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Miao YR, Rankin EB, Giaccia AJ. Therapeutic targeting of the functionally elusive TAM receptor family. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2024; 23:201-217. [PMID: 38092952 DOI: 10.1038/s41573-023-00846-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
The TAM receptor family of TYRO3, AXL and MERTK regulates tissue and immune homeostasis. Aberrant TAM receptor signalling has been linked to a range of diseases, including cancer, fibrosis and viral infections. Specifically, the dysregulation of TAM receptors can enhance tumour growth and metastasis due to their involvement in multiple oncogenic pathways. For example, TAM receptors have been implicated in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, maintaining the stem cell phenotype, immune modulation, proliferation, angiogenesis and resistance to conventional and targeted therapies. Therapeutically, multiple TAM receptor inhibitors are in preclinical and clinical development for cancers and other indications, with those targeting AXL being the most clinically advanced. Although there has been notable clinical advancement in recent years, challenges persist. This Review aims to provide both biological and clinical insights into the current therapeutic landscape of TAM receptor inhibitors, and evaluates their potential for the treatment of cancer and non-malignant diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Rebecca Miao
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Erinn B Rankin
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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2
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DeRyckere D, Huelse JM, Earp HS, Graham DK. TAM family kinases as therapeutic targets at the interface of cancer and immunity. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2023; 20:755-779. [PMID: 37667010 DOI: 10.1038/s41571-023-00813-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
Novel treatment approaches are needed to overcome innate and acquired mechanisms of resistance to current anticancer therapies in cancer cells and the tumour immune microenvironment. The TAM (TYRO3, AXL and MERTK) family receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are potential therapeutic targets in a wide range of cancers. In cancer cells, TAM RTKs activate signalling pathways that promote cell survival, metastasis and resistance to a variety of chemotherapeutic agents and targeted therapies. TAM RTKs also function in innate immune cells, contributing to various mechanisms that suppress antitumour immunity and promote resistance to immune-checkpoint inhibitors. Therefore, TAM antagonists provide an unprecedented opportunity for both direct and immune-mediated therapeutic activity provided by inhibition of a single target, and are likely to be particularly effective when used in combination with other cancer therapies. To exploit this potential, a variety of agents have been designed to selectively target TAM RTKs, many of which have now entered clinical testing. This Review provides an essential guide to the TAM RTKs for clinicians, including an overview of the rationale for therapeutic targeting of TAM RTKs in cancer cells and the tumour immune microenvironment, a description of the current preclinical and clinical experience with TAM inhibitors, and a perspective on strategies for continued development of TAM-targeted agents for oncology applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah DeRyckere
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Paediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Justus M Huelse
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Paediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - H Shelton Earp
- Department of Medicine, UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Douglas K Graham
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Department of Paediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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3
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Schneider K, Arandjelovic S. Apoptotic cell clearance components in inflammatory arthritis. Immunol Rev 2023; 319:142-150. [PMID: 37507355 PMCID: PMC10615714 DOI: 10.1111/imr.13256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the synovial joints that affects ~1% of the human population. Joint swelling and bone erosion, hallmarks of RA, contribute to disability and, sometimes, loss of life. Mechanistically, disease is driven by immune dysregulation characterized by circulating autoantibodies, inflammatory mediators, tissue degradative enzymes, and metabolic dysfunction of resident stromal and recruited immune cells. Cell death by apoptosis has been therapeutically explored in animal models of RA due to the comparisons drawn between synovial hyperplasia and paucity of apoptosis in RA with the malignant transformation of cancer cells. Several efforts to induce cell death have shown benefits in reducing the development and/or severity of the disease. Apoptotic cells are cleared by phagocytes in a process known as efferocytosis, which differs from microbial phagocytosis in its "immuno-silent," or anti-inflammatory, nature. Failures in efferocytosis have been linked to autoimmune disease, whereas administration of apoptotic cells in RA models effectively inhibits inflammatory indices, likely though efferocytosis-mediated resolution-promoting mechanisms. However, the nature of signaling pathways elicited and the molecular identity of clearance mediators in RA are understudied. Furthermore, canonical efferocytosis machinery elements also play important non-canonical functions in homeostasis and pathology. Here, we discuss the roles of efferocytosis machinery components in models of RA and discuss their potential involvement in disease pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Schneider
- University of Virginia, Center for Immunity, Inflammation and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Sanja Arandjelovic
- University of Virginia, Center for Immunity, Inflammation and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
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4
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Kitamura T. Tumour-associated macrophages as a potential target to improve natural killer cell-based immunotherapies. Essays Biochem 2023; 67:1003-1014. [PMID: 37313600 PMCID: PMC10539946 DOI: 10.1042/ebc20230002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Adoptive transfer of natural killer (NK) cells has been proposed as a novel immunotherapy for malignant tumours resistant to current therapeutic modalities. Several clinical studies have demonstrated that the NK cell-infusion is well tolerated without severe side effects and shows promising results in haematological malignancies. However, patients with malignant solid tumours do not show significant responses to this therapy. Such disappointing results largely arise from the inefficient delivery of infused NK cells and the impairment of their functions in the tumour microenvironment (TME). Tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the most abundant stromal cells in the TME of most solid tumours, and a high TAM density correlates with poor prognosis of cancer patients. Although our knowledge of the interactions between TAMs and NK cells is limited, many studies have indicated that TAMs suppress NK cell cytotoxicity against cancer cells. Therefore, blockade of TAM functions can be an attractive strategy to improve NK cell-based immunotherapies. On the other hand, macrophages are reported to activate NK cells under certain circumstances. This essay presents our current knowledge about mechanisms by which macrophages regulate NK cell functions and discusses possible therapeutic approaches to block macrophage-mediated NK cell suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takanori Kitamura
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom
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Pidkovka N, Belkhiri A. Altered expression of AXL receptor tyrosine kinase in gastrointestinal cancers: a promising therapeutic target. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1079041. [PMID: 37469409 PMCID: PMC10353021 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1079041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Gastrointestinal (GI) cancers that include all cancers of the digestive tract organs are generally associated with obesity, lack of exercising, smoking, poor diet, and heavy alcohol consumption. Treatment of GI cancers typically involves surgery followed by chemotherapy and/or radiation. Unfortunately, intrinsic or acquired resistance to these therapies underscore the need for more effective targeted therapies that have been proven in other malignancies. The aggressive features of GI cancers share distinct signaling pathways that are connected to each other by the overexpression and activation of AXL receptor tyrosine kinase. Several preclinical and clinical studies involving anti-AXL antibodies and small molecule AXL kinase inhibitors to test their efficacy in solid tumors, including GI cancers, have been recently carried out. Therefore, AXL may be a promising therapeutic target for overcoming the shortcomings of standard therapies in GI cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nataliya Pidkovka
- Department of Health Science, South College, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Abbes Belkhiri
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
- Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
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Zhai X, Pu D, Wang R, Zhang J, Lin Y, Wang Y, Zhai N, Peng X, Zhou Q, Li L. Gas6/AXL pathway: immunological landscape and therapeutic potential. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1121130. [PMID: 37265798 PMCID: PMC10231434 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1121130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer is a disease with ecological and evolutionary unity, which seriously affects the survival and quality of human beings. Currently, many reports have suggested Gas6 plays an important role in cancer. Binding of gas6 to TAM receptors is associated with the carcinogenetic mechanisms of multiple malignancies, such as in breast cancer, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, non-small cell lung cancer, melanoma, prostate cancer, etc., and shortened overall survival. It is accepted that the Gas6/TAM pathway can promote the malignant transformation of various types of cancer cells. Gas6 has the highest affinity for Axl, an important member of the TAM receptor family. Knockdown of the TAM receptors Axl significantly affects cell cycle progression in tumor cells. Interestingly, Gas6 also has an essential function in the tumor microenvironment. The Gas6/AXL pathway regulates angiogenesis, immune-related molecular markers and the secretion of certain cytokines in the tumor microenvironment, and also modulates the functions of a variety of immune cells. In addition, evidence suggests that the Gas6/AXL pathway is involved in tumor therapy resistance. Recently, multiple studies have begun to explore in depth the importance of the Gas6/AXL pathway as a potential tumor therapeutic target as well as its broad promise in immunotherapy; therefore, a timely review of the characteristics of the Gas6/AXL pathway and its value in tumor treatment strategies is warranted. This comprehensive review assessed the roles of Gas6 and AXL receptors and their associated pathways in carcinogenesis and cancer progression, summarized the impact of Gas6/AXL on the tumor microenvironment, and highlighted the recent research progress on the relationship between Gas6/AXL and cancer drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqian Zhai
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Lung Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Dan Pu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Lung Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Rulan Wang
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Lung Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jiabi Zhang
- Department of Nutrition and Integrative Physiology, College of Health, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Yiyun Lin
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, MD Anderson Cancer Center UT Health, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Yuqing Wang
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Ni Zhai
- Neurosurgery Intensive Care Unit, The 987th Hospital of the Joint Logistics Support Force of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, Baoji, Shanxi, China
| | - Xuan Peng
- Department of Pathophysiology, Hubei Minzu University, Enshi, Hubei, China
| | - Qinghua Zhou
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Lung Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Lu Li
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Lung Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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Safaroghli-Azar A, Emadi F, Lenjisa J, Mekonnen L, Wang S. Kinase inhibitors: Opportunities for small molecule anticancer immunotherapies. Drug Discov Today 2023; 28:103525. [PMID: 36907320 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2023.103525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
As the fifth pillar of cancer treatment, immunotherapy has dramatically changed the paradigm of therapeutic strategies by focusing on the host's immune system. In the long road of immunotherapy development, the identification of immune-modulatory effects for kinase inhibitors opened a new chapter in this therapeutic approach. These small molecule inhibitors not only directly eradicate tumors by targeting essential proteins of cell survival and proliferation but can also drive immune responses against malignant cells. This review summarizes the current standings and challenges of kinase inhibitors in immunotherapy, either as a single agent or in a combined modality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ava Safaroghli-Azar
- Drug Discovery and Development, University of South Australia, UniSA Clinical and Health Sciences, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Fatemeh Emadi
- Drug Discovery and Development, University of South Australia, UniSA Clinical and Health Sciences, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Jimma Lenjisa
- Drug Discovery and Development, University of South Australia, UniSA Clinical and Health Sciences, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Laychiluh Mekonnen
- Drug Discovery and Development, University of South Australia, UniSA Clinical and Health Sciences, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Shudong Wang
- Drug Discovery and Development, University of South Australia, UniSA Clinical and Health Sciences, SA 5000, Australia.
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8
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Huang H, Jiang J, Chen R, Lin Y, Chen H, Ling Q. The role of macrophage TAM receptor family in the acute-to-chronic progression of liver disease: From friend to foe? Liver Int 2022; 42:2620-2631. [PMID: 35900248 DOI: 10.1111/liv.15380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Hepatic macrophages, the key cellular components of the liver, emerge as essential players in liver inflammation, tissue repair and subsequent fibrosis, as well as tumorigenesis. Recently, the TAM receptor tyrosine kinase family, consisting of Tyro3, Axl and MerTK, was found to be a pivotal modulator of macrophages. Activation of macrophage TAM receptor signalling promotes the efferocytosis of apoptotic cells and skews the polarization of macrophages. After briefly reviewing the mechanisms of TAM receptor signalling in macrophage polarization, we focus on their role in liver diseases from acute injury to chronic inflammation, fibrosis and then to tumorigenesis. Notably, macrophage TAM receptor signalling seems to be a two-edged sword for liver diseases. On one hand, the activation of TAM receptor signalling inhibits inflammation and facilitates tissue repair during acute liver injury. On the other hand, continuous activation of the signalling contributes to the process of chronic inflammation into fibrosis and tumorigenesis by evoking hepatic stellate cells and inhibiting anti-tumour immunity. Therefore, targeting macrophage TAM receptors and clarifying its downstream pathways will be exciting prospects for the precaution and treatment of liver diseases, particularly at different stages or statuses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Huang
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jingyu Jiang
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ruihan Chen
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yimou Lin
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hui Chen
- NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qi Ling
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China.,Alibaba-Zhejiang University Joint Research Center of Future Digital Healthcare, Hangzhou, China
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9
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Kosta A, Mekhloufi A, Lucantonio L, Zingoni A, Soriani A, Cippitelli M, Gismondi A, Fazio F, Petrucci MT, Santoni A, Stabile H, Fionda C. GAS6/TAM signaling pathway controls MICA expression in multiple myeloma cells. Front Immunol 2022; 13:942640. [PMID: 35967396 PMCID: PMC9368199 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.942640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
NKG2D ligands play a relevant role in Natural Killer (NK) cell -mediated immune surveillance of multiple myeloma (MM). Different levels of regulation control the expression of these molecules at cell surface. A number of oncogenic proteins and miRNAs act as negative regulators of NKG2D ligand transcription and translation, but the molecular mechanisms sustaining their basal expression in MM cells remain poorly understood. Here, we evaluated the role of the growth arrest specific 6 (GAS6)/TAM signaling pathway in the regulation of NKG2D ligand expression and MM recognition by NK cells. Our data showed that GAS6 as well as MERTK and AXL depletion in MM cells results in MICA downregulation and inhibition of NKG2D-mediated NK cell degranulation. Noteworthy, GAS6 derived from bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) also increases MICA expression at both protein and mRNA level in human MM cell lines and in primary malignant plasma cells. NF-kB activation is required for these regulatory mechanisms since deletion of a site responsive for this transcription factor compromises the induction of mica promoter by BMSCs. Accordingly, knockdown of GAS6 reduces the capability of BMSCs to activate NF-kB pathway as well as to enhance MICA expression in MM cells. Taken together, these results shed light on molecular mechanism underlying NKG2D ligand regulation and identify GAS6 protein as a novel autocrine and paracrine regulator of basal expression of MICA in human MM cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Kosta
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Abdelilah Mekhloufi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Lorenzo Lucantonio
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandra Zingoni
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandra Soriani
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Marco Cippitelli
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Angela Gismondi
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Fazio
- Division of Hematology, Department of Translational Medicine and Precision, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Teresa Petrucci
- Division of Hematology, Department of Translational Medicine and Precision, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Angela Santoni
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Helena Stabile
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- *Correspondence: Cinzia Fionda, ; Helena Stabile,
| | - Cinzia Fionda
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- *Correspondence: Cinzia Fionda, ; Helena Stabile,
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Zhang X, Meng T, Cui S, Liu D, Pang Q, Wang P. Roles of ubiquitination in the crosstalk between tumors and the tumor microenvironment (Review). Int J Oncol 2022; 61:84. [PMID: 35616129 PMCID: PMC9170352 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2022.5374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The interaction between a tumor and the tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a key role in tumorigenesis and tumor progression. Ubiquitination, a crucial post-translational modification for regulating protein degradation and turnover, plays a role in regulating the crosstalk between a tumor and the TME. Thus, identifying the roles of ubiquitination in the process may assist researchers to investigate the mechanisms underlying tumorigenesis and tumor progression. In the present review article, new insights into the substrates for ubiquitination that are involved in the regulation of hypoxic environments, angiogenesis, chronic inflammation-mediated tumor formation, and the function of cancer-associated fibroblasts and infiltrating immune cells (tumor-associated macrophages, T-cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, dendritic cells, and natural killer cells) are summarized. In addition, the potential targets of the ubiquitination proteasome system within the TME for cancer therapy and their therapeutic effects are reviewed and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuzhen Zhang
- Anti‑aging and Regenerative Medicine Research Institution, School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong 255000, P.R. China
| | - Tong Meng
- Tongji University Cancer Center, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital of Tongji University, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, P.R. China
| | - Shuaishuai Cui
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong 255000, P.R. China
| | - Dongwu Liu
- Anti‑aging and Regenerative Medicine Research Institution, School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong 255000, P.R. China
| | - Qiuxiang Pang
- Anti‑aging and Regenerative Medicine Research Institution, School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong 255000, P.R. China
| | - Ping Wang
- Tongji University Cancer Center, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital of Tongji University, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, P.R. China
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11
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Two-Front War on Cancer-Targeting TAM Receptors in Solid Tumour Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14102488. [PMID: 35626092 PMCID: PMC9140196 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14102488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary In recent years, many studies have shown the importance of TAM kinases in both normal and neoplastic cells. In this review, we present and discuss the role of the TAM family (AXL, MERTK, TYRO3) of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) as a dual target in cancer, due to their intrinsic roles in tumour cell survival, migration, chemoresistance, and their immunosuppressive roles in the tumour microenvironment. This review presents the potential of TAMs as emerging therapeutic targets in cancer treatment, focusing on the distinct structures of TAM receptor tyrosine kinases. We analyse and compare different strategies of TAM inhibition, for a full perspective of current and future battlefields in the war with cancer. Abstract Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are transmembrane receptors that bind growth factors and cytokines and contain a regulated kinase activity within their cytoplasmic domain. RTKs play an important role in signal transduction in both normal and malignant cells, and their encoding genes belong to the most frequently affected genes in cancer cells. The TAM family proteins (TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK) are involved in diverse biological processes: immune regulation, clearance of apoptotic cells, platelet aggregation, cell proliferation, survival, and migration. Recent studies show that TAMs share overlapping functions in tumorigenesis and suppression of antitumour immunity. MERTK and AXL operate in innate immune cells to suppress inflammatory responses and promote an immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment, while AXL expression correlates with epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, metastasis, and motility in tumours. Therefore, TAM RTKs represent a dual target in cancer due to their intrinsic roles in tumour cell survival, migration, chemoresistance, and their immunosuppressive roles in the tumour microenvironment (TME). In this review, we discuss the potential of TAMs as emerging therapeutic targets in cancer treatment. We critically assess and compare current approaches to target TAM RTKs in solid tumours and the development of new inhibitors for both extra- and intracellular domains of TAM receptor kinases.
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Engelsen AST, Lotsberg ML, Abou Khouzam R, Thiery JP, Lorens JB, Chouaib S, Terry S. Dissecting the Role of AXL in Cancer Immune Escape and Resistance to Immune Checkpoint Inhibition. Front Immunol 2022; 13:869676. [PMID: 35572601 PMCID: PMC9092944 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.869676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The development and implementation of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors (ICI) in clinical oncology have significantly improved the survival of a subset of cancer patients with metastatic disease previously considered uniformly lethal. However, the low response rates and the low number of patients with durable clinical responses remain major concerns and underscore the limited understanding of mechanisms regulating anti-tumor immunity and tumor immune resistance. There is an urgent unmet need for novel approaches to enhance the efficacy of ICI in the clinic, and for predictive tools that can accurately predict ICI responders based on the composition of their tumor microenvironment. The receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) AXL has been associated with poor prognosis in numerous malignancies and the emergence of therapy resistance. AXL is a member of the TYRO3-AXL-MERTK (TAM) kinase family. Upon binding to its ligand GAS6, AXL regulates cell signaling cascades and cellular communication between various components of the tumor microenvironment, including cancer cells, endothelial cells, and immune cells. Converging evidence points to AXL as an attractive molecular target to overcome therapy resistance and immunosuppression, supported by the potential of AXL inhibitors to improve ICI efficacy. Here, we review the current literature on the prominent role of AXL in regulating cancer progression, with particular attention to its effects on anti-tumor immune response and resistance to ICI. We discuss future directions with the aim to understand better the complex role of AXL and TAM receptors in cancer and the potential value of this knowledge and targeted inhibition for the benefit of cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnete S. T. Engelsen
- Centre for Cancer Biomarkers and Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Maria L. Lotsberg
- Centre for Cancer Biomarkers and Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Raefa Abou Khouzam
- Thumbay Research Institute for Precision Medicine, Gulf Medical University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates
| | - Jean-Paul Thiery
- Centre for Cancer Biomarkers and Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Guangzhou Laboratory, Guangzhou, China
- Inserm, UMR 1186, Integrative Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Villejuif, France
| | - James B. Lorens
- Centre for Cancer Biomarkers and Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Salem Chouaib
- Thumbay Research Institute for Precision Medicine, Gulf Medical University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates
- Inserm, UMR 1186, Integrative Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Villejuif, France
- Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
- Faculty of Medicine, University Paris Sud, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | - Stéphane Terry
- Inserm, UMR 1186, Integrative Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Villejuif, France
- Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
- Faculty of Medicine, University Paris Sud, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
- Research Department, Inovarion, Paris, France
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13
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Wang J, Yu C, Zhuang J, Qi W, Jiang J, Liu X, Zhao W, Cao Y, Wu H, Qi J, Zhao RC. The role of phosphatidylserine on the membrane in immunity and blood coagulation. Biomark Res 2022; 10:4. [PMID: 35033201 PMCID: PMC8760663 DOI: 10.1186/s40364-021-00346-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The negatively charged aminophospholipid, phosphatidylserine (PtdSer), is located in the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane in normal cells, and may be exposed to the outer leaflet under some immune and blood coagulation processes. Meanwhile, Ptdser exposed to apoptotic cells can be recognized and eliminated by various immune cells, whereas on the surface of activated platelets Ptdser interacts with coagulation factors prompting enhanced production of thrombin which significantly facilitates blood coagulation. In the case where PtdSer fails in exposure or mistakenly occurs, there are occurrences of certain immunological and haematological diseases, such as the Scott syndrome and Systemic lupus erythematosus. Besides, viruses (e.g., Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Ebola virus (EBOV)) can invade host cells through binding the exposed PtdSer. Most recently, the Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been similarly linked to PtdSer or its receptors. Therefore, it is essential to comprehensively understand PtdSer and its functional characteristics. Therefore, this review summarizes Ptdser, its eversion mechanism; interaction mechanism, particularly with its immune receptors and coagulation factors; recognition sites; and its function in immune and blood processes. This review illustrates the potential aspects for the underlying pathogenic mechanism of PtdSer-related diseases, and the discovery of new therapeutic strategies as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiao Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China.
| | - Changxin Yu
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Junyi Zhuang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Wenxin Qi
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Jiawen Jiang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Xuanting Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Wanwei Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Yiyang Cao
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Hao Wu
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Jingxuan Qi
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Robert Chunhua Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai, 200444, China.
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, No. 5 Dongdansantiao, Beijing, 100005, China.
- Centre of Excellence in Tissue Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.
- Beijing Key Laboratory of New Drug Development and Clinical Trial of Stem Cell Therapy (BZ0381), Beijing, China.
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14
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Abstract
Extensive interest in cancer immunotherapy is reported according to the clinical importance of CTLA-4 and (PD-1/PD-L1) [programmed death (PD) and programmed death-ligand (PD-L1)] in immune checkpoint therapies. AXL is a receptor tyrosine kinase expressed in different types of cancer and in relation to resistance against various anticancer therapeutics due to poor clinical prognosis. AXL and its ligand, i.e., growth arrest-specific 6 (GAS6) proteins, are expressed on many cancer cells, and the GAS6/AXL pathway is reported to promote cancer cell proliferation, survival, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and immune evasion. AXL is an attractive and novel therapeutic target for impairing tumor progression from immune cell contracts in the tumor microenvironment. The GAS6/AXL pathway is also of interest immunologically because it targets fewer antitumor immune responses. In effect, several targeted therapies are selective and nonselective for AXL, which are in preclinical and clinical development in multiple cancer types. Therefore, this review focuses on the role of the GAS6/AXL signaling pathway in triggering the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment as immune evasion. This includes regulating its composition and activating T-cell exclusion with the immune-suppressive activity of regulatory T cells, which is related to one of the hallmarks of cancer survival. Finally, this article discusses the GAS6/AXL signaling pathway in the context of several immune responses such as NK cell activation, apoptosis, and tumor-specific immunity, especially PD-1/PDL-1 signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye-Youn Son
- Department of Breast and Endocrine Surgery, Center for Medical Innovation, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hwan-Kyu Jeong
- School of Biosystems and Biomedical Sciences, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
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15
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Yan D, Earp HS, DeRyckere D, Graham DK. Targeting MERTK and AXL in EGFR Mutant Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:5639. [PMID: 34830794 PMCID: PMC8616094 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13225639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
MERTK and AXL are members of the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases and are abnormally expressed in 69% and 93% of non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLCs), respectively. Expression of MERTK and/or AXL provides a survival advantage for NSCLC cells and correlates with lymph node metastasis, drug resistance, and disease progression in patients with NSCLC. The TAM receptors on host tumor infiltrating cells also play important roles in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Thus, MERTK and AXL are attractive biologic targets for NSCLC treatment. Here, we will review physiologic and oncologic roles for MERTK and AXL with an emphasis on the potential to target these kinases in NSCLCs with activating EGFR mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Yan
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (D.Y.); (D.D.)
| | - H. Shelton Earp
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA;
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Deborah DeRyckere
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (D.Y.); (D.D.)
| | - Douglas K. Graham
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (D.Y.); (D.D.)
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16
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Intrinsic and Extrinsic Control of Hepatocellular Carcinoma by TAM Receptors. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13215448. [PMID: 34771611 PMCID: PMC8582520 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13215448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK are receptor tyrosine kinases of the TAM family, which are activated by their ligands Gas6 and Protein S. TAM receptors have large physiological implications, including the removal of dead cells, activation of immune cells, and prevention of bleeding. In the last decade, TAM receptors have been suggested to play a relevant role in liver fibrogenesis and the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. The understanding of TAM receptor functions in tumor cells and their cellular microenvironment is of utmost importance to advances in novel therapeutic strategies that conquer chronic liver disease including hepatocellular carcinoma. Abstract Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the major subtype of liver cancer, showing high mortality of patients due to limited therapeutic options at advanced stages of disease. The receptor tyrosine kinases Tyro3, Axl and MerTK—belonging to the TAM family—exert a large impact on various aspects of cancer biology. Binding of the ligands Gas6 or Protein S activates TAM receptors causing homophilic dimerization and heterophilic interactions with other receptors to modulate effector functions. In this context, TAM receptors are major regulators of anti-inflammatory responses and vessel integrity, including platelet aggregation as well as resistance to chemotherapy. In this review, we discuss the relevance of TAM receptors in the intrinsic control of HCC progression by modulating epithelial cell plasticity and by promoting metastatic traits of neoplastic hepatocytes. Depending on different etiologies of HCC, we further describe the overt role of TAM receptors in the extrinsic control of HCC progression by focusing on immune cell infiltration and fibrogenesis. Additionally, we assess TAM receptor functions in the chemoresistance against clinically used tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immune checkpoint blockade in HCC progression. We finally address the question of whether inhibition of TAM receptors can be envisaged for novel therapeutic strategies in HCC.
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17
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Lee HY, Lee EH, Yi J, Ji KY, Kim SM, Choi HR, Yee SM, Kang HS, Kim EM. TREM2 promotes natural killer cell development in CD3 -CD122 +NK1.1 + pNK cells. BMC Immunol 2021; 22:30. [PMID: 33980160 PMCID: PMC8114489 DOI: 10.1186/s12865-021-00420-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) signaling is considered to regulate anti-inflammatory responses in macrophages, dendritic cell maturation, osteoclast development, induction of obesity, and Alzheimer’s disease pathogenesis. However, little is known regarding the effect of TREM2 on natural killer (NK) cells. Results Here, we demonstrated for the first time that CD3−CD122+NK1.1+ precursor NK (pNK) cells expressed TREM2 and their population increased in TREM2-overexpressing transgenic (TREM2-TG) mice compared with that in female C57BL/6 J wild type (WT) mice. Both NK cell-activating receptors and NK cell-associated genes were expressed at higher levels in various tissues of TREM2-TG mice than in WT mice. In addition, bone marrow-derived hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) of TREM2-TG mice (TG-HSCs) successfully differentiated into NK cells in vitro, with a higher yield from TG-HSCs than from WT-HSCs. In contrast, TREM2 signaling inhibition by TREM2-Ig or a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor affected the expression of the NK cell receptor repertoire and decreased the expression levels of NK cell-associated genes, resulting in significant impairment of NK cell differentiation. Moreover, in melanoma-bearing WT mice, injection of bone marrow cells from TREM2-TG mice exerted greater antitumor effects than that with cells from WT control mice. Conclusions Collectively, our data clearly showed that TREM2 promoted NK cell development and tumor regression, suggesting TREM2 as a new candidate for cancer immunotherapy. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12865-021-00420-0.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hwa-Youn Lee
- Chemicals Registration & Evaluation Team, National Institute of Environmental Research, Hwangyeong-ro 42, Seo-gu, Incheon, 22689, Korea
| | - Eun-Hee Lee
- Medical Device Development Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation, 80 Cheombok-ro, Dong-gu, Daegu, 41061, Korea
| | - Jawoon Yi
- School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61186, Republic of Korea
| | - Kon-Young Ji
- Herbal Medicine Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, 461-24 Jeonmin-dong, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34054, Korea
| | - Su-Man Kim
- School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61186, Republic of Korea
| | - Ha-Rim Choi
- Department of Nursing, Nambu University, 23 Chumdan Jungang-ro, Gwangsan-gu, Gwangju, 62271, Korea
| | - Su-Min Yee
- School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61186, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung-Sik Kang
- School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61186, Republic of Korea.
| | - Eun-Mi Kim
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, 141 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea.
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18
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Zhou L, Matsushima GK. Tyro3, Axl, Mertk receptor-mediated efferocytosis and immune regulation in the tumor environment. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 361:165-210. [PMID: 34074493 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2021.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Three structurally related tyrosine receptor cell surface kinases, Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk (TAM) have been recognized to modulate immune function, tissue homeostasis, cardiovasculature, and cancer. The TAM receptor family appears to operate in adult mammals across multiple cell types, suggesting both widespread and specific regulation of cell functions and immune niches. TAM family members regulate tissue homeostasis by monitoring the presence of phosphatidylserine expressed on stressed or apoptotic cells. The detection of phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cells requires intermediary molecules that opsonize the dying cells and tether them to TAM receptors on phagocytes. This complex promotes the engulfment of apoptotic cells, also known as efferocytosis, that leads to the resolution of inflammation and tissue healing. The immune mechanisms dictating these processes appear to fall upon specific family members or may involve a complex of different receptors acting cooperatively to resolve and repair damaged tissues. Here, we focus on the role of TAM receptors in triggering efferocytosis and its consequences in the regulation of immune responses in the context of inflammation and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liwen Zhou
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Glenn K Matsushima
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States; UNC Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States; UNC Integrative Program for Biological & Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States.
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19
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Aehnlich P, Powell RM, Peeters MJW, Rahbech A, thor Straten P. TAM Receptor Inhibition-Implications for Cancer and the Immune System. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13061195. [PMID: 33801886 PMCID: PMC7998716 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13061195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary TAM receptors are a family of receptor tyrosine kinases, comprising Tyro3, Axl and MerTK. Their primary role is in digestion of dying cells by macrophages without alarming the immune system. TAM receptors are also expressed by cancer cells in which signaling is oncogenic, and for this reason there is growing interest and research into TAM inhibition. This approach to cancer treatment may, however, come into conflict with beneficial and costimulatory TAM receptor signaling in T cells and natural killer (NK) cells. The aim of this review is to explore in detail the effects of TAM receptor inhibition on cancer cells and immune cells, and how the ramifications of this inhibition may affect cancer treatment in humans. Abstract Tyro3, Axl and MerTK (TAM) receptors are receptor tyrosine kinases which play important roles in efferocytosis and in the balancing of immune responses and inflammation. TAM receptor activation is induced upon binding of the ligands protein S (Pros1) or growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6) which act as bridging molecules for binding of phosphatidyl serine (PtdSer) exposed on apoptotic cell membranes. Upon clearance of apoptotic cell material, TAM receptor activation on innate cells suppresses proinflammatory functions, thereby ensuring the immunologically silent removal of apoptotic material in the absence of deleterious immune responses. However, in T cells, MerTK signaling is costimulatory and promotes activation and functional output of the cell. MerTK and Axl are also aberrantly expressed in a range of both hematological and solid tumor malignancies, including breast, lung, melanoma and acute myeloid leukemia, where they have a role in oncogenic signaling. Consequently, TAM receptors are being investigated as therapeutic targets using small molecule inhibitors and have already demonstrated efficacy in mouse tumor models. Thus, inhibition of TAM signaling in cancer cells could have therapeutic value but given the opposing roles of TAM signaling in innate cells and T cells, TAM inhibition could also jeopardize anticancer immune responses. This conflict is discussed in this review, describing the effects of TAM inhibition on cancer cells as well as immune cells, while also examining the intricate interplay of cancer and immune cells in the tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia Aehnlich
- National Center for Cancer Immune Therapy (CCIT-DK), Department of Oncology, Copenhagen University Hospital Herlev, 2730 Herlev, Denmark; (M.J.W.P.); (A.R.)
- Correspondence: (P.A.); (R.M.P.); (P.t.S.)
| | - Richard Morgan Powell
- National Center for Cancer Immune Therapy (CCIT-DK), Department of Oncology, Copenhagen University Hospital Herlev, 2730 Herlev, Denmark; (M.J.W.P.); (A.R.)
- Correspondence: (P.A.); (R.M.P.); (P.t.S.)
| | - Marlies J. W. Peeters
- National Center for Cancer Immune Therapy (CCIT-DK), Department of Oncology, Copenhagen University Hospital Herlev, 2730 Herlev, Denmark; (M.J.W.P.); (A.R.)
| | - Anne Rahbech
- National Center for Cancer Immune Therapy (CCIT-DK), Department of Oncology, Copenhagen University Hospital Herlev, 2730 Herlev, Denmark; (M.J.W.P.); (A.R.)
| | - Per thor Straten
- National Center for Cancer Immune Therapy (CCIT-DK), Department of Oncology, Copenhagen University Hospital Herlev, 2730 Herlev, Denmark; (M.J.W.P.); (A.R.)
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Correspondence: (P.A.); (R.M.P.); (P.t.S.)
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20
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Post SM, Andreeff M, DiNardo C, Khoury JD, Ruvolo PP. TAM kinases as regulators of cell death. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2021; 1868:118992. [PMID: 33647320 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2021.118992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2021] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Receptor Tyrosine Kinases are critical regulators of signal transduction that support cell survival, proliferation, and differentiation. Dysregulation of normal Receptor Tyrosine Kinase function by mutation or other activity-altering event can be oncogenic or can impact the transformed malignant cell so it becomes particularly resistant to stress challenge, have increased proliferation, become evasive to immune surveillance, and may be more prone to metastasis of the tumor to other organ sites. The TAM family of Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (TYRO3, AXL, MERTK) is emerging as important components of malignant cell survival in many cancers. The TAM kinases are important regulators of cellular homeostasis and proper cell differentiation in normal cells as receptors for their ligands GAS6 and Protein S. They also are critical to immune and inflammatory processes. In malignant cells, the TAM kinases can act as ligand independent co-receptors to mutant Receptor Tyrosine Kinases and in some cases (e.g. FLT3-ITD mutant) are required for their function. They also have a role in immune checkpoint surveillance. At the time of this review, the Covid-19 pandemic poses a global threat to world health. TAM kinases play an important role in host response to many viruses and it is suggested the TAM kinases may be important in aspects of Covid-19 biology. This review will cover the TAM kinases and their role in these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean M Post
- Department of Leukemia, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - Michael Andreeff
- Department of Leukemia, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States of America; Section of Molecular Hematology and Therapy, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - Courtney DiNardo
- Department of Leukemia, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - Joseph D Khoury
- Department of Hematopathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - Peter P Ruvolo
- Department of Leukemia, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States of America; Section of Molecular Hematology and Therapy, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States of America.
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21
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Lu T, Chen L, Mansour AG, Yu MJ, Brooks N, Teng KY, Li Z, Zhang J, Barr T, Yu J, Caligiuri MA. Cbl-b Is Upregulated and Plays a Negative Role in Activated Human NK Cells. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2021; 206:677-685. [PMID: 33419766 PMCID: PMC8184061 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2000177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The E3 ubiquitin ligase Cbl-b has been characterized as an intracellular checkpoint in T cells; however, the function of Cbl-b in primary human NK cells, an innate immune anti-tumor effector cell, is not well defined. In this study, we show that the expression of Cbl-b is significantly upregulated in primary human NK cells activated by IL-15, IL-2, and the human NK cell-sensitive tumor cell line K562 that lacks MHC class I expression. Pretreatment with JAK or AKT inhibitors prior to IL-15 stimulation reversed Cbl-b upregulation. Downregulation of Cbl-b resulted in significant increases in granzyme B and perforin expression, IFN-γ production, and cytotoxic activity against tumor cells. Collectively, we demonstrate upregulation of Cbl-b and its inhibitory effects in IL-15/IL-2/K562-activated human NK cells, suggesting that Cbl-b plays a negative feedback role in human NK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Lu
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010
| | - Li Chen
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010
| | - Anthony G Mansour
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010
| | - Melissa J Yu
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010
| | - Noah Brooks
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010
| | - Kun-Yu Teng
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010
| | - Zhenlong Li
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010
| | - Jianying Zhang
- Department of Computational and Quantitative Medicine, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010
| | - Tasha Barr
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010
| | - Jianhua Yu
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010
- Hematologic Malignancies and Stem Cell Transplantation Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Duarte, CA 91010; and
- City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center, Duarte, CA 91010
| | - Michael A Caligiuri
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010;
- Hematologic Malignancies and Stem Cell Transplantation Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Duarte, CA 91010; and
- City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center, Duarte, CA 91010
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22
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Koo J, Hayashi M, Verneris MR, Lee-Sherick AB. Targeting Tumor-Associated Macrophages in the Pediatric Sarcoma Tumor Microenvironment. Front Oncol 2020; 10:581107. [PMID: 33381449 PMCID: PMC7769312 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.581107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
For many pediatric sarcoma patients, multi-modal therapy including chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery is sufficient to cure their disease. However, event-free and overall survival rates for patients with more advanced disease are grim, necessitating the development of novel therapeutic approaches. Within many pediatric sarcomas, the normal immune response, including recognition and destruction of cancer cells, is lost due to the highly immune suppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). In this setting, tumor cells evade immune detection and capitalize on the immune suppressed microenvironment, leading to unchecked proliferation and metastasis. Recent preclinical and clinical approaches are aimed at understanding this immune suppressive microenvironment and employing cancer immunotherapy in an attempt to overcome this, by renewing the ability of the immune system to recognize and destroy cancer cells. While there are several factors that drive the attenuation of immune responses in the sarcoma TME, one of the most remarkable are tumor associated macrophage (TAMs). TAMs suppress immune cytolytic function, promote tumor growth and metastases, and are generally associated with a poor prognosis in most pediatric sarcoma subtypes. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms underlying TAM-facilitated immune evasion and tumorigenesis and discuss the potential therapeutic application of TAM-focused drugs in the treatment of pediatric sarcomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Koo
- Department of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology/Bone Marrow Transplant, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Masanori Hayashi
- Department of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology/Bone Marrow Transplant, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Michael R Verneris
- Department of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology/Bone Marrow Transplant, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Alisa B Lee-Sherick
- Department of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology/Bone Marrow Transplant, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, United States
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23
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Llopiz D, Ruiz M, Silva L, Repáraz D, Aparicio B, Egea J, Lasarte JJ, Redin E, Calvo A, Angel M, Berzofsky JA, Stroncek D, Sarobe P. Inhibition of adjuvant-induced TAM receptors potentiates cancer vaccine immunogenicity and therapeutic efficacy. Cancer Lett 2020; 499:279-289. [PMID: 33232788 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2020.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Analyzing immunomodulatory elements operating during antitumor vaccination in prostate cancer patients and murine models we identified IL-10-producing DC as a subset with poorer immunogenicity and clinical efficacy. Inhibitory TAM receptors MER and AXL were upregulated on murine IL-10+ DC. Thus, we analyzed conditions inducing these molecules and the potential benefit of their blockade during vaccination. MER and AXL upregulation was more efficiently induced by a vaccine containing Imiquimod than by a poly(I:C)-containing vaccine. Interestingly, MER expression was found on monocyte-derived DC, and was dependent on IL-10. TAM blockade improved Imiquimod-induced DC activation in vitro and in vivo, resulting in increased vaccine-induced T-cell responses, which were further reinforced by concomitant IL-10 inhibition. In different tumor models, a triple therapy (including vaccination, TAM inhibition and IL-10 blockade) provided the strongest therapeutic effect, associated with enhanced T-cell immunity and enhanced CD8+ T cell tumor infiltration. Finally, MER levels in DC used for vaccination in cancer patients correlated with IL-10 expression, showing an inverse association with vaccine-induced clinical response. These results suggest that TAM receptors upregulated during vaccination may constitute an additional target in combinatorial therapeutic vaccination strategies.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/administration & dosage
- Animals
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Cancer Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Cancer Vaccines/immunology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Dendritic Cells/drug effects
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/metabolism
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic/drug effects
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic/immunology
- Humans
- Imiquimod/administration & dosage
- Immunogenicity, Vaccine/drug effects
- Immunotherapy/methods
- Interleukin-10/metabolism
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/drug effects
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/immunology
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/metabolism
- Male
- Melanoma, Experimental/immunology
- Melanoma, Experimental/pathology
- Melanoma, Experimental/therapy
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Poly I-C/administration & dosage
- Prostatic Neoplasms/immunology
- Prostatic Neoplasms/pathology
- Prostatic Neoplasms/therapy
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/genetics
- Pyrimidines
- Quinolines
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/genetics
- Up-Regulation/drug effects
- Up-Regulation/immunology
- c-Mer Tyrosine Kinase/antagonists & inhibitors
- c-Mer Tyrosine Kinase/genetics
- Axl Receptor Tyrosine Kinase
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Llopiz
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Marta Ruiz
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Leyre Silva
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - David Repáraz
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Belén Aparicio
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Josune Egea
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Juan J Lasarte
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Esther Redin
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; CIBERONC, ISCIII, Madrid, Spain; Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Alfonso Calvo
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; CIBERONC, ISCIII, Madrid, Spain; Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Matthew Angel
- Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA; Center for Cancer Research Collaborative Bioinformatics Resource, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., FNLCR, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Jay A Berzofsky
- Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - David Stroncek
- Center for Cellular Engineering, Department of Transfusion Medicine, NIH Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Pablo Sarobe
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Spain; IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.
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24
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Wang KH, Ding DC. Dual targeting of TAM receptors Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK: Role in tumors and the tumor immune microenvironment. Tzu Chi Med J 2020; 33:250-256. [PMID: 34386362 PMCID: PMC8323642 DOI: 10.4103/tcmj.tcmj_129_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In both normal and tumor tissues, receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) may be pleiotropically expressed. The RTKs not only regulate ordinary cellular processes, including proliferation, survival, adhesion, and migration, but also have a critical role in the development of many types of cancer. The Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK (TAM) family of RTKs (Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK) plays a pleiotropic role in phagocytosis, inflammation, and normal cellular processes. In this article, we highlight the cellular activities of TAM receptors and discuss their roles in cancer and immune cells. We also discuss cancer therapies that target TAM receptors. Further research is needed to elucidate the function of TAM receptors in immune cells toward the development of new targeted immunotherapies for cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai-Hung Wang
- Department of Medical Research, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Dah-Ching Ding
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation and Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
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25
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Huelse J, Fridlyand D, Earp S, DeRyckere D, Graham DK. MERTK in cancer therapy: Targeting the receptor tyrosine kinase in tumor cells and the immune system. Pharmacol Ther 2020; 213:107577. [PMID: 32417270 PMCID: PMC9847360 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The receptor tyrosine kinase MERTK is aberrantly expressed in numerous human malignancies, and is a novel target in cancer therapeutics. Physiologic roles of MERTK include regulation of tissue homeostasis and repair, innate immune control, and platelet aggregation. However, aberrant expression in a wide range of liquid and solid malignancies promotes neoplasia via growth factor independence, cell cycle progression, proliferation and tumor growth, resistance to apoptosis, and promotion of tumor metastases. Additionally, MERTK signaling contributes to an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment via induction of an anti-inflammatory cytokine profile and regulation of the PD-1 axis, as well as regulation of macrophage, myeloid-derived suppressor cell, natural killer cell and T cell functions. Various MERTK-directed therapies are in preclinical development, and clinical trials are underway. In this review we discuss MERTK inhibition as an emerging strategy for cancer therapy, focusing on MERTK expression and function in neoplasia and its role in mediating resistance to cytotoxic and targeted therapies as well as in suppressing anti-tumor immunity. Additionally, we review preclinical and clinical pharmacological strategies to target MERTK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justus Huelse
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Diana Fridlyand
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Shelton Earp
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Deborah DeRyckere
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Douglas K. Graham
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
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26
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Meza Guzman LG, Keating N, Nicholson SE. Natural Killer Cells: Tumor Surveillance and Signaling. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12040952. [PMID: 32290478 PMCID: PMC7226588 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12040952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Revised: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells play a pivotal role in cancer immunotherapy due to their innate ability to detect and kill tumorigenic cells. The decision to kill is determined by the expression of a myriad of activating and inhibitory receptors on the NK cell surface. Cell-to-cell engagement results in either self-tolerance or a cytotoxic response, governed by a fine balance between the signaling cascades downstream of the activating and inhibitory receptors. To evade a cytotoxic immune response, tumor cells can modulate the surface expression of receptor ligands and additionally, alter the conditions in the tumor microenvironment (TME), tilting the scales toward a suppressed cytotoxic NK response. To fully harness the killing power of NK cells for clinical benefit, we need to understand what defines the threshold for activation and what is required to break tolerance. This review will focus on the intracellular signaling pathways activated or suppressed in NK cells and the roles signaling intermediates play during an NK cytotoxic response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lizeth G. Meza Guzman
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia;
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
- Correspondence: (L.G.M.G.); (S.E.N.); Tel.: +61-9345-2555 (S.E.N.)
| | - Narelle Keating
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia;
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Sandra E. Nicholson
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia;
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
- Correspondence: (L.G.M.G.); (S.E.N.); Tel.: +61-9345-2555 (S.E.N.)
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27
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Chirino LM, Kumar S, Okumura M, Sterner DE, Mattern M, Butt TR, Kambayashi T. TAM receptors attenuate murine NK-cell responses via E3 ubiquitin ligase Cbl-b. Eur J Immunol 2020; 50:48-55. [PMID: 31531847 PMCID: PMC7769591 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201948204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
TAM receptors (Tyro3, Axl, and Mer) are receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) that are expressed by multiple immune cells including NK cells. Although RTKs typically enhance cellular functions, TAM receptor ligation blocks NK-cell activation. The mechanisms by which RTKs block NK-cell signaling downstream of activating receptors are unknown. In this report, we demonstrate that TAM receptors attenuate NK cell responses via the activity of E3 ubiquitin ligase Casitas B lineage lymphoma b (Cbl-b). Specifically, we show that Tyro3, Axl, and Mer phosphorylate Cbl-b, and Tyro3 ligation activates Cbl-b by phosphorylating tyrosine residues 133 and 363. Ligation of TAM receptors by their ligand Gas6 suppresses activating receptor-stimulated NK-cell functions such as IFN-γ production and degranulation, in a TAM receptor kinase- and Cbl-b-dependent manner. Moreover, Gas6 ligation induces the degradation of LAT1, a transmembrane adaptor protein required for NK cell activating receptor signaling, in WT but not in Cbl-b knock-out NK cells. Together, these results suggest that TAM receptors may attenuate NK-cell function by phosphorylating Cbl-b, which in turn dampens NK-cell activation signaling by promoting the degradation of LAT1. Our data therefore support a mechanism by which RTKs attenuate, rather than stimulate, signaling pathways via the activation of ubiquitin ligases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leilani M. Chirino
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | | | - Mariko Okumura
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | | | | | | | - Taku Kambayashi
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
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28
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Peeters MJW, Rahbech A, Thor Straten P. TAM-ing T cells in the tumor microenvironment: implications for TAM receptor targeting. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2020; 69:237-244. [PMID: 31664482 PMCID: PMC7000491 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-019-02421-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The TAM receptors-TYRO3, AXL, MERTK-are pleiotropically expressed receptors in both healthy and diseased tissue. A complex of the ligands Protein S (PROS1) or Growth Arrest-Specific 6 (GAS6) with apoptotic phosphatidylserine activates the TAM receptors. Hence, this receptor family is essential for the efferocytosis of apoptotic material by antigen-presenting cells. In addition, TAM receptors are expressed by virtually all cells of the tumor microenvironment. They are also potent oncogenes, frequently overexpressed in cancer and involved in survival and therapy resistance. Due to their pro-oncogenic and immune-inhibitory traits, TAM receptors have emerged as promising targets for cancer therapy. Recently, TAM receptors have been described to function as costimulatory molecules on human T cells. TAM receptors' ambivalent functions on many different cell types therefore make therapeutic targeting not straight-forward. In this review we summarize our current knowledge of the function of TAM receptors in the tumor microenvironment. We place particular focus on TAM receptors and the recently unraveled role of MERTK in activated T cells and potential consequences for anti-tumor immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlies J W Peeters
- National Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, Department of Oncology, University Hospital Herlev, Borgmester Ib Juuls Vej 25C, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Anne Rahbech
- National Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, Department of Oncology, University Hospital Herlev, Borgmester Ib Juuls Vej 25C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Per Thor Straten
- National Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, Department of Oncology, University Hospital Herlev, Borgmester Ib Juuls Vej 25C, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Inflammation and Cancer Group, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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29
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Zhang P, Zhai Y, Cai Y, Zhao Y, Li Y. Nanomedicine-Based Immunotherapy for the Treatment of Cancer Metastasis. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2019; 31:e1904156. [PMID: 31566275 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201904156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Revised: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Metastasis is the leading cause of cancer-associated death, with poor prognosis even after extensive treatment. The dormancy of metastatic cancer cells during dissemination or after colony formation is one major reason for treatment failure, as most drugs target cells of active proliferation. Immunotherapy has shown great potential in cancer therapy because the activity of effector cells is less affected by the metabolic status of cancer cells. In addition, metastatic cells out of immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) are more susceptible to immune clearance, although these cells can achieve immune surveillance evasion via strategies such as platelet and macrophage recruitment. Since nanomaterials themselves or their carried drugs have the capability to modulate the immune system, a great amount of focus has been placed on nanomedicine strategies that leverage immune cells participating the metastatic cascade. These nanomedicines successfully inhibit the tumor metastasis and prolong the survival of model animals. Immune cells that are involved in the metastasis cascade are first summarized and then recent and inspiring strategies and nanomaterials in this growing field are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengcheng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research & Center of Pharmaceutics, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 501 Haike Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
- School of Pharmacy, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yihui Zhai
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research & Center of Pharmaceutics, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 501 Haike Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
- School of Pharmacy, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Ying Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research & Center of Pharmaceutics, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 501 Haike Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
- School of Pharmacy, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yuliang Zhao
- CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology of China, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
- College of Materials Science and Optoelectronic Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yaping Li
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research & Center of Pharmaceutics, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 501 Haike Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
- School of Pharmacy, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
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30
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Montes-Moreno S, King RL, Oschlies I, Ponzoni M, Goodlad JR, Dotlic S, Traverse-Glehen A, Ott G, Ferry JA, Calaminici M. Update on lymphoproliferative disorders of the gastrointestinal tract: disease spectrum from indolent lymphoproliferations to aggressive lymphomas. Virchows Arch 2019; 476:667-681. [PMID: 31773249 DOI: 10.1007/s00428-019-02704-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
This paper summarizes two sessions of the workshop during the XIX meeting of the European Association for Haematopathology (EAHP) held in Edinburgh in September 2018 dedicated to lymphomas of the gastrointestinal tract. The first session focused on the clinical and pathological features of primary gastrointestinal T cell and NK-cell lymphoproliferative disorders. The distinction between precursor lesions (RCD type 2) and enteropathy-associated T cell lymphoma were stressed, including the discussion of new diagnostic markers for the identification of aberrant phenotypes. Indolent T cell lymphoproliferative disorders of the gastrointestinal tract cases showed phenotypic heterogeneity with novel molecular alterations in few cases, such as STAT3-JAK2 fusion. In addition, novel clonal markers of disease, such as AXL and JAK3 somatic variants support the neoplastic nature of NK-cell enteropathy. The session on gastrointestinal tract B cell lymphoproliferations was dedicated to B cell lymphoproliferative disorders that arise primarily in the gastrointestinal tract (i.e., duodenal-type follicular lymphoma) or preferentially involve the digestive tract, such as large B cell lymphoma with IRF4 translocation and mantle cell lymphoma (MCL), including diverse molecular subtypes (i.e., CCND3-positive MCL mimicking MALT lymphoma). Challenging cases of high-grade B cell lymphomas with complex genetic profiles demonstrated the usefulness of novel molecular diagnostic methods such as targeted NGS to identify high-risk genetic features with potential clinical impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Montes-Moreno
- Anatomic Pathology Service and Translational Hematopathology Lab, Hospital Universitario Marques de Valdecilla/IDIVAL, Santander, Spain
| | - Rebecca L King
- Division of Hematopathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Ilske Oschlies
- Department of Pathology, Hematopathology Section and Lymph node Registry, University Hospitals Schleswig-Holstein, Christian-Albrecht-University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Maurilio Ponzoni
- Ateneo Vita-Salute San Raffaele and Pathology Unit, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - John R Goodlad
- Department of Pathology, Queen Elizabeth University Hospital, Glasgow, UK
| | - Snjezana Dotlic
- Department of Pathology and Cytology, University Hospital Centre Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - German Ott
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Robert-Bosch-Krankenhaus, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Judith A Ferry
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Maria Calaminici
- Department of Cellular Pathology, SIHMDS, Barts Health NHS Trust and Centre for Haemato-Oncology, Barts Cancer Institute, London, UK.
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31
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AXL Receptor Tyrosine Kinase as a Therapeutic Target in Hematological Malignancies: Focus on Multiple Myeloma. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11111727. [PMID: 31694201 PMCID: PMC6896070 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11111727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
AXL belongs to the TAM (TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK) receptor family, a unique subfamily of the receptor tyrosine kinases. Their common ligand is growth arrest-specific protein 6 (GAS6). The GAS6/TAM signaling pathway regulates many important cell processes and plays an essential role in immunity, hemostasis, and erythropoiesis. In cancer, AXL overexpression and activation has been associated with cell proliferation, chemotherapy resistance, tumor angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis; and has been correlated with a poor prognosis. In hematological malignancies, the expression and function of AXL is highly diverse, not only between the different tumor types but also in the surrounding tumor microenvironment. Most research and clinical evidence has been provided for AXL inhibitors in acute myeloid leukemia. However, recent studies also revealed an important role of AXL in lymphoid leukemia, lymphoma, and multiple myeloma. In this review, we summarize the basic functions of AXL in various cell types and the role of AXL in different hematological cancers, with a focus on AXL in the dormancy of multiple myeloma. In addition, we provide an update on the most promising AXL inhibitors currently in preclinical/clinical evaluation and discuss future perspectives in this emerging field.
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32
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33
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Peeters MJW, Dulkeviciute D, Draghi A, Ritter C, Rahbech A, Skadborg SK, Seremet T, Carnaz Simões AM, Martinenaite E, Halldórsdóttir HR, Andersen MH, Olofsson GH, Svane IM, Rasmussen LJ, Met Ö, Becker JC, Donia M, Desler C, Thor Straten P. MERTK Acts as a Costimulatory Receptor on Human CD8 + T Cells. Cancer Immunol Res 2019; 7:1472-1484. [PMID: 31266785 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-18-0841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Revised: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases (TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK) is known to be expressed on antigen-presenting cells and function as oncogenic drivers and as inhibitors of inflammatory responses. Both human and mouse CD8+ T cells are thought to be negative for TAM receptor expression. In this study, we show that T-cell receptor (TCR)-activated human primary CD8+ T cells expressed MERTK and the ligand PROS1 from day 2 postactivation. PROS1-mediated MERTK signaling served as a late costimulatory signal, increasing proliferation and secretion of effector and memory-associated cytokines. Knockdown and inhibition studies confirmed that this costimulatory effect was mediated through MERTK. Transcriptomic and metabolic analyses of PROS1-blocked CD8+ T cells demonstrated a role of the PROS1-MERTK axis in differentiation of memory CD8+ T cells. Finally, using tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) from melanoma patients, we show that MERTK signaling on T cells improved TIL expansion and TIL-mediated autologous cancer cell killing. We conclude that MERTK serves as a late costimulatory signal for CD8+ T cells. Identification of this costimulatory function of MERTK on human CD8+ T cells suggests caution in the development of MERTK inhibitors for hematologic or solid cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlies J W Peeters
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Donata Dulkeviciute
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Arianna Draghi
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Cathrin Ritter
- Translational Skin Cancer Research, University Hospital Essen, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) Partner Site Essen and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Anne Rahbech
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Signe K Skadborg
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tina Seremet
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ana Micaela Carnaz Simões
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Evelina Martinenaite
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Mads Hald Andersen
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Gitte Holmen Olofsson
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Inge Marie Svane
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Oncology, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lene Juel Rasmussen
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Center for Healthy Aging, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Özcan Met
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Oncology, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Inflammation and Cancer Group, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jürgen C Becker
- Translational Skin Cancer Research, University Hospital Essen, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) Partner Site Essen and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marco Donia
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Oncology, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Claus Desler
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Center for Healthy Aging, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Per Thor Straten
- Department of Hematology, Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark. .,Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Inflammation and Cancer Group, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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34
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Hastings AK, Hastings K, Uraki R, Hwang J, Gaitsch H, Dhaliwal K, Williamson E, Fikrig E. Loss of the TAM Receptor Axl Ameliorates Severe Zika Virus Pathogenesis and Reduces Apoptosis in Microglia. iScience 2019; 13:339-350. [PMID: 30884311 PMCID: PMC6424058 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The TAM receptor, Axl, has been implicated as a candidate entry receptor for Zika virus (ZIKV) infection but has been shown as inessential for virus infection in mice. To probe the role of Axl in murine ZIKV infection, we developed a mouse model lacking the Axl receptor and the interferon alpha/beta receptor (Ifnar−/−Axl−/−), conferring susceptibility to ZIKV. This model validated that Axl is not required for murine ZIKV infection and that mice lacking Axl are resistant to ZIKV pathogenesis. This resistance correlates to lower pro-interleukin-1β production and less apoptosis in microglia of ZIKV-infected mice. This apoptosis occurs through both intrinsic (caspase 9) and extrinsic (caspase 8) manners, and is age dependent, as younger Axl-deficient mice are susceptible to ZIKV pathogenesis. These findings suggest that Axl plays an important role in pathogenesis in the brain during ZIKV infection and indicates a potential role for Axl inhibitors as therapeutics during viral infection. IFNAR−/−Axl−/− mice show Axl unnecessary for Zika virus replication in mice Mice lacking Axl receptor are significantly resistant to Zika virus neuropathogenesis IFNAR−/−Axl−/− mice have less ZIKV-driven caspase-dependent apoptosis in brain Axl deficient mice have fewer apoptotic microglia after ZIKV infection
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew K Hastings
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Katherine Hastings
- Yale Cancer Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Ryuta Uraki
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Jesse Hwang
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Hallie Gaitsch
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Khushwant Dhaliwal
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Eric Williamson
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Erol Fikrig
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase MD 20815, USA.
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Jiang L, Chen XQ, Gao MJ, Lee W, Zhou J, Zhao YF, Wang GD. The Pros1/Tyro3 axis protects against periodontitis by modulating STAT/SOCS signalling. J Cell Mol Med 2019; 23:2769-2781. [PMID: 30729671 PMCID: PMC6433735 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.14183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2018] [Revised: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Periodontitis, an oral inflammatory disease caused by periodontal pathogen infection, is the most prevalent chronic inflammatory disease and a major burden on healthcare. The TAM receptor tyrosine kinases (Tyro3, Axl and Mertk) and their ligands (Gas6 and Pros1) play a pivotal role in the resolution of inflammation and have been associated with chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. In this study, we evaluated the effects of exogenous Pros1 in in vitro and in vivo models of periodontitis. We detected higher Pros1 but lower Tyro3 levels in inflamed gingival specimens of periodontitis patients compared with healthy controls. Moreover, Pros1 was mostly localized in the gingival epithelium of all specimens. In cultured human gingival epithelial cells (hGECs), Porphyromonas gingivalis LPS (p.g-LPS) stimulation down-regulated Pros1 and Tyro3. Exogenous Pros1 inhibited p.g-LPS-induced production of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, MMP9/2 and RANKL in a Tyro3-dependent manner as revealed by PCR, Western blot analysis, ELISA and gelatin zymography. Pros1 also restored Tyro3 expression down-regulated by p.g-LPS in hGECs. In rats treated with ligature and p.g-LPS, administration of Pros1 attenuated periodontitis-associated gingival inflammation and alveolar bone loss. Our mechanistic studies implicated SOCS1/3 and STAT1/3 as mediators of the in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory effects of Pros1. Collectively, the findings from this work supported Pros1 as a novel anti-inflammatory therapy for periodontitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Jiang
- Department of Stomatology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Xiao Qing Chen
- Department of Stomatology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Ming Jing Gao
- Department of Stomatology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Wai Lee
- Department of Stomatology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Jie Zhou
- Department of Stomatology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Yun Fu Zhao
- Department of Stomatology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Guo Dong Wang
- Department of Stomatology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, P. R. China
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36
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Lee CH, Chun T. Anti-Inflammatory Role of TAM Family of Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Via Modulating Macrophage Function. Mol Cells 2019; 42:1-7. [PMID: 30699285 PMCID: PMC6354059 DOI: 10.14348/molcells.2018.0419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Revised: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Macrophage is an important innate immune cell that not only initiates inflammatory responses, but also functions in tissue repair and anti-inflammatory responses. Regulating macrophage activity is thus critical to maintain immune homeostasis. Tyro3, Axl, and Mer are integral membrane proteins that constitute TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). Growing evidence indicates that TAM family receptors play an important role in anti-inflammatory responses through modulating the function of macrophages. First, macrophages can recognize apoptotic bodies through interaction between TAM family receptors expressed on macrophages and their ligands attached to apoptotic bodies. Without TAM signaling, macrophages cannot clear up apoptotic cells, leading to broad inflammation due to over-activation of immune cells. Second, TAM signaling can prevent chronic activation of macrophages by attenuating inflammatory pathways through particular pattern recognition receptors and cytokine receptors. Third, TAM signaling can induce autophagy which is an important mechanism to inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activation in macrophages. Fourth, TAM signaling can inhibit polarization of M1 macrophages. In this review, we will focus on mechanisms involved in how TAM family of RTKs can modulate function of macrophage associated with anti-inflammatory responses described above. We will also discuss several human diseases related to TAM signaling and potential therapeutic strategies of targeting TAM signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Hee Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841,
Korea
| | - Taehoon Chun
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841,
Korea
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Smart SK, Vasileiadi E, Wang X, DeRyckere D, Graham DK. The Emerging Role of TYRO3 as a Therapeutic Target in Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:cancers10120474. [PMID: 30501104 PMCID: PMC6316664 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10120474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The TAM family (TYRO3, AXL, MERTK) tyrosine kinases play roles in diverse biological processes including immune regulation, clearance of apoptotic cells, platelet aggregation, and cell proliferation, survival, and migration. While AXL and MERTK have been extensively studied, less is known about TYRO3. Recent studies revealed roles for TYRO3 in cancer and suggest TYRO3 as a therapeutic target in this context. TYRO3 is overexpressed in many types of cancer and functions to promote tumor cell survival and/or proliferation, metastasis, and resistance to chemotherapy. In addition, higher levels of TYRO3 expression have been associated with decreased overall survival in patients with colorectal, hepatocellular, and breast cancers. Here we review the physiological roles for TYRO3 and its expression and functions in cancer cells and the tumor microenvironment, with emphasis on the signaling pathways that are regulated downstream of TYRO3 and emerging roles for TYRO3 in the immune system. Translational agents that target TYRO3 are also described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherri K Smart
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| | - Eleana Vasileiadi
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| | - Xiaodong Wang
- Center for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
| | - Deborah DeRyckere
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| | - Douglas K Graham
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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Stabile H, Fionda C, Santoni A, Gismondi A. Impact of bone marrow-derived signals on NK cell development and functional maturation. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2018; 42:13-19. [PMID: 29622473 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2018.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Revised: 03/18/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are cytotoxic members of type I innate lymphocytes (ILC1) with a prominent role in anti-tumor and anti-viral immune responses. Despite the increasing insight into NK cell biology, the steps and stages leading to mature circulating NK cells require further investigation. Natural killer cell development and functional maturation are complex and multi-stage processes that occur predominantly in the bone marrow (BM) and originate from haematopoietic stem cells CD34+ (HSC). Within the BM, NK cell precursor (NKP) and NK cell development intermediates reside in specialized niches that are characterized by particular cellular components that provide signals required for their maturation. These signals consist of soluble factors or direct cellular-contact interactions mediated by cytokines and growth factors with complementary, as well as overlapping roles in distinct developmental steps. Emerging evidence highlights the plasticity of the early phase of NK cell development, and the capacity of different signal combinations to redirect precursor lineage commitment through other innate cell populations. Here, we summarize the role of signals known to guide NK cell differentiation with a particular focus on the cytokines and the receptor/ligand pairs playing a critical role in these processes. A comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms underlying NK cell development will elucidate their roles in pathological conditions and will improve protocols for NK cell therapeutic application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Stabile
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Cinzia Fionda
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Angela Santoni
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Laboratory affiliated to Institute Pasteur -Italia, 00161 Rome, Italy; IRCCS, Neuromed, Pozzilli, 86077 IS, Italy
| | - Angela Gismondi
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy; Eleonora Lorillard Spencer Cenci Foundation, Italy
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Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinase signalling pathways have been successfully targeted to inhibit proliferation and angiogenesis for cancer therapy. However, kinase deregulation has been firmly demonstrated to play an essential role in virtually all major disease areas. Kinase inhibitor drug discovery programmes have recently broadened their focus to include an expanded range of kinase targets and therapeutic areas. In this Review, we provide an overview of the novel targets, biological processes and disease areas that kinase-targeting small molecules are being developed against, highlight the associated challenges and assess the strategies and technologies that are enabling efficient generation of highly optimized kinase inhibitors.
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40
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Akalu YT, Rothlin CV, Ghosh S. TAM receptor tyrosine kinases as emerging targets of innate immune checkpoint blockade for cancer therapy. Immunol Rev 2017; 276:165-177. [PMID: 28258690 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy utilizing T-cell checkpoint inhibitors has shown tremendous clinical success. Yet, this mode of treatment is effective in only a subset of patients. Unresponsive patients tend to have non-T-cell-inflamed tumors that lack markers associated with the activation of adaptive anti-tumor immune responses. Notably, elimination of cancer cells by T cells is critically dependent on the optimal activity of innate immune cells. Therefore, identifying new targets that regulate innate immune cell function and promote the engagement of adaptive tumoricidal responses is likely to lead to the development of improved therapies against cancer. Here, we review the TAM receptor tyrosine kinases-TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK-as an emerging class of innate immune checkpoints that participate in key steps of anti-tumoral immunity. Namely, TAM-mediated efferocytosis, negative regulation of dendritic cell activity, and dysregulated production of chemokines collectively favor the escape of malignant cells. Hence, disabling TAM signaling may promote engagement of adaptive immunity and complement T-cell checkpoint blockade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yemsratch T Akalu
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Carla V Rothlin
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.,Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Sourav Ghosh
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.,Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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41
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Di Nunno V, Cubelli M, Massari F. The role of the MET/AXL pathway as a new target for multikinase inhibitors in renal cell carcinoma. EXPERT REVIEW OF PRECISION MEDICINE AND DRUG DEVELOPMENT 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/23808993.2017.1347481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Marta Cubelli
- Division of Oncology, S.Orsola-Malpighi Hospital, Bologna, Italy
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42
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Vouri M, Hafizi S. TAM Receptor Tyrosine Kinases in Cancer Drug Resistance. Cancer Res 2017; 77:2775-2778. [PMID: 28526769 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-16-2675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) are major regulators of key biological processes, including cell growth, survival, and differentiation, and were established early on as proto-oncogenes, with aberrant expression linked to tumor progression in many cancers. Therefore, RTKs have emerged as major targets for selective therapy with small-molecule inhibitors. However, despite improvements in survival rates, it is now apparent that the targeting of RTKs with selective inhibitors is only transiently effective, as the majority of patients eventually become resistant to therapy. As chemoresistance is the leading cause of cancer spread, progression, and mortality, there is an increasing need for understanding the mechanisms by which cancer cells can evade therapy-induced cell death. The TAM (Tyro3, Axl, Mer) subfamily of RTKs in particular feature in a variety of cancer types that have developed resistance to a broad range of therapeutic agents, including both targeted as well as conventional chemotherapeutics. This article reviews the roles of TAMs as tumor drivers and as mediators of chemoresistance, and the potential effectiveness of targeting them as part of therapeutic strategies to delay or combat resistance. Cancer Res; 77(11); 2775-8. ©2017 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikaella Vouri
- Institute of Biomedical and Biomolecular Science, School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom
| | - Sassan Hafizi
- Institute of Biomedical and Biomolecular Science, School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom.
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Hastings AK, Yockey LJ, Jagger BW, Hwang J, Uraki R, Gaitsch HF, Parnell LA, Cao B, Mysorekar IU, Rothlin CV, Fikrig E, Diamond MS, Iwasaki A. TAM Receptors Are Not Required for Zika Virus Infection in Mice. Cell Rep 2017; 19:558-568. [PMID: 28423319 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.03.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2017] [Revised: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk (TAM) receptors are candidate entry receptors for infection with the Zika virus (ZIKV), an emerging flavivirus of global public health concern. To investigate the requirement of TAM receptors for ZIKV infection, we used several routes of viral inoculation and compared viral replication in wild-type versus Axl-/-, Mertk-/-, Axl-/-Mertk-/-, and Axl-/-Tyro3-/- mice in various organs. Pregnant and non-pregnant mice treated with interferon-α-receptor (IFNAR)-blocking (MAR1-5A3) antibody and infected subcutaneously with ZIKV showed no reliance on TAMs for infection. In the absence of IFNAR-blocking antibody, adult female mice challenged intravaginally with ZIKV showed no difference in mucosal viral titers. Similarly, in young mice that were infected with ZIKV intracranially or intraperitoneally, ZIKV replication occurred in the absence of TAM receptors, and no differences in cell tropism were observed. These findings indicate that, in mice, TAM receptors are not required for ZIKV entry and infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew K Hastings
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Laura J Yockey
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Brett W Jagger
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Jesse Hwang
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Ryuta Uraki
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Hallie F Gaitsch
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Lindsay A Parnell
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Bin Cao
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Indira U Mysorekar
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Carla V Rothlin
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Erol Fikrig
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA.
| | - Michael S Diamond
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA.
| | - Akiko Iwasaki
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA.
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Kim EM, Lee EH, Lee HY, Choi HR, Ji KY, Kim SM, Kim KD, Kang HS. Axl signaling induces development of natural killer cells in vitro and in vivo. PROTOPLASMA 2017; 254:1091-1101. [PMID: 27549806 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-016-1016-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2016] [Accepted: 08/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells have been well known to play a critical role in innate immunity, but they are also capable of regulating adaptive immunity through the induction of T cell-mediated memory response and B cell-mediated autoimmune response. NK cells are differentiated from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) in the bone marrow (BM), and a series of surface molecules are expressed on NK cells in a differentiation stage-specific manner. Axl receptor tyrosine kinase is originally identified as homeostatic regulators for antigen-presenting cells, and its ligand, growth-arrest-specific gene 6 (Gas6), has been reported to promote cell survival, proliferation, and migration, but their regulatory role in the development and effector function of NK cells is not yet fully understood. In this study, to investigate whether Axl is required for the regulation of NK cell development, the expression of mature NK (mNK) cell-specific receptors and NK cell-associated genes was analyzed in the differentiated HSCs-derived NK cells in vitro and the NK cells harvested from Axl-/- mice. We found that agonistic anti-Axl antibody or recombinant Gas6 specifically upregulated the expression of mNK cell-specific receptors, such as LY49A, Ly49G2, Ly49C/F/I, NKG2A/C/E (1.5- to 3.5-fold increase), and NK cell-associated genes, such as IL-2Rβ (2.3- or 2.4-fold increase), Perforin (4.1- or 2.1-fold increase), IL-15Rα (2.14- or 2.04-fold increase), and IFN-γ (3.3- or 2.8-fold increase) compared to each isotype control, whereas it was abrogated by treatment of Axl-Ig. Anti-Axl antibody or rGas6 also induced a 2.5- or 1.9-fold increase in the proliferation of developing NK cells compared to each control, respectively. mNK cell populations expressing mNK cell-specific receptors were reduced about twofold in NK cells differentiated from HSCs of Axl-/- mice compared with those of wild-type mice. Furthermore, the triggering of Axl signaling by agonistic anti-Axl antibody promoted the cytolytic activity (1.5- to 1.9-fold increase) against target tumor cells. In B16F10 melanoma-bearing mice, the number of metastatic colonies was decreased by 83 % by the administration of mNK cells treated with anti-Axl antibody compared to control Ig. These data suggest that Axl plays an essential role in the regulation of NK cell development as well as NK effector function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Mi Kim
- Internal Medicine, University of Iowa and VA Medical Center, Iowa City, IA, 52246, USA
| | - Eun-Hee Lee
- Advanced Radiation Technology Institute (ARTI), Korea Atomic Energy Institute (KAERI), 29 Geumgu-gil, Jeongeup-si, Jeollabuk-do, 580-185, South Korea
| | - Hwa-Yeon Lee
- Medical Device Development Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation, Cheombok-ro 80, Dong-gu, Daegu, 41061, South Korea
| | - Ha-Rim Choi
- Department of Nursing, Nambu University, 23 Chumdan Jungang-ro, Gwangsan-gu, Gwangju, 506-706, South Korea
| | - Kon-Young Ji
- School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, 300 Yongbong-dong, Bukgu, Gwangju, 500-757, Republic of Korea
| | - Su-Man Kim
- School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, 300 Yongbong-dong, Bukgu, Gwangju, 500-757, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang Dong Kim
- Division of Applied Life Science, PMBBRC, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 660-701, South Korea
| | - Hyung-Sik Kang
- School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, 300 Yongbong-dong, Bukgu, Gwangju, 500-757, Republic of Korea.
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The Receptor Tyrosine Kinase AXL in Cancer Progression. Cancers (Basel) 2016; 8:cancers8110103. [PMID: 27834845 PMCID: PMC5126763 DOI: 10.3390/cancers8110103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Revised: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/03/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The AXL receptor tyrosine kinase (AXL) has emerged as a promising therapeutic target for cancer therapy. Recent studies have revealed a central role of AXL signaling in tumor proliferation, survival, stem cell phenotype, metastasis, and resistance to cancer therapy. Moreover, AXL is expressed within cellular components of the tumor microenvironment where AXL signaling contributes to the immunosuppressive and protumorigenic phenotypes. A variety of AXL inhibitors have been developed and are efficacious in preclinical studies. These agents offer new opportunities for therapeutic intervention in the prevention and treatment of advanced disease. Here we review the literature that has illuminated the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which AXL signaling promotes tumor progression and we will discuss the therapeutic potential of AXL inhibition for cancer therapy.
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46
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The Role of TAM Family Receptors in Immune Cell Function: Implications for Cancer Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2016; 8:cancers8100097. [PMID: 27775650 PMCID: PMC5082387 DOI: 10.3390/cancers8100097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Revised: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The TAM receptor protein tyrosine kinases-Tyro3, Axl, and Mer-are essential regulators of immune homeostasis. Guided by their cognate ligands Growth arrest-specific gene 6 (Gas6) and Protein S (Pros1), these receptors ensure the resolution of inflammation by dampening the activation of innate cells as well as by restoring tissue function through promotion of tissue repair and clearance of apoptotic cells. Their central role as negative immune regulators is highlighted by the fact that deregulation of TAM signaling has been linked to the pathogenesis of autoimmune, inflammatory, and infectious diseases. Importantly, TAM receptors have also been associated with cancer development and progression. In a cancer setting, TAM receptors have a dual regulatory role, controlling the initiation and progression of tumor development and, at the same time, the associated anti-tumor responses of diverse immune cells. Thus, modulation of TAM receptors has emerged as a potential novel strategy for cancer treatment. In this review, we discuss our current understanding of how TAM receptors control immunity, with a particular focus on the regulation of anti-tumor responses and its implications for cancer immunotherapy.
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Shifrin NT, Kissiov DU, Ardolino M, Joncker NT, Raulet DH. Differential Role of Hematopoietic and Nonhematopoietic Cell Types in the Regulation of NK Cell Tolerance and Responsiveness. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 197:4127-4136. [PMID: 27798146 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1402447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Many NK cells express inhibitory receptors that bind self-MHC class I (MHC I) molecules and prevent killing of self-cells, while enabling killing of MHC I-deficient cells. But tolerance also occurs for NK cells that lack inhibitory receptors for self-MHC I, and for all NK cells in MHC I-deficient animals. In both cases, NK cells are unresponsive to MHC I-deficient cells and hyporesponsive when stimulated through activating receptors, suggesting that hyporesponsiveness is responsible for self-tolerance. We generated irradiation chimeras, or carried out adoptive transfers, with wild-type (WT) and/or MHC I-deficient hematopoietic cells in WT or MHC I-deficient C57BL/6 host mice. Unexpectedly, in WT hosts, donor MHC I-deficient hematopoietic cells failed to induce hyporesponsiveness to activating receptor stimulation, but did induce tolerance to MHC I-deficient grafts. Therefore, these two properties of NK cells are separable. Both tolerance and hyporesponsiveness occurred when the host was MHC I deficient. Interestingly, infections of mice or exposure to inflammatory cytokines reversed the tolerance of NK cells that was induced by MHC I-deficient hematopoietic cells, but not the tolerance induced by MHC I-deficient nonhematopoietic cells. These data have implications for successful bone marrow transplantation, and suggest that tolerance induced by hematopoietic cells versus nonhematopoietic cells may be imposed by distinct mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nataliya Tovbis Shifrin
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Djem U Kissiov
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Michele Ardolino
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8M5, Canada and Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L6, Canada
| | - Nathalie T Joncker
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - David H Raulet
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Division of Immunology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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48
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The TAM receptor Mertk protects against neuroinvasive viral infection by maintaining blood-brain barrier integrity. Nat Med 2015; 21:1464-72. [PMID: 26523970 PMCID: PMC4674389 DOI: 10.1038/nm.3974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The TAM receptors Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk are receptor tyrosine kinases that dampen host innate immune responses following engagement with their ligands, Gas6 and Protein S, which recognize phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cells. In a form of apoptotic mimicry, many enveloped viruses display phosphatidylserine on the outer leaflet of their membranes, enabling TAM receptor activation and down-regulation of antiviral responses. Accordingly, we hypothesized that a deficiency of TAM receptors would enhance antiviral responses and protect against viral infection. Unexpectedly, mice lacking Mertk and/or Axl but not Tyro3 exhibited greater vulnerability to infection with neuroinvasive West Nile and La Crosse viruses. This phenotype was associated with increased blood-brain barrier permeability, which enhanced virus entry into and infection of the brain. Activation of Mertk synergized with IFN-β to tighten cell junctions and prevent virus transit across brain microvascular endothelial cells. Because TAM receptors restrict pathogenesis of neuroinvasive viruses, these findings have implications for TAM antagonists that are currently in clinical development.
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Shehata HM, Hoebe K, Chougnet CA. The aged nonhematopoietic environment impairs natural killer cell maturation and function. Aging Cell 2015; 14:191-9. [PMID: 25677698 PMCID: PMC4364831 DOI: 10.1111/acel.12303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are critical in eliminating tumors and viral infections, both of which occur at a high incidence in the elderly. Previous studies showed that aged NK cells are less cytotoxic and exhibit impaired maturation compared to young NK cells. We evaluated whether extrinsic or intrinsic factors were responsible for the impaired maturation and function of NK cells in aging and whether impaired maturation correlated with functional hyporesponsiveness. We confirmed that aged mice have a significant decrease in the frequency of mature NK cells in all lymphoid organs. Impaired NK cell maturation in aged mice correlated with a reduced capacity to eliminate allogeneic and B16 tumor targets in vivo. This could be explained by impaired degranulation, particularly by mature NK cells of aged mice. Consistent with impaired aged NK cell maturation, expression of T-bet and Eomes, which regulate NK cell functional maturation, was significantly decreased in aged bone marrow (BM) NK cells. Mixed BM chimeras revealed that the nonhematopoietic environment was a key determinant of NK cell maturation and T-bet and Eomes expression. In mixed BM chimeras, NK cells derived from both young or aged BM cells adopted an ‘aged’ phenotype in an aged host, that is, were hyporesponsive to stimuli in vitro, while adopting a ‘young’ phenotype following transfer in young hosts. Overall, our data suggest that the aged nonhematopoietic environment is responsible for the impaired maturation and function of NK cells. Defining these nonhematopoietic factors could have important implications for improving NK cell function in the elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hesham M. Shehata
- Division of Immunobiology Department of Pediatrics Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center and the University of Cincinnati Cincinnati OH 45229 USA
| | - Kasper Hoebe
- Division of Immunobiology Department of Pediatrics Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center and the University of Cincinnati Cincinnati OH 45229 USA
| | - Claire A. Chougnet
- Division of Immunobiology Department of Pediatrics Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center and the University of Cincinnati Cincinnati OH 45229 USA
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Rothlin CV, Carrera-Silva EA, Bosurgi L, Ghosh S. TAM receptor signaling in immune homeostasis. Annu Rev Immunol 2015; 33:355-91. [PMID: 25594431 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-032414-112103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 301] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The TAM receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs)-TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK-together with their cognate agonists GAS6 and PROS1 play an essential role in the resolution of inflammation. Deficiencies in TAM signaling have been associated with chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Three processes regulated by TAM signaling may contribute, either independently or collectively, to immune homeostasis: the negative regulation of the innate immune response, the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, and the restoration of vascular integrity. Recent studies have also revealed the function of TAMs in infectious diseases and cancer. Here, we review the important milestones in the discovery of these RTKs and their ligands and the studies that underscore the functional importance of this signaling pathway in physiological immune settings and disease.
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