photoacoustic imaging (PAI) contrast agents (CAs), which means such kind of hollow nanoplatforms are also expected to be multifunctional all-in-one nanotheranostics. In this review, the recent advances of NIR-II hollow nanoplatforms for single-modal PTT, dual-modal PTT/photodynamic therapy (PDT), PTT/chemotherapy, PTT/catalytic therapy and PTT/gas therapy as well as multi-modal PTT/chemodynamic therapy (CDT)/chemotherapy, PTT/chemo/gene therapy and PTT/PDT/CDT/starvation therapy (ST)/immunotherapy are summarized for the first time. Before these, the typical synthetic strategies for hollow structures are presented, and lastly, potential challenges and perspectives related to these novel paradigms for future research and clinical translation are discussed.

A critical overview of current progress for COVID-19: development of vaccines, antiviral drugs, and therapeutic antibodies

The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic remains a global public health crisis, presenting a broad range of challenges. To help address some of the main problems, the scientific community has designed vaccines, diagnostic tools and therapeutics for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. The rapid pace of technology development, especially with regard to vaccines, represents a stunning and historic scientific achievement. Nevertheless, many challenges remain to be overcome, such as improving vaccine and drug treatment efficacies for emergent mutant strains of SARS-CoV-2. Outbreaks of more infectious variants continue to diminish the utility of available vaccines and drugs. Thus, the effectiveness of vaccines and drugs against the most current variants is a primary consideration in the continual analyses of clinical data that supports updated regulatory decisions. The first two vaccines granted Emergency Use Authorizations (EUAs), BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273, still show more than 60% protection efficacy against the most widespread current SARS-CoV-2 variant, Omicron. This variant carries more than 30 mutations in the spike protein, which has largely abrogated the neutralizing effects of therapeutic antibodies. Fortunately, some neutralizing antibodies and antiviral COVID-19 drugs treatments have shown continued clinical benefits. In this review, we provide a framework for understanding the ongoing development efforts for different types of vaccines and therapeutics, including small molecule and antibody drugs. The ripple effects of newly emergent variants, including updates to vaccines and drug repurposing efforts, are summarized. In addition, we summarize the clinical trials supporting the development and distribution of vaccines, small molecule drugs, and therapeutic antibodies with broad-spectrum activity against SARS-CoV-2 strains.

Nucleic acid-based therapeutics for dermal wound healing

Non-healing wounds have long been the subject of scientific and clinical investigations. Despite breakthroughs in understanding the biology of delayed wound healing, only limited advances have been made in properly treating wounds. Recently, research into nucleic acids (NAs) such as small-interfering RNA (siRNA), microRNA (miRNA), plasmid DNA (pDNA), aptamers, and antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) has resulted in the development of a latest therapeutic strategy for wound healing. In this regard, dendrimers, scaffolds, lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, hydrogels, and metal nanoparticles have all been explored as NA delivery techniques. However, the translational possibility of NA remains a substantial barrier. As a result, different NAs must be identified, and their distribution method must be optimized. This review explores the role of NA-based therapeutics in various stages of wound healing and provides an update on the most recent findings in the development of NA-based nanomedicine and biomaterials, which may offer the potential for the invention of novel therapies for this long-term condition. Further, the challenges and potential for miRNA-based techniques to be translated into clinical applications are also highlighted.

Applications of self-replicating RNA

Self-replicating RNA viral vectors have been engineered for both prophylactic and therapeutic applications. Mainly the areas of infectious diseases and cancer have been targeted. Both positive and negative strand RNA viruses have been utilized including alphaviruses, flaviviruses, measles viruses and rhabdoviruses. The high-level of RNA amplification has provided efficient expression of viral surface proteins and tumor antigens. Immunization studies in animal models have elicit robust neutralizing antibody responses. In the context of infectious diseases, immunization with self-replicating RNA viral vectors has provided protection against challenges with lethal doses of pathogens in animal models. Similarly, immunization with vectors expressing tumor antigens has resulted in tumor regression and eradication and protection against tumor challenges in animal models. The transient nature and non-integration of viral RNA into the host genome are ideal features for vaccine development. Moreover, self-replicating RNA viral vectors show great flexibility as they can be applied as recombinant viral particles, RNA replicons or DNA replicon plasmids. Several clinical trials have been conducted especially in the area of cancer immunotherapy.

Non-Viral Delivery of Gene Therapy to the Tendon

The tendon, as a compact connective tissue, is difficult to treat after an acute laceration or chronic degeneration. Gene-based therapy is a highly efficient strategy for diverse diseases which has been increasingly applied in tendons in recent years. As technology improves by leaps and bounds, a wide variety of non-viral vectors have been manufactured that attempt to have high biosecurity and transfection efficiency, considered to be a promising treatment modality. In this review, we examine the unwanted biological barriers, the categories of applicable genes, and the introduction and comparison of non-viral vectors. We focus on lipid-based nanoparticles and polymer-based nanoparticles, differentiating between them based on their combination with diverse chemical modifications and scaffolds.

Liposomes Bearing Non-Bilayer Phospholipid Arrangements Induce Specific IgG Anti-Lipid Antibodies by Activating NK1.1+, CD4+ T Cells in Mice

Liposomes are artificial models of cellular membranes that are used as delivery systems for genes, drugs and protein antigens. We have previously used them to study the antigenic properties of their phospholipids. Here, we used them to induce the production of IgG anti-non-bilayer phospholipid arrangements (NPAs) antibodies in mice; these antibodies cause cell lysis and trigger a lupus-like disease in mice. We studied the mechanisms that lead to the production of these antibodies, and provide evidence that NK1.1⁺, CD4⁺ T cells respond to NPA-bearing liposomes and deliver the help required for specific B cell activation and antibody class-switching to IgG. We found increased numbers of IL-4-producing NK1.1⁺, CD4⁺ T cells in the secondary lymphoid organs of mice administered with NPAs, and these cells also expressed CD40L, which is required for B cell activation. Additionally, we isolated and purified NK1.1⁺, CD4⁺ T cells from spleens and determined that they over-expressed 40 genes, which are key players in inflammatory processes and B cell stimulation and have TRAF6 and UNC39B1 as key nodes in their network. These results show that liposomes are membrane models that can be used to analyze the immunogenicity of lipids.

Surface Modification of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles

There is a growing interest in the development of lipid-based nanocarriers for multiple purposes, including the recent increase of these nanocarriers as vaccine components during the COVID-19 pandemic. The number of studies that involve the surface modification of nanocarriers to improve their performance (increase the delivery of a therapeutic to its target site with less off-site accumulation) is enormous. The present review aims to provide an overview of various methods associated with lipid nanoparticle grafting, including techniques used to separate grafted nanoparticles from unbound ligands or to characterize grafted nanoparticles. We also provide a critical perspective on the usefulness and true impact of these modifications on overcoming different biological barriers, with our prediction on what to expect in the near future in this field.