ACSL4 dictates ferroptosis sensitivity by shaping cellular lipid composition

The critical role of ferroptosis in virus-associated hematologic malignancies and its potential value in antiviral-antitumor therapy

Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV), Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), and human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) are key infectious agents linked to the development of various hematological malignancies, including Hodgkin's lymphoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, and adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. This review highlights the critical knowledge gaps in understanding the role of ferroptosis, a novel form of cell death, in virus-related tumors. We focus on how ferroptosis influences the host cell response to these viral infections, revealing groundbreaking mechanisms by which the three viruses differentially regulate core pathways of ferroptosis, such as iron homeostasis, lipid peroxidation, and antioxidant systems, thereby promoting malignant transformation of host cells. Additionally, we explore the potential of antiviral drugs and ferroptosis modulators in the treatment of virus-associated hematological malignancies.

Mesenchymal stem cells enchanced by salidroside to inhibit ferroptosis and improve premature ovarian insufficiency via Keap1/Nrf2/GPX4 signaling

BACKGROUND

Regenerative medicine researches have shown that mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) may be an effective treatment method for premature ovarian insufficiency (POI). However, the efficacy of MSCs is still limited.

PURPOSE

This study aims to explain whether salidroside and MSCs combination is a therapeutic strategy to POI and to explore salidroside-enhanced MSCs inhibiting ferroptosis via Keap1/Nrf2/GPX4 signaling.

METHODS

The effect of salidroside and MSCs on ovarian granular cells (GCs) was analyzed. After treatment, hormone levels and -fertility of rats were measured. Lipid peroxidation levels, iron deposition and mitochondrial morphology were detected. The genes and proteins of Keap1/Nrf2/GPX4 signaling were examined.

RESULTS

Salidroside and MSCs were found to inhibit cell death of GCs by reducing peroxidation and intracellular ferrous. Salidroside promotes the proliferation of MSCs and supports cell survival in ovary. Salidroside combined with MSCs therapy restored ovarian function, which was better than MSCs monotherapy. Salidroside-enhanced MSCs to inhibit ferroptosis. The results showed activation of the Keap1/Nrf2/GPX4 signaling and an increase in anti-ferroptosis molecule.

CONCLUSIONS

Salidroside-enhanced MSCs as a ferroptosis inhibitor and provide new therapeutic strategies for POI. The possible mechanisms of MSCs were related to maintaining redox homeostasis via a Keap1/Nrf2/GPX4 signaling.

Ferroptosis and hearing loss: from molecular mechanisms to therapeutic interventions

Hearing loss profoundly affects social engagement, mental health, cognition, and brain development, with sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) being a major concern. Linked to ototoxic medications, ageing, and noise exposure, SNHL presents significant treatment challenges, highlighting the need for effective prevention and regeneration strategies. Ferroptosis, a distinct form of cell death featuring iron-dependent lipid peroxidation, has garnered interest due to its potential role in cancer, ageing, and neuronal degeneration, especially hearing loss. The emerging role of ferroptosis as a crucial mediator in SNHL suggests that it may offer a novel therapeutic target for otoprotection. This review aims to summarise the intricate connection between ferroptosis and SNHL, offering a fresh perspective for exploring targeted therapeutic strategies that could potentially mitigate cochlear cells damage and enhance the quality of life for individuals with hearing impairments.

Research progress on the mechanism of tumor cell ferroptosis regulation by epigenetics

Cancer remains a significant barrier to human longevity and a leading cause of mortality worldwide. Despite advancements in cancer therapies, challenges such as cellular toxicity and drug resistance to chemotherapy persist. Regulated cell death (RCD), once regarded as a passive process, is now recognized as a programmed mechanism with distinct biochemical and morphological characteristics, thereby presenting new therapeutic opportunities. Ferroptosis, a novel form of RCD characterized by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation and unique mitochondrial damage, differs from apoptosis, autophagy, and necroptosis. It is driven by reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced lipid peroxidation and is implicated in tumorigenesis, anti-tumor immunity, and resistance, particularly in tumors undergoing epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Moreover, ferroptosis is associated with ischemic organ damage, degenerative diseases, and aging, regulated by various cellular metabolic processes, including redox balance, iron metabolism, and amino acid, lipid, and glucose metabolism. This review focuses on the role of epigenetic factors in tumor ferroptosis, exploring their mechanisms and potential applications in cancer therapy. It synthesizes current knowledge to provide a comprehensive understanding of epigenetic regulation in tumor cell ferroptosis, offering insights for future research and clinical applications.

Varespladib attenuates Naja atra-induced acute liver injury via reversing Nrf2 signaling-mediated ferroptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction

Objective: To investigate the protective effects of varespladib against Naja atra-induced acute liver injury (ALI) and to elucidate the toxic mechanism of snake venom phospholipase A2 (SVPLA2)-induced hepatic oxidative stress, with a particular focus on the role of Nrf2 signaling and its downstream pathways.Methods: A combination of in vivo and in vitro models of N. atra envenomation was employed to assess liver injury, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. The interaction between SVPLA2 and Nrf2 was analyzed, and the effects of varespladib treatment on these processes were evaluated using histological analysis, biochemical assays, and molecular techniques targeting oxidative stress, ferroptosis, mitophagy, and apoptosis.Results: Varespladib significantly alleviated N. atra-induced ALI. SVPLA2 was found to directly bind to Nrf2, leading to severe oxidative stress. This oxidative stress initiated a cascade involving Nrf2-mediated ferroptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, excessive mitophagy, and mitochondria-dependent apoptosis. Treatment with varespladib effectively reversed these pathological events by inhibiting SVPLA2 activity.Conclusion: Varespladib shows strong therapeutic potential for N. atra envenomation by targeting SVPLA2. Nrf2 was identified as a direct toxic target of SVPLA2, and Nrf2-mediated ferroptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction were key mechanisms underlying SVPLA2-induced hepatic injury.

Ferroptosis and renal fibrosis: mechanistic insights and emerging therapeutic targets

Ferroptosis is a regulated, iron-dependent form of cell death driven by lipid peroxidation and distinct from apoptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis. Recent studies implicate ferroptosis as a central contributor to the pathogenesis of renal fibrosis, a hallmark of chronic kidney disease associated with high morbidity and progression to end-stage renal failure. This review synthesizes current evidence linking ferroptotic signaling to fibrotic remodeling in the kidney, focusing on iron metabolism dysregulation, glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) inactivation, lipid peroxide accumulation, and ferroptosis-regulatory pathways such as FSP1-CoQ10-NAD(P)H and GCH1-BH4. We detail how ferroptosis in tubular epithelial cells modulates pro-fibrotic cytokine release, macrophage recruitment, and TGF-β1-driven extracellular matrix deposition. Moreover, we explore ferroptosis as a therapeutic vulnerability in renal fibrosis, highlighting promising agents including iron chelators, GPX4 activators, anti-lipid peroxidants, and exosome-based gene delivery systems. By consolidating emerging preclinical data, this review provides a comprehensive mechanistic framework and identifies translational opportunities for targeting ferroptosis in fibrotic kidney disease.

Detection of mitophagy in live cells with indole derived near-infrared fluorogenic probes

Mitophagy is an indispensable cellular process that plays a crucial role in regulating mitochondrial quality control and cellular metabolism. Therefore, monitoring the changes in the mitochondrial and lysosomal microenvironment during the mitophagy process is extremely important. However, existing mitophagy probes only target changes in a single indicator (viscosity, pH value, or polarity) within the microenvironment, which may reduce the selectivity and accuracy of assessing mitophagy in complex biological settings. To address this, we have developed a dual-channel detection near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent probe (ADMI). In vitro analysis experiments have shown that ADMI not only responds to pH and activates the NIR fluorescence channel but also that the green fluorescence channel exhibits high sensitivity to changes in polarity. This dual-response mechanism probe enables dual fluorescent detection of pH and polarity, providing a highly promising tool for monitoring the microenvironment of mitophagy in living cells. Ultimately, we applied ADMI to real-time monitoring of mitophagy induced by starvation or rapamycin, during which the decrease in pH and polarity resulted in a red shift in wavelength and increased fluorescence. Additionally, ADMI was able to observe changes in mitochondria during ferroptosis. This probe may serve as a useful tool for imaging mitophagy in living cells.

Pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and autophagy in spinal cord injury: regulatory mechanisms and therapeutic targets

Regulated cell death is a form of cell death that is actively controlled by biomolecules. Several studies have shown that regulated cell death plays a key role after spinal cord injury. Pyroptosis and ferroptosis are newly discovered types of regulated cell deaths that have been shown to exacerbate inflammation and lead to cell death in damaged spinal cords. Autophagy, a complex form of cell death that is interconnected with various regulated cell death mechanisms, has garnered significant attention in the study of spinal cord injury. This injury triggers not only cell death but also cellular survival responses. Multiple signaling pathways play pivotal roles in influencing the processes of both deterioration and repair in spinal cord injury by regulating pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and autophagy. Therefore, this review aims to comprehensively examine the mechanisms underlying regulated cell deaths, the signaling pathways that modulate these mechanisms, and the potential therapeutic targets for spinal cord injury. Our analysis suggests that targeting the common regulatory signaling pathways of different regulated cell deaths could be a promising strategy to promote cell survival and enhance the repair of spinal cord injury. Moreover, a holistic approach that incorporates multiple regulated cell deaths and their regulatory pathways presents a promising multi-target therapeutic strategy for the management of spinal cord injury.

Blue light induced ferroptosis in retinal damage via iron overload-associated oxidative stress

The issue of light pollution has garnered increased attention recently, largely due to the widespread use of electronic devices. Blue light (BL) holds the highest energy level among visible light and has been extensively researched for its potential to cause damage to the retina. Ferroptosis, a recently identified form of programmed cell death form, has been linked to retinal diseases. However, the connection between BL-induced retinal damage and ferroptosis remains elusive. This study aims to investigate the involvement of ferroptosis in retinal damage under BL exposure and its underlying mechanism. In this study, a mouse retinal damage model and cultured ARPE-19 cells exposed to BL were employed. Various techniques including Haematoxylin-eosin staining, fundus photography, immunostaining, and transmission electron microscopy were employed to examine retinal structure and morphology changes resulting from BL exposure. To identify ferroptosis levels in vitro, we employed DCFH-DA, C11-BODIPY 581/591, and FeRhoNox™-1 probes. Additionally, real-time PCR and western blotting techniques were used to uncover potential targets in BL-induced ferroptosis. Our study showed that BL exposure can result in iron overload, oxidative stress, evidenced by increased markers TFR1, ACSL4, HO-1 and decreased expression level of SOD2, CAT and ferroptosis-associated gene of GPX4. Interestingly, we found that Deferoxamine mesylate, a compound capable of chelating excess Fe2+ caused by BL, effectively mitigated lipid peroxidation, and alleviated retinal damage both in vivo and in vitro. The discoveries will advance our knowledge of BL-induced retinal damage.

Ferroptosis targeting offers a therapeutic target for septic cardiomyopathy

Sepsis-induced cardiac dysfunction, usually termed sepsis-induced cardiomyopathy or septic cardiomyopathy(SCM), is developed in approximately 70 % of the patients with sepsis, making it is a major concern for sepsis patients. However, the pathogenesis of SCM remain incompletely understood. Ferroptosis, a newly identified mechanism of regulated cell death, characterized by a decline in antioxidant capacity, iron accumulation, and lipid peroxidation(LPO), is involved in sepsis and SCM. Moreover, ferroptosis inhibitors confer a novel therapeutic regimen in SCM. In this Review, we first summarizes the core mechanism of ferroptosis, with an emphasis on how best to interpret ferroptosis leads to the genesis of SCM. We then highlights our focus on the emerging different types of therapeutic ferroptosis inhibitors and summarizes their pharmacological beneficial effect to treat SCM. This review highlights a novel potential therapeutic strategy for SCM by pharmacologically inhibiting ferroptosis.

Mitigation of arteriosclerosis through transcriptional regulation of ferroptosis and lipid metabolism by magnesium

Metallic cardiovascular stents are crucial for preventing atherosclerosis-induced infarction by offering mechanical support. However, the effects of metal ions released from these stents on atherosclerosis remain ambiguous. This study evaluates the potential impact posed by the degradation products of magnesium-based stents, with a focus on ferroptosis, a key mechanism driving atherosclerosis. Remarkably, our results demonstrate that Mg effectively inhibits ferroptosis in human umbilical vein endothelial cells and in murine, rat and rabbit models. Our studies reveal that magnesium ions impede the dephosphorylation of ERK proteins, thereby enhancing the expression of SLC7A11 and GCL proteins via activation of the MAPK pathway mechanistically. Additionally, magnesium ions downregulate ACSL4 protein expression, leading to decreased levels of acyl-CoA and ether-phospholipids. Eventually, multiple animal experiments indicate that biodegradable Mg stents can inhibit ferroptosis and decelerate the progression of arteriosclerosis, highlighting the therapeutic potential of Mg stents in treating arteriosclerosis.

Heat shock proteins in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury: Mechanisms and therapeutic implications

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI) remains a significant challenge in ischemic stroke treatment. Heat shock proteins (HSPs), a cadre of molecular chaperones, have emerged as pivotal regulators in this pathological cascade. This review synthesizes the latest research on HSPs in CIRI from 2013 to 2024 focusing on their multifaceted roles and therapeutic potential. We explore the diverse cellular functions of HSPs, including regulation of oxidative stress, apoptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, autophagy, neuroinflammation, and blood-brain barrier integrity. Key HSPs, such as HSP90, HSP70, HSP32, HSP60, HSP47, and small HSPs, are investigated for their specific mechanisms of action in CIRI. Potential therapeutic strategies targeting HSPs, including HSP inhibitors, traditional Chinese medicine components, and gene therapy, are discussed. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of HSPs in CIRI and offers insights into the development of innovative neuroprotective treatments.

Exploring the association between aging, ferroptosis, and common age-related diseases

Aging is a natural biological process that is characterized by the progressive decline in physiological functions and an increased vulnerability to age-related diseases. The aging process is driven by different cell and molecular mechanisms. It has recently been shown that aging is associated with heightened vulnerability to ferroptosis (an intracellular iron-dependent form of programmed cell death). This susceptibility arises from various factors including oxidative stress, impaired antioxidant defences, and dysregulated iron homeostasis. The progressive decline in cellular antioxidant capacity and the accumulation of damaged components contribute to the increased susceptibility of aging cells to ferroptosis. Dysregulation of key regulators involved in ferroptosis, such as glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), iron regulatory proteins, and lipid metabolism enzymes, further exacerbates this vulnerability. The decline in cellular defence mechanisms against ferroptosis during aging contributes to the accumulation of damaged cells and tissues, ultimately resulting in the manifestation of age-related diseases. Understanding the intricate relevance between aging and ferroptosis holds significant potential for developing strategies to counteract the detrimental effects of aging and age-related diseases. This will subsequently act to mitigate the negative consequences of aging and improving overall health in the elderly population. This review aims to clarify the relationship between aging and ferroptosis, and explores the underlying mechanisms and implications for age-related disorders, including neurodegenerative, cardiovascular, and neoplastic diseases. We also discuss the accumulating evidence suggesting that the imbalance of redox homeostasis and perturbations in iron metabolism contribute to the age-associated vulnerability to ferroptosis.

Luteolin-7-O-glucuronide alleviates doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity by inhibiting PPAR-mediated ferroptosis

Inhibiting ferroptosis has been proposed to rescue myocardial cell death in Doxorubicin (DOX)-induced cardiotoxicity (DIC). Here, we aimed to investigate whether luteolin-7-O-glucuronide (LOG) alleviates DIC via ferroptosis suppression in zebrafish and H9C2 cardiomyocytes, as well as the potential mechanism. We found that LOG improved zebrafish cardiac function and mitigated the upregulation of CK-MB, cTnT, nppa, and nppb caused by DOX. Moreover, LOG suppressed the high levels of ROS, GSSG, and MDA in response to DOX and increased GSH activity and gpx4 levels in zebrafish. Additionally, LOG increased cell viability and the GSH/GSSG ratio, reduced oxidative damage and the accumulation of ferrous ions, and maintained mitochondrial function in H9C2 cells. Mechanistically, LOG improved the abnormal expression of key genes in the PPAR signaling pathway and ferroptosis induced by DOX. In conclusion, our study emphasized that LOG attenuates DIC by mitigating oxidative stress-triggered lipid peroxidation related to the inhibition of PPAR-mediated ferroptosis.

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition promotes metabolic reprogramming to suppress ferroptosis

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a cellular de-differentiation process that provides cells with the increased plasticity and stem cell-like traits required during embryonic development, tissue remodeling, wound healing and metastasis. Morphologically, EMT confers tumor cells with fibroblast-like properties that lead to the rearrangement of cytoskeleton (loss of stiffness) and decrease of membrane rigidity by incorporating high level of poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in their phospholipid membrane. Although large amounts of PUFA in membrane reduces rigidity and offers capabilities for tumor cells with the unbridled ability to stretch, bend and twist in metastasis, these PUFA are highly susceptible to lipid peroxidation, which leads to the breakdown of membrane integrity and, ultimately results in ferroptosis. To escape the ferroptotic risk, EMT also triggers the rewiring of metabolic program, particularly in lipid metabolism, to enforce the epigenetic regulation of EMT and mitigate the potential damages from ferroptosis. Thus, the interplay among EMT, lipid metabolism, and ferroptosis highlights a new layer of intricated regulation in cancer biology and metastasis. Here we summarize the latest findings and discuss these mutual interactions. Finally, we provide perspectives of how these interplays contribute to cellular plasticity and ferroptosis resistance in metastatic tumor cells that can be explored for innovative therapeutic interventions.

Natural products and ferroptosis: A novel approach for heart failure management

BACKGROUND

The discovery of ferroptosis has brought a revolutionary breakthrough in heart failure treatment, and natural products, as a significant source of drug discovery, are gradually demonstrating their extraordinary potential in regulating ferroptosis and alleviating heart failure symptoms. In addition to chemically synthesized small molecule compounds, natural products have attracted attention as an important source for discovering compounds that target ferroptosis in treating heart failure.

PURPOSE

Systematically summarize and analyze the research progress on improving heart failure through natural products' modulation of the ferroptosis pathway.

METHODS

By comprehensively searching authoritative databases like PubMed, Web of Science, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure with keywords such as "heart failure", "cardiovascular disease", "heart disease", "ferroptosis", "natural products", "active compounds", "traditional Chinese medicine formulas", "traditional Chinese medicine", and "acupuncture", we aim to systematically review the mechanism of ferroptosis and its link with heart failure. We also want to explore natural small-molecule compounds, traditional Chinese medicine formulas, and acupuncture therapies that can inhibit ferroptosis to improve heart failure.

RESULTS

In this review, we not only trace the evolution of the concept of ferroptosis and clearly distinguish it from other forms of cell death but also establish a comprehensive theoretical framework encompassing core mechanisms such as iron overload and system xc-/GSH/GPX4 imbalance, along with multiple auxiliary pathways. On this basis, we innovatively link ferroptosis with various types of heart failure, covering classic heart failure types and extending our research to pre-heart failure conditions such as arrhythmia and aortic aneurysm, providing new insights for early intervention in heart failure. Importantly, this article systematically integrates multiple strategies of natural products for interfering with ferroptosis, ranging from monomeric compounds and bioactive components to crude extracts and further to traditional Chinese medicine formulae. In addition, non-pharmacological means such as acupuncture are also included.

CONCLUSION

This study fills the gap in the systematic description of the relationship between ferroptosis and heart failure and the therapeutic strategies of natural products, aiming to provide patients with more diverse treatment options and promote the development of the heart failure treatment field.

Inhibition of mitochondrial genome-encoded mitomiR-3 contributes to ZEB1 mediated GPX4 downregulation and pro-ferroptotic lipid metabolism to induce ferroptosis in breast cancer cells

Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent form of regulated cell death driven by lipid peroxidation, represents a unique vulnerability in cancer cells. However, current ferroptosis-inducing therapies face clinical limitations due to poor cancer cell specificity, systemic toxicity, and off-target effects. Therefore, a deeper understanding of molecular regulators of ferroptosis sensitivity is critical for developing targeted therapies. The metabolic plasticity of cancer cells determines their sensitivity to ferroptosis. While mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to metabolic reprogramming in cancer, its role in modulating ferroptosis remains poorly characterized. Previously, studies have identified that mitochondrial genome also encodes several non-coding RNAs. We identified 13 novel mitochondrial genome-encoded miRNAs (mitomiRs) that are aberrantly overexpressed in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell lines and patient tumors. We observed higher levels of mitomiRs in basal-like triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells compared to mesenchymal stem-like TNBC cells. Strikingly, 11 of these mitomiRs directly target the 3'UTR of ZEB1, a master regulator of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Using mitomiR-3 mimic, inhibitor and sponges, we demonstrated its role as a key regulator of ZEB1 expression in TNBC cells. Inhibition of mitomiR-3 via sponge construct in basal-like TNBC, MDA-MB-468 cells, promoted ZEB1 upregulation and induced a mesenchymal phenotype. Further, mitomiR-3 inhibition in TNBC cells contributed to reduced cancer cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Mechanistically, mitomiR-3 inhibition in TNBC cells promote metabolic reprogramming toward pro-ferroptotic pathways, including iron accumulation, increased polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) metabolites, and lipid peroxidation, contributing to ferroptotic cell death via ZEB1-mediated downregulation of GPX4, a critical ferroptosis defense enzyme. We observed that mitomiR-3 inhibition significantly suppressed tumor growth in vivo. Our identified mitomiR-3 has low expression in normal breast cells, minimizing potential off-target toxicity, making them a promising target for pro-ferroptotic cancer therapy. Our study reveals a novel link between mitochondrial miRNAs and ferroptosis sensitivity in TNBC paving a way for miRNA-based therapeutics.

Ferroptosis meets inflammation: A new frontier in cancer therapy

Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent form of regulated cell death driven by lipid peroxidation, has emerged as a critical player in cancer pathogenesis. Concurrently, inflammation, a key biological response to tissue injury or infection, significantly influences cancer development and progression. The interplay between ferroptosis and inflammation represents a promising yet underexplored area of research. This review synthesizes recent advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms governing their interaction, emphasizing how ferroptosis triggers inflammatory responses and how inflammatory mediators, such as TNF-α, regulate ferroptosis through iron metabolism and lipid peroxidation pathways. Key molecular targets within the ferroptosis-inflammation axis, including GPX4, ACSL4, and the NF-κB signaling pathway, offer therapeutic potential for cancer treatment. By modulating these targets, it may be possible to enhance ferroptosis and fine-tune inflammatory responses, thereby improving therapeutic outcomes. Additionally, this review explores the broader implications of targeting the ferroptosis-inflammation interplay in disease treatment, highlighting opportunities for developing innovative strategies to combat cancer. By bridging the gap in current knowledge, this review provides a comprehensive resource for researchers and clinicians, offering insights into the therapeutic potential of this intricate biological relationship.

Mitochondrial alanyl-tRNA synthetase 2 mediates histone lactylation to promote ferroptosis in intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury

BACKGROUND

Ferroptosis is a newly recognized form of regulated cell death characterized by iron-dependent accumulation of lipid reactive oxygen species. It has been extensively studied in various diseases, including cancer, Parkinson’s disease, and stroke. However, its precise role and underlying mechanisms in ischemia/ reperfusion injury, particularly in the intestinal ischemia-reperfusion (IIR), remain unclear. In current work, we aimed to investigate the participation of histone lactylation during IIR progression.

AIM

To investigate the role of mitochondrial alanyl-tRNA synthetase 2 (AARS2) in ferroptosis and its epigenetic regulation of acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4) through histone lactylation during IIR injury.

METHODS

We established a mouse model to mimic IIR and conducted AARS2 knockdown as treatment. The expression of AARS2 in intestinal tissues was measured by western blot. The integrity of intestinal tissues was detected by hematoxylin and eosin staining, serum fatty acid-binding protein, protein levels of ZO-1 and occluding. An in vitro hypoxia-reperfusion (H/R) cell model was established, and cell viability was measured by CCK-8. The in vitro and in vivo ferroptosis was determined by the accumulation of Fe²⁺ and malondialdehyde (MDA). The epigenetic regulation of ACSL4 by AARS2 was detected by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay and luciferase reporter assay.

RESULTS

We observed a notable elevated AARS2 level in intestinal tissue of mice in IIR model group, which was reversed by shAARS2 treatment. Knockdown of AARS2 repressed alleviated intestinal barrier disruption and repressed the accumulation of ferroptosis biomarker Fe²⁺ and MDA during IIR. The in vitro results showed that shAARS2 alleviated impaired cell viability caused by H/R, as well as repressed ferroptosis. Knockdown of AARS2 notably downregulated the RNA and protein expression of ACSL4. Mechanistically, knockdown of AARS2 downregulated the enrichment of H3K18 La modification on AARS2, as well as suppressed its promoter activity. Overexpression of AARS2 could abolish the protective effects of shACSL4 in vitro.

CONCLUSION

The elevation of AARS2 during IIR led to cell ferroptosis via epigenetically upregulating the expression of ACSL4. Our findings presented AARS2 as a promising therapeutic target for IIR.

Disrupting the immune homeostasis: the emerging role of macrophage ferroptosis in autoimmune diseases

Autoimmune diseases are a class of chronic disorders characterized by the aberrant activation of the immune system, where macrophages play a central role in regulating immune responses during disease onset and progression. Ferroptosis, a form of iron-dependent programmed cell death, has recently attracted significant interest due to its involvement in various pathological conditions. In macrophages, ferroptosis not only compromises cell viability but also disrupts immune homeostasis by promoting pro-inflammatory responses and suppressing anti-inflammatory pathways, thereby intensifying inflammation and exacerbating disease severity. While substantial progress has been made in elucidating macrophage ferroptosis in atherosclerosis and oncology, its precise mechanistic role in autoimmune diseases remains largely unexplored. This review systematically summarizes the molecular mechanisms of macrophage ferroptosis and its regulatory effects on immune homeostasis, with particular emphasis on its role in autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), multiple sclerosis (MS), and systemic sclerosis (SSc). Furthermore, we discuss potential therapeutic targets related to macrophage ferroptosis in these conditions. By integrating current knowledge, this review aims to provide a theoretical framework and novel perspectives for developing innovative therapeutic strategies targeting autoimmune diseases.

The role of ferroptosis in breast cancer: Tumor progression, immune microenvironment interactions and therapeutic interventions

Ferroptosis represents a distinctive and distinct form of regulated cellular death, which is driven by the accumulation of lipid peroxidation. It is distinguished by altered redox lipid metabolism and is linked to a spectrum of cellular activities, including cancer. In breast cancer (BC), with triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) being an iron-and lipid-rich tumor, inducing ferroptosis was thought to be a novel approach to killing breast tumor cells. However, in the recent past, a novel conceptual framework has emerged which posits that in addition to the promotion of tumor cell death, ferritin deposition has a potent immunosuppressive effect on the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) via the influence on both innate and adaptive immune responses. TIME of BC includes various cell populations from both the innate and adaptive immune systems. In this review, the internal association between iron homeostasis and the progression of ferroptosis, along with the common inducers and protectors of ferroptosis in BC, are discussed in detail. Furthermore, a comprehensive analysis is conducted on the dual role of ferroptosis in immune cells and proto-oncogenic functions, along with an evaluation of the potential applications of immunogenic cell death-targeted immunotherapy in TIME of BC. It is anticipated that our review will inform future research endeavors that seek to integrate ferroptosis and immunotherapy in the management of BC.

Epigenetic regulation of ferroptosis in gastrointestinal cancers (Review)

Ferroptosis is a type of iron‑dependent cell death characterized by excessive lipid peroxidation and may serve as a potential therapeutic target in cancer treatment. While the mechanisms governing ferroptosis continue to be explored and elucidated, an increasing body of research highlights the significant impact of epigenetic modifications on the sensitivity of cancer cells to ferroptosis. Epigenetic processes, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications and non‑coding RNAs, have been identified as key regulators that modulate the expression of ferroptosis‑related genes. These alterations can either enhance or inhibit the sensitivity of gastrointestinal cancer (GIC) cells to ferroptosis, thereby affecting the fate of GICs. Drugs that target epigenetic markers for advanced‑stage cancer have shown promising results in enhancing ferroptosis and inhibiting tumor growth. This review explores the intricate relationship between epigenetic regulation and ferroptosis in GICs. Additionally, the potential of leveraging epigenetic modifications to trigger ferroptosis in GICs is investigated. This review highlights the importance of further research to elucidate the specific mechanisms underlying epigenetic control of ferroptosis and to advance the development of novel therapeutic approaches.

Discovery of nuclear cavities in Epstein-Barr virus-infected cells

Approximately 90 % of humans are infected with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV); however, most do not develop neoplastic lesions. Despite various investigations, the underlying reasons remain largely unknown. Therefore, we aimed to address this question through morphological observations to identify the ultrastructural alterations occurring in EBV-infected cells. EBV-positive cells from legacy lymph node specimens obtained from patients with HIV and modern fresh specimens of aberrantly proliferating human EBV-positive lymphocytes in a patient-derived xenograft (PDX) of immunodeficient mouse were examined. By utilizing a special technique that allowed us to observe exactly the same specimen using both optical and electron microscopy, we were able to detect a peculiar phenomenon in EBV-infected cells. EBV-infected lymphocytes occasionally exhibited nuclear cavities, a finding that was confirmed in multiple specimens from both patients with HIV and the PDX model. It was suggested that EBV-infected cells may activate cell death pathways, based on the protein expression patterns of p53 and FAS. Taken together, these results indicated that nuclear cavity formation appeared to be a characteristic morphological alteration associated with EBV infection. Further research could clarify the potential relationship between nuclear cavities and cellular biology in EBV-infected cells, possibly shedding light on the mechanisms that prevent EBV-infected cells from progressing to tumor formation.

Ferroptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis in calcium oxalate crystal-induced kidney injury

Kidney stones represent a highly prevalent urological disorder worldwide, with high incidence and recurrence rates. Calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystal-induced kidney injury serves as the foundational mechanism for the formation and progression of CaOx stones. Regulated cell death (RCD) such as ferroptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis are essential in the pathophysiological process of kidney injury. Ferroptosis, a newly discovered RCD, is characterized by its reliance on iron-mediated lipid peroxidation. Necroptosis, a widely studied programmed necrosis, initiates with a necrotic phenotype that resembles apoptosis in appearance. Pyroptosis, a type of RCD that involves the gasdermin protein, is accompanied by inflammation and immune response. In recent years, increasing amounts of evidence has demonstrated that ferroptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis are significant pathophysiological processes involved in CaOx crystal-induced kidney injury. Herein, we summed up the roles of ferroptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis in CaOx crystal-induced kidney injury. Furthermore, we delved into the curative potential of ferroptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis in CaOx crystal-induced kidney injury.

The ferroptosis mediator ACSL4 fails to prevent disease progression in mouse models of MASLD

BACKGROUND

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is an increasingly prevalent condition and a major risk factor for chronic liver damage, potentially leading to steatohepatitis and HCC. It is already known that patients with MASLD show increased systemic and hepatic iron concentrations as well as perturbed lipid metabolism, suggesting the involvement of ferroptosis in the development and progression of MASLD. Consequently, inhibition of ferroptosis represents a potential therapeutic option for patients with MASLD.

METHODS

We investigated whether liver parenchymal cell-specific deletion (LPC-KO) of the pro-ferroptotic gene acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4LPC-KO) reduces MASLD onset and progression in mice. ACSL4LPC-KO and wild-type littermates were fed a choline-deficient high-fat diet (CD-HFD) or a Western diet for 20 weeks (CD-HFD and Western diet) or 40 weeks (CD-HFD only) to monitor MASLD progression and metabolic syndrome development.

RESULTS

In contrast to the recently published studies by Duan et al, our results show no significant differences between ACSL4LPC-KO and wild-type mice with regard to the development of MASLD or the progression of metabolic syndrome. Furthermore, no differences were observed in metabolic parameters (ie, weight gain, glucose tolerance test, hepatic steatosis) or MASLD-associated inflammatory response.

CONCLUSIONS

Our analyses, therefore, suggest that loss of ACSL4 has no effect on the progression of MASLD induced by CD-HFD or the Western diet. The discrepancy between our and previously published results could be due to differences in the diets or the influence of a distinct microbiome, so the results obtained with hepatocyte-specific ACSL4LPC-KO should be taken with caution.

Endothelial but not systemic ferroptosis inhibition protects from antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-induced crescentic glomerulonephritis

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitides (AAV) are systemic autoimmune diseases featuring small blood vessel inflammation and organ damage, including necrotizing crescentic glomerulonephritis (NCGN). Persistent vascular inflammation leads to endothelial and kidney cell necrosis. Ferroptosis is a regulated cell death pathway executed by reactive oxygen species and iron-dependent lipid peroxidation culminating in cell membrane rupture. Here we show that ANCA-activated neutrophils induced endothelial cell (EC) death in vitro that was prevented by ferroptosis inhibition with Ferrostatin-1, Liproxstatin-1 and small inhibiting RNA against the enzyme AcylCoA Synthetase Long Chain Family Member 4 (ACSL4). In contrast, neither necroptosis nor apoptosis inhibition affected EC death. Moreover, both ferroptosis inhibitors alleviated lipid peroxide accumulation in EC. Increased lipid peroxidation was detected in kidney sections of AAV mice by immunohistochemistry. We generated MPO-/- ACSL4flox Tie2-Cre+ mice lacking ACSL4 specifically in EC (ACSL4ΔEC) to study the significance of endothelial ferroptosis in vivo. ACSL4ΔEC chimeric mice, but not control mice (ACSL4WT), were protected from NCGN in an MPO-AAV bone-marrow transplantation model. These data establish that EC ferroptosis contributes to ANCA-induced glomerulonephritis. However, systemic pharmacological ferroptosis inhibition with Ferrostatin-1 or Liproxstatin-1 did not protect from NCGN in a murine AAV model. Ferrostatin-1 treatment both directly activated T-cell proliferation and indirectly myeloid-mediated T-cell proliferation and polarization in vitro. Conceivably, both effects may cancel the beneficial effect of endothelial ferroptosis inhibition. Mechanistically, we describe the importance of EC ferroptosis for the development of AAV. However, the lack of protection with systemic pharmacological ferroptosis inhibition should discourage clinicians from evaluating this treatment strategy in clinical AAV studies.

Ferroptosis: An emerging strategy for managing epithelial ovarian cancer

Ferroptosis is a regulated form of cell death characterised by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation, a process intricately linked to cellular redox homeostasis. This form of cell death is induced by the accumulation of intracellular iron and the subsequent generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which leads to lipid peroxidation and ultimately cell death. Ferroptosis is distinct from traditional forms of cell death, such as apoptosis, and holds significant therapeutic potential, particularly in cancers harboring rat sarcoma virus (RAS) mutations, such as epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC). EOC is notoriously resistant to conventional therapies and is associated with a poor prognosis. In this review, we examine recent progress in the understanding of ferroptosis, with a particular focus on its redox biology and the complex regulatory networks involved. We also propose a novel classification system for ferroptosis modulators, grouping them into six categories (I, II, III, IV, V and VI) based on their mechanisms of action and their roles in modulating cellular redox status. By refining these categories, we aim to provide deeper insights into the role of ferroptosis in cancer biology, especially in EOC, and to identify potential therapeutic avenues. We propose that further investigation of ferroptosis in the context of redox biology could reveal novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets, offering promising strategies to overcome resistance mechanisms and improve clinical outcomes for patients with EOC and other treatment-resistant cancers.

Iron metabolism in rheumatic diseases

Iron is a crucial element for living organism in terms of oxygen transport, hematopoiesis, enzymatic activity, mitochondrial respiratory chain function and also immune system function. The human being has evolved a mechanism to regulate body iron. In some rheumatic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematous (SLE), systemic sclerosis (SSc), ankylosing spondylitis (AS), and gout, this balanced iron regulation is impaired. Altered iron homeostasis can contribute to disease progression through ROS production, fibrosis, inflammation, abnormal bone homeostasis, NETosis and cell senescence. In this review, we have focused on the iron metabolism in rheumatic disease and its role in disease progression.

4, 9-dihydroxy-α-lapachone as a potent antiproliferation agent for triple-negative breast cancer via ferroptosis

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive and malignant breast cancer. Ferroptosis is an oxidative, iron-dependent form of regulated cell death. Ferroptosis-targeted therapies is a promising approach to improving treatment outcomes of TNBC. Combining death pathway inhibitors with relevant indices for ferroptosis and LipROS, this study uncovered that a natural product of 4, 9-dihydroxy-α-lapachone (DLN) from Catalpa bungei "jinsi" exhibited in vitro and in vivo inhibitory activity against TNBC via ferroptosis. The molecular mechanism is an activation of the FTH1 led to iron overload, and then inhibition of cysteine-glutamate antiporter (system Xc-) and GPX4, which further sensitized TNBC cells to ferroptosis. This study clarified the pathway of DLN-induced cell death in TNBC treatment and exhibited its potential as therapeutic agent for TNBC.

Germline mutation in Cbl proto-oncogene B is associated with inherited thrombocytopenia and predisposes megakaryocytes to ferroptosis

BACKGROUND

Inherited thrombocytopenias (ITs) are a group of heterogeneous diseases characterized by low platelet counts and bleeding diathesis. ITs are primarily caused by mutations in genes involved in megakaryocyte differentiation, maturation and platelet release. To date, ITs encompass 45 disorders with different degrees of variability in the prognosis.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to identify the predisposing gene in members of a family with inherited thrombocytopenia and elucidate its etiology and pathogenesis.

METHODS

Whole exome sequencing was performed using samples from the proband and the proband's family members. Sanger sequencing validated the mutation. A cellular model of the transmutated gene was established using a human megakaryocytic cell line. The influence of potential pathogenic mutation on T-cell functional population and megakaryocyte ferroptosis was evaluated.

RESULTS

Through whole exome sequencing of the proband and his family members (n = 4) we identified a potential pathologic c.2213A > G mutation (p.Asn738Ser) in the CBLB gene. The patients harboring the c.2213A > G mutant displayed an increased abundance of Th2/Tc2 cells. In lentivirus-transformed CMK cells with the c.2213A > G mutation, ferroptosis was significantly increased.

CONCLUSION

c.2213A > G mutation on the CBLB gene causes a new type of inherited thrombocytopenia, and the potential pathogenesis involves an imbalance in cellular immunity and excessive ferroptosis of megakaryocytes.

Scutellaria baicalensis Extracts Restrict Intestinal Epithelial Cell Ferroptosis by Regulating Lipid Peroxidation and GPX4/ACSL4 in Colitis

BACKGROUND

Ferroptosis in colonic epithelial cells has been implicated in the development of ulcerative colitis (UC) and the accompanying gut leakage. Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Scu) is widely used herb medicine for alleviating UC.

PURPOSE

We aimed to clarify the therapeutic effect of Scu on UC by inhibiting intestinal epithelial cell ferroptosis and explore its regulatory mechanisms on lipid peroxidation and the GPX4/ACSL4 pathways.

METHODS

UPLC-Q-TOF/MS was employed to analyze chemicals in the herbal extract and the colonic exposure of prototypes in Scu-treated mice. Additionally, the main compounds were quantified using HPLC-UV. The ameliorative effects of Scu were comprehensively explored in a UC mouse model established by feeding with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). HPLC-MS based metabolomic studies were conducted to identify the differential metabolites in colon tissues from Scu or vehicle treated UC mice. Network pharmacology was conducted for target prediction and potential pathway analysis. In conjunction with these bioinformatic analyses, we performed RT-qPCR, immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting to elucidate the regulatory mechanisms of Scu on ferroptosis-related pathways in both in vivo and in vitro models.

RESULTS

78 chemical constituents in Scu were characterized, with 42 detected in the colonic tissues of Scu-treated mice. Scu could alleviate UC related symptoms in mice, including increased colon length and decreased pathological score. Furthermore, Scu inhibited pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators, while improving gut barrier function by increasing the expression of ZO-1 and Occludin at both mRNA and protein levels. Based on metabolomic studies, a total of 71 differential metabolites exhibited a reversal trend following Scu administration. These findings, combined with results from network pharmacology, suggest that arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism and ferroptosis may serve as potential pathways for Scu intervention in UC. Further experiments indicated that the amelioratory actions of Scu on ferroptosis partially contributed to its modulation on lipid peroxidation and its regulatory influence on the GPX4/ASCL4 axis to ameliorate UC. When AA was administered at the same time as concurrently with Scu, the regulatory effects of Scu on ferroptosis, GPX4/ASCL4 axis, and its protective effects against UC were significantly reduced. Moreover, the inhibitory effect of Scu on ferroptosis was weakened when we knocked down GPX4 or overexpressed ACSL4 in vitro.

CONCLUSION

The ameliorative effect of Scu in UC is closely related to the regulation of lipid peroxidation and GPX4/ASCL4 mediated intestinal epithelial ferroptosis.

The role of NCOA4-mediated ferritinophagy in the ferroptosis of hepatocytes: A mechanistic viewpoint

This paper focuses on the mechanism underlying nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4)-mediated ferritinophagy and subsequent hepatocyte ferroptosis. Iron is a pivotal trace element, but excessive iron deposition can lead to liver injury. Ferroptosis is a recognized, iron-dependent mode of programmed cell death that plays an important role in various liver diseases. NCOA4 is a key molecule mediating the selective autophagic degradation of ferritin. It affects ferroptosis by regulating intracellular free iron levels. NCOA4 expression is regulated by various factors, including cellular iron levels and oxidative stress. It was demonstrated that inhibition of NCOA4 can reduce iron-mediated cell death and mitigate liver damage, suggesting that NCOA4 may be a potential target for the prevention and treatment of liver diseases. Further in-depth studies of the molecular mechanism of NCOA4-mediated ferritinophagy and its relationship with iron-induced cell death can provide novel ideas for the diagnosis and treatment of liver diseases. The deficiency or abnormal expression of NCOA4 is closely associated with ferroptosis in a variety of liver diseases, including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, alcoholic liver disease, drug-induced liver injury, and liver fibrosis. Future studies should focus on elucidating the dynamic changes in the NCOA4 regulatory network during specific pathological processes. This strategy can lay the foundation for drug development.

Autophagy induced by mechanical stress sensitizes cells to ferroptosis by NCOA4-FTH1 axis

Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent regulated form of cell death implicated in various diseases, including cancers, with its progression influenced by iron-dependent peroxidation of phospholipids and dysregulation of the redox system. Whereas the extracellular matrix of tumors provides mechanical cues influencing tumor initiation and progression, its impact on ferroptosis and its mechanisms remains largely unexplored. In this study, we reveal that heightened mechanical tension sensitizes cells to ferroptosis, whereas decreased mechanics confers resistance. Mechanistically, reduced mechanical tension reduces intracellular free iron levels by enhancing FTH1 protein expression. Additionally, low mechanics significantly diminishes NCOA4, pivotal in mediating FTH1 phase separation-induced ferritinophagy. Targeting NCOA4 effectively rescues ferroptosis susceptibility under low mechanical tension through modulation of FTH1 phase separation-driven autophagy. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that mechanics regulates iron metabolism via NCOA4-FTH1 phase separation-mediated autophagy, thereby influencing ferroptosis sensitivity and offering promising therapeutic avenues for future exploration.Abbreviations: ACO1: aconitase 1; ATG5: autophagy related 5; DMSO: dimethyl sulfoxide; EGFP: enhanced green fluorescent protein; FACS: fluorescence-activated cell sorting; FER-1: ferrostatin-1; FTH1: ferritin heavy chain 1; FTL: ferritin light chain; GPX4: glutathione peroxidase 4; IR: ionizing radiation; IREB2: iron responsive element binding protein 2; NCOA4: nuclear receptor coactivator 4; NFE2L2: NFE2 like bZIP transcription factor 2; NOPP: norepinephrine; PBS: phosphate-buffered saline; PI: propidium iodide; RSL3: (1S,3 R)-RSL3; TCGA: The Cancer Genome Atlas; WWTR1: WW domain containing transcription regulator 1; YAP1: Yes1 associated transcriptional regulator.

Developing a physiologically relevant cell model of ferroptosis in cardiomyocytes

Excessive intracellular labile iron levels exacerbate reactive oxygen species (ROS) production through the Fenton reaction, leading to lipid peroxidation and ferroptotic cell death. Ferroptosis is commonly induced experimentally using chemical inhibitors such as RSL3 (a GPX4 inhibitor) or erastin (an inhibitor of the cystine-glutamate exchanger, Xc-) or by cysteine deprivation. However, these methods often fail to replicate the physiological complexity of ferroptosis and are associated with off-target effects. This study establishes a physiologically relevant model of ferroptosis in cardiomyocytes using ferric acetate (FAC) and tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBH) to simulate iron overload and ROS generation. The combined application of FAC and TBH induced ferroptotic cell death, characterized by increased cytoplasmic Fe2+ levels, elevated lipid peroxidation, and a 2.5-fold rise in cell death, while FAC or TBH alone had minimal effects. Ferroptosis was confirmed by the complete prevention of cell death using ferrostatin-1 (a lipid peroxidation inhibitor) and ML351 (a 15-lipoxygenase inhibitor). Notably, this model bypasses the limitations of traditional synthetic inducers, such as off-target effects and inefficient mimicry of physiological conditions. Additionally, lipid peroxidation levels induced by the FAC-TBH combination were significantly higher than those induced by RSL3, further validating the relevance of this approach. These findings underscore the critical interplay between iron and ROS in ferroptotic cell death and highlight the utility of this model in advancing our understanding of ferroptosis mechanisms. This physiologically relevant system provides a robust platform for investigating therapeutic interventions targeting iron-induced oxidative stress and ferroptosis, particularly in conditions characterized by pathological iron accumulation, such as cardiomyopathies and ischemia-reperfusion injury. By focusing on the intrinsic drivers of ferroptosis, this work lays the groundwork for developing targeted treatments to mitigate ferroptosis-associated cellular damage.

Ferroptosis: A Targetable Vulnerability for Melanoma Treatment

Melanoma is a devastating form of skin cancer characterized by a high mutational burden, limited treatment success, and dismal prognosis. Although immunotherapy and targeted therapies have significantly revolutionized melanoma treatment, the majority of patients fail to achieve durable responses, highlighting the urgent need for novel therapeutic strategies. Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent form of regulated cell death driven by the overwhelming accumulation of lipid peroxides, has emerged as a promising therapeutic approach in preclinical melanoma models. A deeper understanding of the ferroptosis landscape in melanoma based on its biology characteristics, including phenotypic plasticity, metabolic state, genomic alterations, and epigenetic changes, as well as the complex role and mechanisms of ferroptosis in immune cells could provide a foundation for developing effective treatments. In this review, we outline the molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis, decipher the role of melanoma biology in ferroptosis regulation, reveal the therapeutic potential of ferroptosis in melanoma, and discuss the pressing questions that should guide future investigations into ferroptosis in melanoma.

The cGAS-STING-mediated ROS and ferroptosis are involved in manganese neurotoxicity

Manganese (Mn) has been characterized as an environmental pollutant. Excessive releases of Mn due to human activities have increased Mn levels in the environment over the years, posing a threat to human health and the environment. Long-term exposure to high concentrations of Mn can induce neurotoxicity. Therefore, toxicological studies on Mn are of paramount importance. Mn induces oxidative stress through affecting the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and the overabundance of ROS further triggers ferroptosis. Additionally, Mn2+ was found to be a novel activator of the cyclic guanosine-adenosine synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway in the innate immune system. Thus, we speculate that Mn exposure may promote ROS production by activating the cGAS-STING pathway, which further induces oxidative stress and ferroptosis, and ultimately triggers Mn neurotoxicity. This review discusses the mechanism between Mn-induced oxidative stress and ferroptosis via activation of the cGAS-STING pathway, which may offer a prospective direction for future in-depth studies on the mechanism of Mn neurotoxicity.

Therapeutic Approaches Targeting Ferroptosis in Cardiomyopathy

The term cardiomyopathy refers to a group of heart diseases that cause severe heart failure over time. Cardiomyopathies have been proven to be associated with ferroptosis, a non-apoptotic form of cell death. It has been shown that some small molecule drugs and active ingredients of herbal medicine can regulate ferroptosis, thereby alleviating the development of cardiomyopathy. This article reviews recent discoveries about ferroptosis, its role in the pathogenesis of cardiomyopathy, and the therapeutic options for treating ferroptosis-associated cardiomyopathy. The article aims to provide insights into the basic mechanisms of ferroptosis and its treatment to prevent cardiomyopathy and related diseases.

Iron metabolism and ferroptosis in health and diseases: The crucial role of mitochondria in metabolically active tissues

Iron is essential in various physiological processes, but its accumulation leads to oxidative stress and cell damage, thus iron homeostasis has to be tightly regulated. Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent non-apoptotic regulated cell death characterized by iron overload and reactive oxygen species accumulation. Mitochondria are organelles playing a crucial role in iron metabolism and involved in ferroptosis. MitoNEET, a protein of mitochondrial outer membrane, is a key element in this process. Ferroptosis, altering iron levels in several metabolically active organs, is linked to several non-communicable diseases. For example, iron overload in the liver leads to hepatic fibrosis and cirrhosis, accelerating non-alcholic fatty liver diseases progression, in the muscle cells contributes to oxidative damage leading to sarcopenia, and in the brain is associated to neurodegeneration. The aim of this review is to investigate the intricate balance of iron regulation focusing on the role of mitochondria and oxidative stress, and analyzing the ferroptosis implications in health and disease.

Carbon nanoparticles-Fe(II) complex combined with sorafenib for ferroptosis-induced antitumor effects in triple-negative breast cancer

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) represents an aggressive subtype of breast cancer that lacks the expression of estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2, whose systemic treatment options are currently limited to chemotherapy. Carbon nanoparticles-Fe(II) complex (CNSI-Fe) is a promising antitumor drug that induces ferroptosis to kill tumor cells efficiently. In this study, we combined CNSI-Fe and a ferroptosis inducer sorafenib (SRF) to achieve the efficient chemotherapy of TNBC. CNSI-Fe could adsorb SRF by hydrophobic interaction and π-π stacking with a maximum adsorption capacity of 31 mg/g. During the in vitro assays, CNSI-Fe+SRF combination inhibited the cell viability of 4T1 cells much more efficiently than CNSI-Fe or SRF alone. The high Fe uptake, hydroxyl radical generation and oxidative damages verified the ferroptosis of 4T1 cells upon the CNSI-Fe+SRF treatment. During the in vivo evaluations, SRF enhanced the therapeutic effect of CNSI-Fe as indicated by the higher tumor growth inhibition rate of 67.8 % and the higher survival rate. CNSI captured SRF in tumor to give a 6 mg/kg uptake, which lowered the glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) level and enhanced the hydroxyl radical production of 4T1 tumor. In addition, CNSI-Fe treatment up-regulated the genes associated with antioxidative responses, but the up-regulation was offset by SRF. CNSI-Fe+SRF group showed similar toxicity to mice as SRF alone in the biosafety evaluations. Our results collectively indicated that the combination of CNSI-Fe and SRF could efficiently treat TNBC through ferroptosis.

Exploring the Updated Roles of Ferroptosis in Liver Diseases: Mechanisms, Regulators, and Therapeutic Implications

Ferroptosis, a newly discovered mode of cell death, is a type of iron-dependent regulated cell death characterized by intracellular excessive lipid peroxidation and imbalanced redox. As the liver is susceptible to oxidative damage and the abnormal iron accumulation is a major feature of most liver diseases, studies on ferroptosis in the field of liver diseases are of great interest. Studies show that targeting the key regulators of ferroptosis can effectively alleviate or even reverse the deterioration process of liver diseases. System Xc- and glutathione peroxidase 4 are the main defense regulators of ferroptosis, while acyl-CoA synthetase long chain family member 4 is a key enzyme causing peroxidation in ferroptosis. Generally speaking, ferroptosis should be suppressed in alcoholic liver disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and drug-induced liver injury, while it should be induced in liver fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. In this review, we summarize the main regulators involved in ferroptosis and then the mechanisms of ferroptosis in different liver diseases. Treatment options of drugs targeting ferroptosis are further concluded. Determining different triggers of ferroptosis can clarify the mechanism of ferroptosis occurs at both physiological and pathological levels.

Cryptotanshinone alleviates cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury by regulating ferroptosis through the PI3K/AKT/Nrf2 and SLC7A11/GPX4 signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The Cryptotanshinone (CT) is a kind of Chinese medicine extracted from salvia miltiorrhiza, which has various pharmacological activities and is widely used in the treatment of diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The objective is to delve into the mechanism by which cryptotanshinone (CT) exerts its effects on rats with the middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R) model. Additionally, it aims to further assess the interplay between inflammation and oxidative stress, along with the underlying mechanism of CT's anti-ferroptosis function.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We constructed the middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R) model in rats. The effects of cryptotanshinone (CT) were evaluated using 2,3,5 - triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining, behavioral assays, immunofluorescence, hematoxylin - eosin (HE) staining, and Nissl staining. Additionally, in vitro, cell viability was assessed by the Cell Counting Kit - 8 (CCK - 8) assay following experimental dosing. Oxygen - glucose deprivation/oxidation (OGD/R) models were established in PC12 and BV2 cells. Flow cytometry was employed to detect cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) expression. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-px), and Mitochondrial Membrane Potential Assay Kit with JC-1(JC-1) were measured using biochemical methods. Inflammatory factor levels were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. Immunoblotting was used to detect the levels of rat phosphatidylinositol 3 - kinase (PI3K), phosphorylated-PI3K (P-PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT), phosphorylated - AKT (P-AKT), nuclear factor erythroid 2 - related factor 2 (Nrf2), solute carrier family 7 member 11 (SLC7A11), and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4).

RESULTS

In rats with the MCAO/R model, CT demonstrated the ability to decrease ROS levels, enhance the activity of glutathione (GSH), mitigate inflammation, augment the activity of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), inhibit ferroptosis, safeguard neurons, and facilitate the restoration of nerve function. Results from network pharmacology indicated that the action of CT might be mediated via the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Simultaneously, in-vivo investigations revealed that CT curbs ferroptosis through the PI3K/AKT/Nrf2 and SLC7A11/GPX4 signaling pathways.

CONCLUSION

CT can inhibit ferroptosis by inhibiting the vicious cycle between oxidative stress and inflammation, protect neurons and promote motor function recovery.

Targeting Acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4: a potential approach for the treatment of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury

Cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury causes high rates of morbidity and death. Recent studies have shown that ferroptosis, a type of controlled cell death brought on by lipid peroxidation, worsens cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. Acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4) has emerged as a crucial enzyme in lipid metabolism and ferroptosis in the context of ischemia/reperfusion injury, influencing neuronal cell death. Increased vulnerability to ferroptosis and worsening ischemia/reperfusion injury outcomes are linked to elevated ACSL4 levels. Comprehending the molecular processes underlying ACSL4-mediated ferroptosis may result in novel approaches to treating cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. The present review discusses ACSL4 as a potential target for treating cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury, focusing on ACSL4-mediated ferroptosis and signal transduction.

Identification of key ferroptosis genes in hepatocellular carcinoma and type 2 diabetes mellitus through bioinformatics analysis

Ferroptosis is a programmed cell death mode associated with iron metabolism, with accumulation of intracellular lipid peroxides, which is closely related to the occurrence and development of multiple diseases, including type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). T2DM is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by a combination of impaired insulin sensitivity and insufficient insulin production, frequently accompanied by obesity and fatty liver, which increases the risk of developing HCC. To explore the complex interactions between ferritin deposition, T2DM, and HCC, we performed bioinformatics analysis on publicly available gene expression data and identified 23 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) that are commonly expressed in both T2DM and HCC. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses revealed that these DEGs are primarily enriched in fatty acid metabolism and ferroptosis pathways. The weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) identified 6 key genes associated with the pathogenesis of both diseases. Taking the intersection of DEGs and iron deposition-related genes, we identified ACSL4 as a key ferroptosis gene involved in the co-morbidity of T2DM and HCC. To validate the bioinformatics findings, we assessed the expression of ACSL4 using Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, which revealed an Area Under the Curve (AUC) of 0.886 for HCC and 0.745 for T2DM. Additionally, an insulin resistance model was established in HepG2 cells by treatment with 350 µM palmitic acid (PA), resulting in significant changes in cell morphology. Oil Red O staining showed a marked increase in lipid accumulation. RT-PCR analysis further confirmed the significant alteration in ACSL4 gene expression. In conclusion, this study is the first to integrate bioinformatics tools to investigate the potential mechanistic links between iron metabolism and the comorbidity of T2DM and HCC, uncovering a novel pathogenic pathway. These findings provide new directions for drug development and therapeutic strategies in the future.

Ferroptosis: New Strategies for Clinical Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease that can lead to joint deformities, functional loss, and a significant reduction in patients' quality of life. It also imposes a considerable medical and socio-economic burden. Iron-induced cell death, or ferroptosis, is a unique form of programmed cell death characterized by dysregulated iron metabolism and the accumulation of lipid peroxides resulting from increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reduced activity of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4). The accumulation of lipid peroxides can cause cellular damage, promotes inflammatory responses and joint destruction. This process not only plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of RA, but also provides new therapeutic targets for its treatment. In this review, we summarize the regulatory mechanisms of ferroptosis in the pathogenesis of RA. These include its roles in regulating oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation, inhibiting the abnormal proliferation of synovial fibroblasts (FLSs), preventing cartilage erosion, restoring immune homeostasis and inflammatory responses, and other aspects. Finally, we also discuss the potential clinical applications, and future prospects of ferroptosis-based therapies for RA treatment.

Neuroferroptosis in health and diseases

Ferroptosis is a type of cell death process defined by iron-dependent peroxidation of phospholipids leading to the destruction of cellular membranes and death of the cell. Ferroptosis occurs throughout the body, but a considerable research focus on ferroptosis in the brain - neuroferroptosis - has been driven by the rich lipid and iron content of the brain as well as its high oxygen consumption. Neurons also have an exceptionally large surface area and metabolic demand, which necessitates specific mechanisms (such as lipid antioxidants) to engage constantly to protect the plasma membrane against lipid peroxidation. Ferroptosis has been extensively linked to neurodegeneration and ischaemia and is increasingly implicated in physiological processes such as neuronal reprogramming. Astrocytes provide metabolic support to neurons, enabling them to defend against ferroptosis, yet ferroptotic signals in microglia can propagate damage to astrocytes and neurons, highlighting the complex intercellular (patho)physiology of neuroferroptosis.

SPATA2/CYLD Pathway-Dependent Deubiquitylation of p53 Promotes Ferroptosis in Rat Heart After Ischaemia/Reperfusion Through Suppression of SLC7A11

BACKGROUND & AIM

Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent cell death and contributes to myocardial ischaemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Downregulation of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) is a key factor to accelerate ferroptosis, but the underlying mechanisms are not fully elucidated. Solute carrier family 7A member 11 (SLC7A11) plays a key role in maintaining the normal level of GPX4, and its transcription is suppressed by p53, whose level is controlled by spermatogenesis-associated protein 2 (SPATA2)/cylindromatosis (CYLD) pathway in a de-ubiquitination-dependent way. This study aims to explore whether SPATA2/CYLD pathway promotes myocardial ferroptosis in rat hearts after I/R through p53-dependent inhibition of SLC7A11.

METHODS

The rat hearts were subjected to 1 h-ischaemia plus 3 h-reperfusion to establish a myocardial I/R injury model, and H9c2 cells were subjected to 8 h-hypoxia plus 12 h-re-oxygenation (H/R) to mimic myocardial I/R injury in vitro.

RESULTS

Both the rat hearts and the cultured cardiomyocytes showed elevated levels of SPATA2 and CYLD, concomitant with the increased p53 levels and the enhanced interaction between SPATA2 and CYLD; these phenomena were reversed by knockdown of SPATA2. Mechanistically, knockdown of SPATA2 restored the ubiquitination of p53 and decreased p53 level in the H/R-treated cardiomyocytes, accompanied by increases in the levels of SLC7A11 and GPX4, and reduction of ferroptosis. Furthermore, suppression of SPATA2 by lurasidone, a predicted inhibitor of SPATA2, in the I/R-treated rat hearts also achieved similar results.

CONCLUSION

SPATA2/CYLD pathway-dependent de-ubiquitylation of p53 promotes ferroptosis in rat heart after I/R through a mechanism involving suppression of SLC7A11.

Deep transfer learning approach for automated cell death classification reveals novel ferroptosis-inducing agents in subsets of B-ALL

Ferroptosis is a recently described type of regulated necrotic cell death whose induction has anti-cancer therapeutic potential, especially in hematological malignancies. However, efforts to uncover novel ferroptosis-inducing therapeutics have been largely unsuccessful. In the current investigation, we classified brightfield microscopy images of tumor cells undergoing defined modes of cell death using deep transfer learning (DTL). The trained DTL network was subsequently combined with high-throughput pharmacological screening approaches using automated live cell imaging to identify novel ferroptosis-inducing functions of the polo-like kinase inhibitor volasertib. Secondary validation showed that subsets of B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) cell lines, namely 697, NALM6, HAL01, REH and primary patient B-ALL samples were sensitive to ferroptosis induction by volasertib. This was accompanied by an upregulation of ferroptosis-related genes post-volasertib treatment in cell lines and patient samples. Importantly, using several leukemia models, we determined that volasertib delayed tumor growth and induced ferroptosis in vivo. Taken together, we have applied DTL to automated live-cell imaging in pharmacological screening to identify novel ferroptosis-inducing functions of a clinically relevant anti-cancer therapeutic.

ω-6 PUFA-enriched membrane phospholipid composition of cardiomyocytes increases the susceptibility to iron-induced ferroptosis and inflammation

Ferroptosis is an attractive therapeutic target in cardiometabolic disease (CMD); however, its contribution to myocardial damage requires further elucidation. This study was designed to examine whether altered phospholipid composition in cardiomyocytes enhanced ferroptosis susceptibility, and the underlying mechanisms. Human iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes and H9c2 cells were used to study iron-induced lipid peroxidation, cell death, and inflammation after exposure to different types of fatty acids. Lipidomic analysis was performed using LC/MS to assess changes in phospholipid composition, with a focus on ω-6 PUFA-containing phospholipids. Cellular and mitochondrial lipid peroxidation, sterile inflammation, and cell death were evaluated. Additionally, the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and macrophage responses, including STING and type I interferon (IFN-I) signaling, were investigated. LC/MS lipidomic analysis indicated that treating cells with arachidonic acid (AA) elevated ω-6 PUFA-containing phospholipids, particularly phosphatidylethanolamines (PE) and phosphatidylcholines (PC). This significantly increased susceptibility to iron-induced total cellular as well as mitochondrial lipid peroxidation. Subsequently, increased release of mitochondrial DNA to cytosol was detected, resulting in both sterile inflammation and subsequent cell death. Furthermore, iron-induced release of one or more damage associated molecular patterns (DAMP) from AA-treated cells that induced crosstalk with macrophages eliciting a STING and type I interferon (IFN-I) response. These results indicate that cardiomyocytes enriched with ω-6 PUFA-containing phospholipids are more susceptible to lipid peroxidation, underscoring ferroptosis as a critical factor in myocardial damage associated with CMD.

Combinatorial Effects of Free and Nanoencapsulated Forms of Cabazitaxel and RAS-Selective Lethal 3 in Breast Cancer Cells

Background: Combination therapies for cancer have gained considerable attention due to their potential for enhancing therapeutic efficacy and decreasing drug resistance. Introducing nanodrug delivery systems in this context may further improve the therapy due to targeted delivery, improved drug stability, sustained drug release, and prevention of rapid clearance from circulation. This study evaluates the combinatorial effects of two cytotoxic drugs, cabazitaxel (CBZ) and RSL3 (RAS-selective lethal 3), in free form as well as encapsulated within poly(2-ethyl butyl cyanoacrylate) (PEBCA) nanoparticles (NPs) in breast cancer cell lines. Methods: Cell proliferation was assessed using IncuCyte technology, and synergistic drug effects were determined with SynergyFinder Plus. Cell viability was measured with the MTT assay. Additionally, we investigated whether the combinatorial effects were reflected in alterations of metabolic activity or reactive oxygen species (ROS) production using Seahorse technology and the CM-H2DCFDA assay, respectively. Results: The data presented reveal, for the first time, that CBZ and RSL3 exhibit synergistically or additively combinatorial effects on various breast cancer cell lines. The pattern of cytotoxic effects was consistent, whether the drugs were in free form or encapsulated in NPs. Moreover, the combinatorial effects were not observed to be associated with early changes in metabolic activity or ROS production. Conclusion: This study highlights the potential of CBZ and RSL3 in combinatorial nanomedicine as they may act synergistically. Further studies are warranted to better understand the mechanisms behind these combinatorial effects.

ALDH7A1 protects against ferroptosis by generating membrane NADH and regulating FSP1

Ferroptosis is a form of cell death due to iron-induced lipid peroxidation. Ferroptosis suppressor protein 1 (FSP1) protects against this death by generating antioxidants, which requires nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, reduced form (NADH) as a cofactor. We initially uncover that NADH exists at significant levels on cellular membranes and then find that this form of NADH is generated by aldehyde dehydrogenase 7A1 (ALDH7A1) to support FSP1 activity. ALDH7A1 activity also acts directly to decrease lipid peroxidation by consuming reactive aldehydes. Furthermore, ALDH7A1 promotes the membrane recruitment of FSP1, which is instigated by ferroptotic stress activating AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) to promote the membrane localization of ALDH7A1 that stabilizes FSP1 on membranes. These findings advance a fundamental understanding of NADH by revealing a previously unappreciated pool on cellular membranes, with the elucidation of its function providing a major understanding of how FSP1 acts and how an aldehyde dehydrogenase protects against ferroptosis.