The use of supercytokines, immunocytokines, engager cytokines, and other synthetic cytokines in immunotherapy

Analysis of current technology status for the industrialization of cultured meat

Cultured meat is expected to become an important material for future food production; however, contrary to initial expectations, the full-scale industrialization of cultured meat is slow and the actual level and opened technology amount is very limited. This study reviews the publicly available technologies of cultured meat and suggests future developmental directions and research agenda. As a result of analyzing papers, patents, and press releases published over the past 10 years, it was found that cultured meat production technology is still at the prototype production level. This is because most papers published are about culture medium and scaffold development, culture conditions, and there is almost no research on finished cultured meat products. Worldwide, most of the filed patents are for producing cultured meat principles; most of them do not use food-grade materials and are not economically feasible for industrialization. Therefore, future research on the industrialization of cultured meat should focus on effective acquisition technologies for satellite cells; cell lineage and undifferentiated state maintenance technologies; the development of serum-free media and culture devices; the prevention of genetic modification, safety verification, and mass production. Furthermore, basic research on mechanisms and influencing factors related to cultured meat production is warranted.

Facts and Hopes on Chimeric Cytokine Agents for Cancer Immunotherapy

Cytokines are key mediators of immune responses that can modulate the antitumor activity of immune cells. Cytokines have been explored as a promising cancer immunotherapy. However, there are several challenges to cytokine therapy, especially a lack of tumor targeting, resulting in high toxicity and limited efficacy. To overcome these limitations, novel approaches have been developed to engineer cytokines with improved properties, such as chimeric cytokines. Chimeric cytokines are fusion proteins that combine different cytokine domains or link cytokines to antibodies (immunocytokines) or other molecules that can target specific receptors or cells. Chimeric cytokines can enhance the selectivity and stability of cytokines, leading to reduced toxicity and improved efficacy. In this review, we focus on two promising cytokines, IL2 and IL15, and summarize the current advances and challenges of chimeric cytokine design and application for cancer immunotherapy. Most of the current approaches focus on increasing the potency of cytokines, but another important goal is to reduce toxicity. Cytokine engineering is promising for cancer immunotherapy as it can enhance tumor targeting while minimizing adverse effects.

PD-1/CD80+ small extracellular vesicles from immunocytes induce cold tumours featured with enhanced adaptive immunosuppression

Only a minority of cancer patients benefit from immune checkpoint blockade therapy. Sophisticated cross-talk among different immune checkpoint pathways as well as interaction pattern of immune checkpoint molecules carried on circulating small extracellular vesicles (sEV) might contribute to the low response rate. Here we demonstrate that PD-1 and CD80 carried on immunocyte-derived sEVs (I-sEV) induce an adaptive redistribution of PD-L1 in tumour cells. The resulting decreased cell membrane PD-L1 expression and increased sEV PD-L1 secretion into the circulation contribute to systemic immunosuppression. PD-1/CD80+ I-sEVs also induce downregulation of adhesion- and antigen presentation-related molecules on tumour cells and impaired immune cell infiltration, thereby converting tumours to an immunologically cold phenotype. Moreover, synchronous analysis of multiple checkpoint molecules, including PD-1, CD80 and PD-L1, on circulating sEVs distinguishes clinical responders from those patients who poorly respond to anti-PD-1 treatment. Altogether, our study shows that sEVs carry multiple inhibitory immune checkpoints proteins, which form a potentially targetable adaptive loop to suppress antitumour immunity.

Integrating single-cell and spatial analysis reveals MUC1-mediated cellular crosstalk in mucinous colorectal adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Mucinous colorectal adenocarcinoma (MCA) is a distinct subtype of colorectal cancer (CRC) with the most aggressive pattern, but effective treatment of MCA remains a challenge due to its vague pathological characteristics. An in-depth understanding of transcriptional dynamics at the cellular level is critical for developing specialised MCA treatment strategies.

METHODS

We integrated single-cell RNA sequencing and spatial transcriptomics data to systematically profile the MCA tumor microenvironment (TME), particularly the interactome of stromal and immune cells. In addition, a three-dimensional bioprinting technique, canonical ex vivo co-culture system, and immunofluorescence staining were further applied to validate the cellular communication networks within the TME.

RESULTS

This study identified the crucial intercellular interactions that engaged in MCA pathogenesis. We found the increased infiltration of FGF7+/THBS1+ myofibroblasts in MCA tissues with decreased expression of genes associated with leukocyte-mediated immunity and T cell activation, suggesting a crucial role of these cells in regulating the immunosuppressive TME. In addition, MS4A4A+ macrophages that exhibit M2-phenotype were enriched in the tumoral niche and high expression of MS4A4A+ was associated with poor prognosis in the cohort data. The ligand-receptor-based intercellular communication analysis revealed the tight interaction of MUC1+ malignant cells and ZEB1+ endothelial cells, providing mechanistic information for MCA angiogenesis and molecular targets for subsequent translational applications.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides novel insights into communications among tumour cells with stromal and immune cells that are significantly enriched in the TME during MCA progression, presenting potential prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic strategies for MCA.

KEY POINTS

Tumour microenvironment profiling of MCA is developed. MUC1+ tumour cells interplay with FGF7+/THBS1+ myofibroblasts to promote MCA development. MS4A4A+ macrophages exhibit M2 phenotype in MCA. ZEB1+ endotheliocytes engage in EndMT process in MCA.

Controlled Refolding of Denatured IL-12 Using In Situ Antigen-Capturing Nanochaperone Remarkably Reduces the Systemic Toxicity and Enhances Cancer Immunotherapy

Cytokines are powerful in cancer immunotherapy, however, their therapeutic potential is limited by the severe systemic toxicity. Here a potent strategy to reduce the toxicity of systemic cytokine therapy by delivering its denatured form using a finely designed nanochaperone, is described. It is demonstrated that even if the denatured protein cargos are occasionally released under normal physiological conditions they are still misfolded, while can effectively refold into native states and release to function in tumor microenvironment. Consequently, the systemic toxicity of cytokines is nearly completely overcome. Moreover, an immunogenic cell death (ICD)-inducing chemotherapeutic is further loaded and delivered to tumor using this nanochaperone to trigger the release of tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) that are subsequently captured in situ by nanochaperone and then reflows into lymph nodes (LNs) to promote antigen cross-presentation. This optimized personalized nanochaperone-vaccine demonstrates unprecedented suppressive effects against large, advanced tumors, and in combination with immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy results in a significant abscopal effect and inhibition of postoperative tumor recurrence and metastasis. Hence, this approach provides a simple and universal delivery strategy to reduce the systemic toxicities of cytokines, as well as provides a robust personalized cancer vaccination platform, which may find wide applications in cancer immunotherapy.

Enhanced cellular therapy: revolutionizing adoptive cellular therapy

Enhanced cellular therapy has emerged as a novel concept following the basis of cellular therapy. This treatment modality applied drugs or biotechnology to directly enhance or genetically modify cells to enhance the efficacy of adoptive cellular therapy (ACT). Drugs or biotechnology that enhance the killing ability of immune cells include immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) / antibody drugs, small molecule inhibitors, immunomodulatory factors, proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC), oncolytic virus (OV), etc. Firstly, overcoming the inhibitory tumor microenvironment (TME) can enhance the efficacy of ACT, which can be achieved by blocking the immune checkpoint. Secondly, cytokines or cytokine receptors can be expressed by genetic engineering or added directly to adoptive cells to enhance the migration and infiltration of adoptive cells to tumor cells. Moreover, multi-antigen chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) can be designed to enhance the specific recognition of tumor cell-related antigens, and OVs can also stimulate antigen release. In addition to inserting suicide genes into adoptive cells, PROTAC technology can be used as a safety switch or degradation agent of immunosuppressive factors to enhance the safety and efficacy of adoptive cells. This article comprehensively summarizes the mechanism, current situation, and clinical application of enhanced cellular therapy, describing potential improvements to adoptive cellular therapy.

The pertinence of gastric cancer and interleukin 10-819 single nucleotide polymorphisms: a meta-analysis and systematic review

PURPOSE

Cytokines regulate the interaction between the immune system and malignant tumors. Among them, interleukin-10 (IL-10) is a multifunctional anti-inflammatory cytokine mainly produced by immune cells. The correlation between gastric cancer and T/C single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of interleukin-10 (IL-10) promoter-819(rs1800871)was opaque and remained to be determined. We aim to explore the pertinence of gastric cancer and SNP of interleukin 10-819 by meta-analysis via five statistical models.

METHODS

Databases including PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, the Scopus, and Google Scholars were comprehensively retrieved for the eligible studies on the related topic from inception to March 2022. Odds ratios (ORs) were generated for dichotomous variants by meta-analysis in each model via STATA 17.0 MP. The statistical models comprised recessive model, over-dominant model, allele model, co-dominant model and dominant model. Subgroup analysis was performed to investigate the difference across races as well as the source of heterogeneity if necessary.

RESULTS

Eventually a total of 15 articles reporting 7779 patients were enrolled in our study. There were 2383 patients and 5396 controls, collectively. There was no correlation between gastric cancer and IL-10 819 in recessive model, co-dominant model or dominant model, and subgroup analysis showed that Asian, Latin American and Caucasian had no correlation with the risk of gastric cancer. In the allelic model, there was significant correlation between gastric cancer and IL-10 819 (OR = 3.96%, 95%CI: 3.28 to 3.78). In the over-dominant model, there is no correlation between gastric cancer and IL-10 819, but subgroup analysis uncovered significant vulnerability of Asian people with regard to gastric cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

In our study, both Asians, Latin Americans, and Europeans showed an increased risk of gastric cancer in the allelic model, whereas only Asians showed significant susceptibility in the super dominant model. Of course, more large cohort studies are needed to confirm our results.

Nanobodies in cytokine‑mediated immunotherapy and immunoimaging (Review)

Cytokines are the main regulators of innate and adaptive immunity, mediating communications between the cells of the immune system and regulating biological functions, including cell motility, differentiation, growth and apoptosis. Cytokines and cytokine receptors have been used in the treatment of tumors and autoimmune diseases, and to intervene in cytokine storms. Indeed, the use of monoclonal antibodies to block cytokine‑receptor interactions, as well as antibody‑cytokine fusion proteins has exhibited immense potential for the treatment of tumors and autoimmune diseases. Compared with these traditional types of antibodies, nanobodies not only maintain a high affinity and specificity, but also have the advantages of high thermal stability, a high capacity for chemical manipulation, low immunogenicity, good tissue permeability, rapid clearance and economic production. Thus, nanobodies have extensive potential for use in the diagnosis and treatment of cytokine‑related diseases. The present review summarizes the application of nanobodies in cytokine‑mediated immunotherapy and immunoimaging.

Comparison of IL-2-antibody to IL-2-Fc with or without stereotactic radiation therapy in CEA immunocompetent mice with CEA positive tumors

BACKGROUND

The potent immune effects of interleukin-2 (IL-2) for cancer therapy can be increased by genetic fusion of IL-2 to the Fc domain of an antibody (IL-2-Fc) or tumor targeted by genetic fusion to a whole antibody known as an immunocytokine (ICK).

METHODS

An anti-CEA ICK (M5A-IL-2) was compared to an IL-2-Fc fusion protein using tumor therapy and PET imaging in CEA transgenic immunocompetent mice bearing CEA positive colon or breast tumors. Combination with stereotactic radiation therapy (SRT) was performed with either ICK or IL-2-Fc.

RESULTS

ICK and IL-2-Fc had comparable antitumor effects in both tumor models, although ICK had higher tumor uptake and slower blood clearance than an IL-2-Fc. Analysis of IFNγ+ /CD8+ and FoxP3+ /CD4+ T cells revealed higher levels of IFNγ-producing CD8+ T cells in ICK treated mice versus more efficient Treg elimination in IL-2-Fc treated mice. No significant or lasting toxicity was detected for either agent. Combination therapies with SRT revealed comparable efficacy and induction of immune memory for both ICK and IL-2-Fc when mice were rechallenged post-therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

IL-2-Fc had comparable antitumor efficacy to CEA-targeted M5A-IL-2 ICK, while both fusion proteins induced immune memory when combined with SRT. Differences in the therapeutic mechanisms of both agents were observed.

Synthetic biology for combating leishmaniasis

Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by protozoan parasites of the Leishmania genus. Despite the efforts to control and treat the disease, it still remains a major public health problem in many countries. Synthetic biology is a rapidly evolving interdisciplinary field that combines biology, engineering, and computer science to design and construct novel biological systems. In recent years, synthetic biology approaches have shown great promise for developing new and effective strategies to combat leishmaniasis. In this perspective, we summarize the recent advances in the use of synthetic biology for the development of vaccines, diagnostic tools, and novel therapeutics for leishmaniasis.

Engineering Anticytokine Antibodies for Immune Modulation

The delicate balance of immune homeostasis is regulated by the interactions between cytokines and their cognate cell surface signaling receptors. There is intensive interest in harnessing cytokines as drugs for diseases such as cancer and autoimmune disorders. However, the multifarious and often contradictory activities of cytokines, coupled with their short serum half-lives, limit clinical performance and result in dangerous toxicities. There is thus growing emphasis on manipulating natural cytokines to enhance their selectivity, safety, and durability through various strategies. One strategy that has gained traction in recent years is the development of anticytokine Abs that not only extend the circulation half-life of cytokines but also specifically bias their immune activities through multilayered molecular mechanisms. Although Abs are notorious for their antagonistic activities, this review focuses on anticytokine Abs that selectively agonize the activity of the target protein. This approach has potential to help realize the clinical promise of cytokine-based therapies.

First in vitro and in vivo evaluation of recombinant IL-1β protein as a potential immunomodulator against viral infection in fish

IL-1β is an important proinflammatory cytokine with multifaceted modulatory roles in immune responses. In fish, recombinant IL-1β has been employed in the control of bacterial diseases, while the antiviral mechanisms of IL-1β remain largely unknown, and the efficacy of recombinant IL-1β as an immunomodulator to prevent viral diseases is still not determined. This study evaluated the immunomodulatory effects of recombinant grass carp IL-1β against grass carp reovirus (GCRV) in vitro and in vivo. Firstly, the mature form (Ser111-Lys270) of grass carp IL-1β was identified, and its recombinant protein (designated as rgcIL-1β) was prepared through prokaryotic expression. Then, an in vitro evaluation model for rgcIL-1β activity was established in the CIK cells, with the appropriate concentration (600 ng/mL) and effect time (1 h). In vitro, rgcIL-1β could not only induce the production of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α but also a series of antiviral factors including IFN-1, IFN-2, IFN-γ, and ISG15. Mechanistically, transcriptome analysis and western blotting confirmed that rgcIL-1β activated multiple transcriptional factors, including NF-κB, IRF1, IRF3, and IRF8, and the signal pathways associated with inflammatory cytokines and antiviral factors expression. Expectedly, rgcIL-1β treatment significantly inhibited GCRV replication in vitro. In vivo administration of rgcIL-1β via intraperitoneal pre-injection significantly aroused an antiviral response to restrict GCRV replication and intense tissue inflammation in grass carp, demonstrating the immunomodulatory effects of rgcIL-1β. More importantly, rgcIL-1β administrated with 10 ng/g and 1 ng/g could improve the survival rate of grass carp during GCRV infection. This study represents the first time to comprehensively reveal the immunomodulatory and antiviral mechanisms of IL-1β in fish and may also pave the way for further developing recombinant IL-1β as an immunotherapy for the prevention and control of fish viral diseases.

Advanced Generation Therapeutics: Biomimetic Nanodelivery System for Tumor Immunotherapy

Tumor immunotherapy is a safe and effective strategy for precision medicine. However, immunotherapy for most cancer cases still ends in failure, with the root causes of the immunosuppressive and extraordinary heterogeneity of the solid tumors microenvironment. The emerging biomimetic nanodelivery system provides a promising tactic to improve the immunotherapy effect while reducing the adverse reactions on nontarget cells. Herein, we summarize the relationship between tumor occurrence and tumor immune microenvironment, mechanism of tumor immune escape, immunotherapy classification (including adoptive cellular therapy, cytokines, cancer vaccines, and immune checkpoint inhibitors) and recommend target cells for immunotherapy first, and then emphatically introduce the recent advances and applications of the latest biomimetic nanodelivery systems (e.g., immune cells, erythrocytes, tumor cells, platelets, bacteria) in tumor immunotherapy. Meanwhile, we separately summarize the application of tumor vaccines. Finally, the predictable challenges and perspectives in a forward exploration of biomimetic nanodelivery systems for tumor immunotherapy are also discussed.

Associations of the circulating levels of cytokines with risk of ankylosing spondylitis: a Mendelian randomization study

Background

Observational studies have shown that changes in circulating cytokine/growth factor levels occur throughout the initiation and progression of ankylosing spondylitis (AS), yet whether they are etiologic or downstream effects remains unclear. In this study, we performed a summarized-level bidirectional Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis to shed light on the causal relationship between the two.

Methods

Genetic instrumental-variables (IVs) associated with circulating cytokine/growth factor levels were derived from a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of 8,293 European individuals, whereas summary data for the AS were obtained from a FinnGen GWAS of 166,144 participants. We used the inverse-variance-weighted (IVW) method as the main analysis for causal inference. Furthermore, several sensitivity analyses (MR-Egger, weighted median, MR-PRESSO and Cochran's Q test) were utilized to examine the robustness of the results. Finally, reverse MR analysis was performed to assess reverse causality between AS and circulating cytokine/growth factor levels.

Results

After Bonferroni correction, circulating levels of Cutaneous T-cell attracting (CTACK) and Monocyte specific chemokine 3 (MCP-3) were positively associated with a higher risk of AS (odds ratio [OR]: 1.224, 95% confidence interval [95% Cl]: 1.022 ~ 1.468, P = 0.028; OR: 1.250, 95% Cl: 1.016 ~ 1.539, P = 0.035). In addition, elevated circulating levels of Basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-basic), Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) and MCP-3 was considered a consequence of AS disease (β = 0.023, P = 0.017; β = 0.017, P = 0.025; β = 0.053, P = 0.025). The results of the sensitivity analysis were generally consistent.

Conclusion

The present study supplies genetic evidence for the relationship between circulating cytokine levels and AS. Targeted interventions of specific cytokines may help to reduce the risk of AS initiation and progression.

TRIM69 suppressed the anoikis resistance and metastasis of gastric cancer through ubiquitin‒proteasome-mediated degradation of PRKCD

The tripartite motif (TRIM) protein family has been investigated in multiple human cancers, including gastric cancer (GC). However, the role of TRIM69 in the anoikis resistance and metastasis of GC cells remains to be elucidated. We identified the differentially expressed genes in anoikis-resistant GC cells using RNA-sequencing analysis. The interaction between TRIM69 and PRKCD was analyzed by coimmunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry. Our results have shown that TRIM69 was significantly downregulated in anoikis-resistant GC cells. TRIM69 overexpression markedly suppressed the anoikis resistance and metastasis of GC cells in vitro and in vivo. TRIM69 knockdown had the opposite effects. Mechanistically, TRIM69 interacted with PRKCD through its B-box domain and catalyzed the K48-linked polyubiquitination of PRKCD. Moreover, TRIM69 inhibited BDNF production in a PRKCD-dependent manner. Importantly, overexpression of PRKCD or BDNF blocked the effects of TRIM69 on the anoikis resistance and metastasis of GC cells. Interestingly, a TRIM69-PRKCD+BDNF+ cell subset was positively associated with metastasis in GC patients. TRIM69-mediated suppression of the anoikis resistance and metastasis of GC cells via modulation of the PRKCD/BDNF axis, with potential implications for novel therapeutic approaches for metastatic GC.

Metal-organic framework-based photodynamic combined immunotherapy against the distant development of triple-negative breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive, metastatic and apparently drug-resistant subtype of breast cancer with a higher immune response compared to other types of breast cancer. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been gaining popularity for its non-invasive nature, minimal side effects, and spatiotemporally controlled benifits. The use of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) loaded with programmed death-ligand 1 inhibitors (iPD-L1) offers the possibility of combining PDT with immunotherapy.

METHOD

Here, we construct PCN-224, a MOFs with good biocompatibility and biodegradability for the delivery of the PD-L1 small molecule inhibitor BMS-202 to achieve a synergistic anti-tumor strategy of PDT and immunotherapy. Hyaluronic acid (HA) modified PEG (HA-PEG) was synthesized for the outer layer modification of the nanocomplex, which prolongs its systemic circulation time.

RESULTS

In vitro cellular experiments show that the nanocomplexes irradiated by 660 nm laser has a strong ability to produce singlet oxygen, which effectively induce PDT. PDT with strong immunogenicity leads to tumor necrosis and apoptosis, and induces immunogenic cell death, which causes tumor cells to release danger associated molecular patterns. In combination with iPD-L1, the combination therapy stimulates dendritic cell maturation, promotes T-cell activation and intratumoral infiltration, and reshapes the tumor immune microenvironment to achieve tumor growth inhibition and anti-distant tumor progression.

CONCLUSIONS

MOFs-based nano-systems as a platform for combination therapy offer a potentially effective strategy for the treatment of TNBC with high metastatic rates.

Mechanisms and therapeutic strategies to combat the recurrence and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma after thermal ablation

Thermal ablation (TA), including radiofrequency ablation (RFA) and microwave ablation (MWA), has become the main treatment for early-stage hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) due to advantages such as safety and minimal invasiveness. However, HCC is prone to local recurrence, with more aggressive malignancies after TA closely related to TA-induced changes in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and remodeling of the tumor microenvironment (TME). According to many studies, various components of the TME undergo complex changes after TA, such as the recruitment of innate and adaptive immune cells, the release of tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) and various cytokines, the formation of a hypoxic microenvironment, and tumor angiogenesis. Changes in the TME after TA can partly enhance the anti-tumor immune response; however, this response is weak to kill the tumor completely. Certain components of the TME can induce an immunosuppressive microenvironment through complex interactions, leading to tumor recurrence and progression. How the TME is remodeled after TA and the mechanism by which the TME promotes HCC recurrence and progression are unclear. Thus, in this review, we focused on these issues to highlight potentially effective strategies for reducing and preventing the recurrence and progression of HCC after TA.

Refined control of CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing in Clostridium sporogenes: the creation of recombinant strains for therapeutic applications

Despite considerable clinical success, the potential of cancer immunotherapy is restricted by a lack of tumour-targeting strategies. Treatment requires systemic delivery of cytokines or antibodies at high levels to achieve clinically effective doses at malignant sites. This is exacerbated by poor penetration of tumour tissue by therapeutic antibodies. High-grade immune-related adverse events (irAEs) occur in a significant number of patients (5-15%, cancer- and therapeutic-dependent) that can lead to lifelong issues and can exclude from treatment patients with pre-existing autoimmune diseases. Tumour-homing bacteria, genetically engineered to produce therapeutics, is one of the approaches that seeks to mitigate these drawbacks. The ability of Clostridium sporogenes to form spores that are unable to germinate in the presence of oxygen (typical of healthy tissue) offers a unique advantage over other vectors. However, the limited utility of existing gene editing tools hinders the development of therapeutic strains. To overcome the limitations of previous systems, expression of the Cas9 protein and the gRNA was controlled using tetracycline inducible promoters. Furthermore, the components of the system were divided across two plasmids, improving the efficiency of cloning and conjugation. Genome integrated therapeutic genes were assayed biochemically and in cell-based functional assays. The potency of these strains was further improved through rationally-conceived gene knock-outs. The new system was validated by demonstrating the efficient addition and deletion of large sequences from the genome. This included the creation of recombinant strains expressing two pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-2 (IL-2) and granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and a pro-drug converting enzyme (PCE). A comparative, temporal in vitro analysis of the integrant strains and their plasmid-based equivalents revealed a substantial reduction of cytokine activity in chromosome-based constructs. To compensate for this loss, a 7.6 kb operon of proteolytic genes was deleted from the genome. The resultant knock-out strains showed an 8- to 10-fold increase in cytokine activity compared to parental strains.

Facts and Hopes: Immunocytokines for Cancer Immunotherapy

The clinical development of cytokines as cancer therapeutics has been limited due to significant toxicities generally observed with systemic administration. This narrow therapeutic window, together with relatively modest efficacy, has made natural cytokines unattractive drug candidates. Immunocytokines represent a class of next-generation cytokines designed to overcome the challenges associated with traditional cytokines. These agents seek to improve the therapeutic index of cytokines by using antibodies as vehicles for the targeted delivery of immunomodulatory agents within the local tumor microenvironment (TME). Various molecular formats and cytokine payloads have been studied. In this review, we provide an overview of the rationale, preclinical support, and current clinical development strategies for immunocytokines.

Hot and cold tumors: Immunological features and the therapeutic strategies

The "hotness" or "coldness" of the tumors are determined by the information of the cancer cells themselves, tumor immune characteristics, tumor microenvironment, and signaling mechanisms, which are key factors affecting cancer patients' clinical efficacy. The switch mechanism of "hotness" and "coldness" and its corresponding pathological characteristics and treatment strategies are the frontier and hot spot of tumor treatment. How to distinguish the "hotness" or "coldness" effectively and clarify the causes, microenvironment state, and characteristics are very important for the tumor response and efficacy treatments. Starting from the concept of hot and cold tumor, this review systematically summarized the molecular characteristics, influencing factors, and therapeutic strategies of "hot and cold tumors," and analyzed the immunophenotypes, the tumor microenvironment, the signaling pathways, and the molecular markers that contribute to "hot and cold tumors" in details. Different therapeutic strategies for "cold and hot tumors" based on clinical efficacy were analyzed with drug targets and proteins for "cold and hot tumors." Furthermore, this review combines the therapeutic strategies of different "hot and cold tumors" with traditional medicine and modern medicine, to provide a basis and guidance for clinical decision-making of cancer treatment.

A comprehensive pan-cancer analysis of CDH5 in immunological response

Background

Cadherin 5 (CDH5) functions critically in maintaining cell adhesion and integrity of endothelial and vascular cells. The expression of CDH5 is abnormal in tumor cells, which may have great potential to serve as a new immune checkpoint. The current pan-cancer analysis was performed to better understand the role of CDH5 in tumor.

Methods

The clinical significance and immunological function of CDH5 in pan-cancers were comprehensively analyzed based on the correlations between CDH5 and clinicopathologic features, prognosis values, tumor mutation burden (TMB), microsatellite instability (MSI), immune cells infiltration and immune response genes using 33 datasets from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). We further confirmed the expression of CDH5 in bladder cancer (BCa) tissues and cell lines. The CD8+ T cells were screened from peripheral blood of healthy controls and activated. BCa cell-CD8+ T cell co-culture assay and ELISA assay were carried out to verify the immunological function of CDH5.

Results

The expression of CDH5 was down-regulated in 8 types of tumors including in BCa but up-regulated in 4 types of tumors. CDH5 was significantly correlated with tumor stage in 6 types of tumors. In addition, CDH5 was positively or negatively correlated with tumor prognosis. Furthermore, CDH5 was closely associated with TMB in 15 types of tumors and with MSI in 9 types of tumors. KEGG-GSEA and Hallmarks-GSEA analyses results indicated that CDH5 was positively related to immune response in most tumor types. In many tumors, CDH5 showed a positive correlation with immune cell infiltration. Enrichment analyses demonstrated that CDH5 was significantly related to the expression of many immunomodulators and chemokines. Further experiments showed that CDH5 was low-expressed in BCa tissues and cell lines in comparison to adjacent normal tissues and normal urothelial cell line, but it was positively associated with a better prognosis of BCa patients. The results of in vitro co-culture assay and ELISA assay demonstrated that CDH5 could promote the function of CD8+ T cells in TME of BCa.

Conclusion

In summary, CDH5 was positively associated with a favorable prognosis and effective immune response in tumors, showing a great potential to serve as a novel tumor biomarker and immune checkpoint.

Reconstructing the cell-cell interaction network among mouse immune cells

Intercellular interactions and cell-cell communication are critical to regulating cell functions, especially in normal immune cells and immunotherapies. Ligand-receptor pairs mediating these cell-cell interactions can be identified using diverse experimental and computational approaches. Here, we reconstructed the intercellular interaction network between Mus musculus immune cells using publicly available receptor-ligand interaction databases and gene expression data from the immunological genome project. This reconstructed network accounts for 50,317 unique interactions between 16 cell types between 731 receptor-ligand pairs. Analysis of this network shows that cells of hematopoietic lineages use fewer communication pathways for interacting with each other, while nonhematopoietic stromal cells use the most network communications. We further observe that the WNT, BMP, and LAMININ pathways are the most significant contributors to the overall number of cell-cell interactions among the various pathways in the reconstructed communication network. This resource will enable the systematic analysis of normal and pathologic immune cell interactions, along with the study of emerging immunotherapies.

Generation of IL-2-Fc-antibody conjugates by click chemistry

BACKGROUND

Immunocytokines (ICKs) are antibody directed cytokines produced by genetic fusion of an antibody to a cytokine.

METHODS

We now show that antibodies conjugated by click chemistry to interleukin-2 (IL-2)-Fc form fully active conjugates, and in one example, equivalent activity to a genetically produced ICK.

RESULTS

An IL-2-Fc fusion protein was optimized for click chemistry at hinge cysteines using protein stabilizing IL-2 mutations at Lys35 and Cys125 and Fc hinge mutations at Cys142 and Cys148. The IL-2-Fc fusion protein with K35E and C125S mutations with 3 intact hinge cysteines, designated as IL-2-Fc Par, was selected based on its minimal tendency to aggregate. IL-2-Fc-antibody clicked conjugates retained high IL-2 activity and bound target antigens comparable to parent antibodies. An IL-2-Fc-anti-CEA click conjugate showed comparable anti-tumor activity to an anti-CEA-IL-2 ICK in immunocompetent CEA transgenic mice bearing CEA positive orthotopic breast tumors. Significant increases in IFNγ+ /CD8+ and decreases in FoxP3+ /CD4+ T-cells were found for the clicked conjugate and ICK therapies, suggesting a common mechanism of tumor reduction.

CONCLUSION

The production of antibody targeted IL-2 therapy via a click chemistry approach is feasible with comparable activity to genetically produced ICKs with the added advantage of multiplexing with other monoclonal antibodies.

Efficient expression of a cytokine combination in Saccharomyces cerevisiae for cultured meat production

Cultured meat technology is a novel and promising alternative strategy for meat production, and it provides an efficient, safe, and sustainable way to supply animal protein. Cytokines play an important role in promoting the rapid proliferation of cells, but the high cost and potential food safety concerns of commercial cytokines have hindered their application in large-scale cultured meat production. Herein, Saccharomyces cerevisiae C800 was used as a starting strain in which four cytokines were exogenously expressed simultaneously using the Cre-loxP system, including long-chain human insulin growth factor-1, platelet-derived growth factor-BB, basic fibroblast growth factor, and epidermal growth factor. Through promoter optimization, endogenous protease knockout, genomic co-expression, expression frame gene order optimization, and fermentation optimization, a recombinant strain CPK2B2 co-expressing four cytokines was obtained with a yield of 18.35 mg/L. After cell lysis and filter sterilization, the CPK2B2 lysate was directly added to the culture medium of porcine muscle satellite cells (MuSCs). CPK2B2 lysate promoted the growth of MuSCs and increased the proportion of G2/S cells and EdU⁺ cells significantly, indicating its efficacy in promoting cell proliferation. This study provides a simple and cost-saving strategy by using S. cerevisiae to produce a recombinant cytokine combination for cultured meat production.

Reigniting hope in cancer treatment: the promise and pitfalls of IL-2 and IL-2R targeting strategies

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) and its receptor (IL-2R) are essential in orchestrating immune responses. Their function and expression in the tumor microenvironment make them attractive targets for immunotherapy, leading to the development of IL-2/IL-2R-targeted therapeutic strategies. However, the dynamic interplay between IL-2/IL-2R and various immune cells and their dual roles in promoting immune activation and tolerance presents a complex landscape for clinical exploitation. This review discusses the pivotal roles of IL-2 and IL-2R in tumorigenesis, shedding light on their potential as diagnostic and prognostic markers and their therapeutic manipulation in cancer. It underlines the necessity to balance the anti-tumor activity with regulatory T-cell expansion and evaluates strategies such as dose optimization and selective targeting for enhanced therapeutic effectiveness. The article explores recent advancements in the field, including developing genetically engineered IL-2 variants, combining IL-2/IL-2R-targeted therapies with other cancer treatments, and the potential benefits of a multidimensional approach integrating molecular profiling, immunological analyses, and clinical data. The review concludes that a deeper understanding of IL-2/IL-2R interactions within the tumor microenvironment is crucial for realizing the full potential of IL-2-based therapies, heralding the promise of improved outcomes for cancer patients.

Antibiotic-Induced Dysbiosis of the Gut Microbiota Impairs Gene Expression in Gut-Liver Axis of Mice

Antibiotics can be a double-edged sword. The application of broad-spectrum antibiotics leads to the suppression of microorganisms in the human body without selective targeting, including numerous non-pathogenic microorganisms within the gut. As a result, dysbiosis of the gut microbiota can occur. The gut microbiota is a vast and intricate ecosystem that has been connected with various illnesses. Significantly, the gut and liver function in a closely coupled anatomical and physiological relationship referred to as the "gut-liver axis". Consequently, metabolites stemming from the gut microbiota migrate via the portal vein to the liver, thereby influencing gene expression and proper physiological activity within the liver. This study aimed to investigate the dysbiosis of gut microbiota ecology and the disruption of gene expression resulting from oral antibiotics and their subsequent recovery. In the experiment, mice were tube-fed neomycin (0.5 mg/mL) and ampicillin (1 mg/mL) for 21 days (ABX group) to conduct 16s rRNA sequencing. By simultaneously analyzing public datasets PRJDB6615, which utilized the same antibiotics, it was found that nearly 50% of the total microbiota abundance was attributed to the f__Lactobacillaceae family. Additionally, datasets GSE154465 and GSE159761, using the same antibiotics, were used to screen for differentially expressed genes pre-and post-antibiotic treatment. Quantitative real-time PCR was employed to evaluate gene expression levels before and after antibiotic treatment. It was discovered that oral antibiotics significantly disrupted gene expression in the gut and liver, likely due to the dysregulation of the gut microbiota ecology. Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) was found to be an effective method for restoring gut microbiota dysbiosis. To further enhance the restoration of gut microbiota and gene expression, an antioxidant, vitamin C, was added to the FMT process to counteract the oxidative effect of antibiotics on microorganisms. The results showed that FMTs with vitamin C were more effective in restoring gut microbiota and gene expression to the level of the fecal transplant donor.

Engineering cytokines for cancer immunotherapy: a systematic review

Cytokines are pivotal mediators of cell communication in the tumor microenvironment. Multiple cytokines are involved in the host antitumor response, but the production and function of these cytokines are usually dysregulated during malignant tumor progression. Considering their clinical potential and the early successful use of cytokines in cancer immunotherapy, such as interferon alpha-2b (IFNα-2b; IntronA^®) and IL-2 (Proleukin^®), cytokine-based therapeutics have been extensively evaluated in many follow-up clinical trials. Following these initial breakthroughs, however, clinical translation of these natural messenger molecules has been greatly limited owing to their high-degree pleiotropic features and complex biological properties in many cell types. These characteristics, coupled with poor pharmacokinetics (a short half-life), have hampered the delivery of cytokines via systemic administration, particularly because of severe dose-limiting toxicities. New engineering approaches have been developed to widen the therapeutic window, prolong pharmacokinetic effects, enhance tumor targeting and reduce adverse effects, thereby improving therapeutic efficacy. In this review, we focus on the recent progress and competitive landscape in cytokine engineering strategies and preclinical/clinical therapeutics for cancer. In addition, aiming to promote engineered cytokine-based cancer immunotherapy, we present a profound discussion about the feasibility of recently developed methods in clinical medicine translation.

Comparative Evaluation of Synthetic Cytokines for Enhancing Production and Performance of NK92 Cell-Based Therapies

Off-the shelf immune cell therapies are potentially curative and may offer cost and manufacturing advantages over autologous products, but further development is needed. The NK92 cell line has a natural killer-like phenotype, has efficacy in cancer clinical trials, and is safe after irradiation. However, NK92 cells lose activity post-injection, limiting efficacy. This may be addressed by engineering NK92 cells to express stimulatory factors, and comparative analysis is needed. Thus, we systematically explored the expression of synthetic cytokines for enhancing NK92 cell production and performance. All synthetic cytokines evaluated (membrane-bound IL2 and IL15, and engineered versions of Neoleukin-2/15, IL15, IL12, and decoy resistant IL18) enhanced NK92 cell cytotoxicity. Engineered cells were preferentially expanded by expressing membrane-bound but not soluble synthetic cytokines, without compromising the radiosensitivity required for safety. Some membrane-bound cytokines conferred cell-contact independent paracrine activity, partly attributable to extracellular vesicles. Finally, we characterized interactions within consortia of differently engineered NK92 cells.

Nuclear Imaging of CAR T Immunotherapy to Solid Tumors: In Terms of Biodistribution, Viability, and Cytotoxic Effect

Immunotherapy has become a mainstay of cancer therapy. Since chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T immunotherapy achieves unprecedented success in curing hematological malignancies, the possibility of it revolutionizing the paradigm of solid tumors has aroused increasing attention. However, the restricted accessibility to tumor parenchyma, the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, and antigen heterogeneity of solid tumors make it difficult to replicate its success. Therefore, dynamic evaluation of CAR T cells' tumor accessibility, intratumoral viability, and anti-tumor cytotoxicity is necessary to facilitate its translation to solid tumors. Besides, real-timely imaging above events in vivo can help evaluate therapeutic responses and optimize CAR T immunotherapy for solid tumors. Nuclear imaging, including positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging, is frequently applied for evaluating adoptive cell therapies owing to its excellent sensitivity, high tissue penetration, and great translation potential. In addition, quantitative analysis can be performed in dynamic and noninvasive patterns. This review focuses on recent advances in PET/SPECT technologies and imaging probes in monitoring CAR T cells' migration, viability, and cytotoxicity to solid tumors post-administration. Prospects of what should be done in the next stage to promote CAR T therapy's application in solid tumors are also discussed.

New genetic and epigenetic insights into the chemokine system: the latest discoveries aiding progression toward precision medicine

Over the past thirty years, the importance of chemokines and their seven-transmembrane G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) has been increasingly recognized. Chemokine interactions with receptors trigger signaling pathway activity to form a network fundamental to diverse immune processes, including host homeostasis and responses to disease. Genetic and nongenetic regulation of both the expression and structure of chemokines and receptors conveys chemokine functional heterogeneity. Imbalances and defects in the system contribute to the pathogenesis of a variety of diseases, including cancer, immune and inflammatory diseases, and metabolic and neurological disorders, which render the system a focus of studies aiming to discover therapies and important biomarkers. The integrated view of chemokine biology underpinning divergence and plasticity has provided insights into immune dysfunction in disease states, including, among others, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In this review, by reporting the latest advances in chemokine biology and results from analyses of a plethora of sequencing-based datasets, we outline recent advances in the understanding of the genetic variations and nongenetic heterogeneity of chemokines and receptors and provide an updated view of their contribution to the pathophysiological network, focusing on chemokine-mediated inflammation and cancer. Clarification of the molecular basis of dynamic chemokine-receptor interactions will help advance the understanding of chemokine biology to achieve precision medicine application in the clinic.

Emerging biomaterials for tumor immunotherapy

BACKGROUND

The immune system interacts with cancer cells in various intricate ways that can protect the individual from overproliferation of cancer cells; however, these interactions can also lead to malignancy. There has been a dramatic increase in the application of cancer immunotherapy in the last decade. However, low immunogenicity, poor specificity, weak presentation efficiency, and off-target side effects still limit its widespread application. Fortunately, advanced biomaterials effectively contribute immunotherapy and play an important role in cancer treatment, making it a research hotspot in the biomedical field.

MAIN BODY

This review discusses immunotherapies and the development of related biomaterials for application in the field. The review first summarizes the various types of tumor immunotherapy applicable in clinical practice as well as their underlying mechanisms. Further, it focuses on the types of biomaterials applied in immunotherapy and related research on metal nanomaterials, silicon nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, polymer nanoparticles, and cell membrane nanocarriers. Moreover, we introduce the preparation and processing technologies of these biomaterials (liposomes, microspheres, microneedles, and hydrogels) and summarize their mechanisms when applied to tumor immunotherapy. Finally, we discuss future advancements and shortcomings related to the application of biomaterials in tumor immunotherapy.

CONCLUSION

Research on biomaterial-based tumor immunotherapy is booming; however, several challenges remain to be overcome to transition from experimental research to clinical application. Biomaterials have been optimized continuously and nanotechnology has achieved continuous progression, ensuring the development of more efficient biomaterials, thereby providing a platform and opportunity for breakthroughs in tumor immunotherapy.

Immunotherapy of hepatocellular carcinoma: recent progress and new strategy

Due to its widespread occurrence and high mortality rate, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is an abhorrent kind of cancer. Immunotherapy is a hot spot in the field of cancer treatment, represented by immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), which aim to improve the immune system's ability to recognize, target and eliminate cancer cells. The composition of the HCC immune microenvironment is the result of the interaction of immunosuppressive cells, immune effector cells, cytokine environment, and tumor cell intrinsic signaling pathway, and immunotherapy with strong anti-tumor immunity has received more and more research attention due to the limited responsiveness of HCC to ICI monotherapy. There is evidence of an organic combination of radiotherapy, chemotherapy, anti-angiogenic agents and ICI catering to the unmet medical needs of HCC. Moreover, immunotherapies such as adoptive cellular therapy (ACT), cancer vaccines and cytokines also show encouraging efficacy. It can significantly improve the ability of the immune system to eradicate tumor cells. This article reviews the role of immunotherapy in HCC, hoping to improve the effect of immunotherapy and develop personalized treatment regimens.

Holdase/Foldase Mimetic Nanochaperone Improves Antibody-Based Cancer Immunotherapy

Despite unprecedented successes of antibody-based cancer immunotherapy, the serious side effects and rapid clearance following systemic administration remain big challenges to realize its full potential. At the same time, combination immunotherapy using multiple antibodies has shown particularly promising in cancer treatment. It is noticed that the working mechanisms of natural holdase and foldase chaperone are desirable to overcome the limitations of therapeutic antibodies. Holdase chaperone stabilizes unfolded client and prevents it from activation and degradation, while foldase chaperone assists unfolded client to its native state to function. Here a holdase/foldase mimetic nanochaperone (H/F-nChap) to co-delivery two types of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), αCD16 and αPDL1, and resiquimod (R848) is developed, which significantly improves cancer immunotherapy. The H/F-nChap presents holdase activity in blood and normal tissues that hides and protects mAbs from unnecessary targeted activation and degradation, thereby prolonging blood circulation and reducing immunotoxicity in vivo. Furthermore, H/F-nChap switches to foldase activity in the tumor microenvironment that exposes mAbs and releases R848 to enhance the engagement between NK cells and tumor cells and promote immune activation, respectively. The H/F-nChap represents a strategy for safe and spatiotemporal delivery of multiple mAbs, providing a promising platform for improved cancer immunotherapy.

An Antibody Targeting Fibroblast Activation Protein Simultaneously Fused to Interleukin-2 and Tumor Necrosis Factor Selectively Localizes to Neoplastic Lesions

The delivery of specific cytokine payloads to a neoplastic environment employing antibodies able to selectively accumulate at the tumor site represents an attractive strategy to stimulate an immune response to cancer. Whilst conventional antibody-cytokine fusions based on a single payload have shown potent anticancer activity, the concomitant delivery of two cytokine payloads may further improve the therapeutic outcome as the immune system typically adopts multiple signals to reinforce an antitumor strategy. We here describe a potency-matched dual-cytokine antibody fusion protein containing a tumor-targeting antibody fragment specific to human fibroblast activation protein (FAP), simultaneously linked to both interleukin-2 (IL2) and a tumor necrosis factor (TNF) mutant. The resulting fusion protein, termed IL2-7NP2-TNF^mut, formed stable non-covalent trimers driven by the interaction of the tumor necrosis factor subunits. Both cytokine payloads retained their biological activity within the fusion protein, as shown by in vitro cellular assays. The tumor-targeting properties and the anticancer activity of IL2-7NP2-TNF^mut were investigated in vivo in immunocompromised mice bearing SKRC52 cells transduced with human FAP. The fusion protein preferentially localized to the cancer site and induced partial tumor retardation.

Hericium erinaceus polysaccharide improves the microstructure, immune function, proliferation and reduces apoptosis of thymus and spleen tissue cells of immunosuppressed mice

In order to study the effect of Hericium erinaceus polysaccharide (HEP) on the immune and antioxidation functions of immunosuppressed mice. The control group received distilled water orally and the model and experimental groups I, II, and III received 0, 80, 160, and 320 mg/kg HEP respectively for a fortnight after re-molding with cyoclphosphnalide (CTX). Compared with the control group, the secretion of IL-2, IL-4, and IFN-γ, the activity or content of T-AOC, T-SOD, and GSH-PX, and the expression of PCNA mRNA in the thymus and spleen were reduced in immunosuppressed mice (P < .05 or P < .01). Compared with immunosuppressed mice, the levels of IL-2, IFN-γ, and GSH-PX and the PCNA mRNA expression of spleen and thymus were increased (P < .05 or P < .01), and the microstructure were also obviously improved in the experimental group III. Overall, 320 mg/kg of HEP significantly improved the immune and antioxidant functions.

Engineered NanoAlum from aluminum turns cold tumor hot for potentiating cancer metalloimmunotherapy

The poor cancer immunotherapy outcome has been closely related to immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), which usually inactivates the antitumor immune cells and leads to immune tolerance. Metalloimmunotherapy by supplementing nutritional metal ions into TME has emerged as a potential strategy to activate the tumor-resident immune cells. Herein, we engineered a magnesium-contained nano-aluminum adjuvant (NanoAlum) through hydrolyzing a mixture of Mg(OH)₂ and Al(OH)₃, which has highly similar components to commercial Imject Alum. Peritumoral injection of NanoAlum effectively neutralized the acidic TME while releasing Mg²⁺ to activate the tumor-resident T cells. Meanwhile, NanoAlum also blocked the autophagy pathway in tumor cells and subsequently induced cell apoptosis. The in vivo studies showed that merely peritumoral injection of NanoAlum successfully inhibited the growth of solid tumors in mice. On this basis, NanoAlum combined with chemical drug methotrexate or immunomodulatory adjuvant CpG further induced potent antigen-specific antitumor immunity. Overall, our study first provides a rational design for engineering tumor-targeted nanomodulator from clinical adjuvants to achieve effective cancer metalloimmunotherapy against solid tumors.

Exploring the prognostic value of HK3 and its association with immune infiltration in glioblastoma multiforme

Background: Hexokinase 3 (HK3) is one of the key enzymes involved in glucose phosphorylation (the first step in most glucose metabolic pathways). Many studies have demonstrated the vital role of dysregulation of HK3 in several tumors. However, there is a need for in-depth characterization of the role of HK3 in glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). Methods: All data were sourced from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas (CGGA). Kaplan-Meier analysis and univariate regression were applied for survival analysis. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was used for enrichment analysis. Tumor Immune Single Cell Hub (TISCH) database was applied for single-cell analysis. Tumor Immune Dysfunction and Exclusion (TIDE) analysis was applied to evaluate the immune response. Results: HK3 expression was upregulated in GBM and correlated with poor prognosis. The high HK3 expression group was primarily enriched in adaptive immune response, chemokine signaling pathway, and cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction. The high HK3 expression group showed significantly greater enrichment of the majority of immune cells and immune-related pathways. HK3 showed significant correlation with most immune cells, especially macrophages (p < .001, R = .81). TISCH analysis showed that HK3 was predominantly expressed in macrophages in most cancers. HK3 showed significant correlation with most immune-related genes, such as PD-1 (p < .001, R = .41), PDL-1 (p < .001, R = .27), and CTLA-4 (p < .001, R = .29). TIDE analysis revealed that the low HK3 expression group has a lower TIDE score and may benefit from immunotherapy. Drug sensitivity analysis showed that patients with high HK3 expression frequently showed drug resistance. Conclusion: HK3 was associated with poor prognosis and may serve as a biomarker of macrophages in GBM. HK3 was also associated with immune response and drug resistance. Our findings may provide novel insights for GBM immunotherapy.

Generation and engineering of potent single domain antibody-based bispecific IL-18 mimetics resistant to IL-18BP decoy receptor inhibition

Here, we generated bispecific antibody (bsAb) derivatives that mimic the function of interleukin (IL)-18 based on single domain antibodies (sdAbs) specific to IL-18 Rα and IL-18 Rβ. For this, camelids were immunized, followed by yeast surface display (YSD)-enabled discovery of VHHs targeting the individual receptor subunits. Upon reformatting into a strictly monovalent (1 + 1) bispecific sdAb architecture, several bsAbs triggered dose-dependent IL-18 R downstream signaling on IL-18 reporter cells, as well as IFN-γ release by peripheral blood mononuclear cells in the presence of low-dose IL-12. However, compared with IL-18, potencies and efficacies were considerably attenuated. By engineering paratope valencies and the spatial orientation of individual paratopes within the overall design architecture, we were able to generate IL-18 mimetics displaying significantly augmented functionalities, resulting in bispecific cytokine mimetics that were more potent than IL-18 in triggering proinflammatory cytokine release. Furthermore, generated IL-18 mimetics were unaffected from inhibition by IL-18 binding protein decoy receptor. Essentially, we demonstrate that this strategy enables the generation of IL-18 mimetics with tailor-made cytokine functionalities.

Macrophages as potential targets in gene therapy for cancer treatment

Macrophages, as ubiquitous and functionally diverse immune cells, play a central role in innate immunity and initiate adaptive immunity. Especially, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are crucial contributors to the tumorigenesis and development of cancer. Thus, macrophages are emerging potential targets for cancer treatment. Among the numerous targeted therapeutic options, gene therapy is one of the most potential therapeutic strategies via directly and specifically regulating biological functions of macrophages at the gene level for cancer treatment. This short review briefly introduces the characteristics of macrophage populations, the functions of TAM in the occurrence, and the progress of cancer. It also summarized some representative examples to highlight the current progress in TAM-targeted gene therapy. The review hopes to provide new insights into macrophage-targeted gene therapy for precision cancer therapy.

Alternative strategies for Chlamydia treatment: Promising non-antibiotic approaches

Chlamydia is an obligate intracellular bacterium where most species are pathogenic and infectious, causing various infectious diseases and complications in humans and animals. Antibiotics are often recommended for the clinical treatment of chlamydial infections. However, extensive research has shown that antibiotics may not be sufficient to eliminate or inhibit infection entirely and have some potential risks, including antibiotic resistance. The impact of chlamydial infection and antibiotic misuse should not be underestimated in public health. This study explores the possibility of new therapeutic techniques, including a review of recent studies on preventing and suppressing chlamydial infection by non-antibiotic compounds.

Preclinical evaluation of IAP0971, a novel immunocytokine that binds specifically to PD1 and fuses IL15/IL15R complex

Background

Currently, cytokine therapy for cancer has demonstrated efficacy in certain diseases but is generally accompanied by severe toxicity. The field of antibody-cytokine fusion proteins (immunocytokines) arose to target these effector molecules to the tumor microenvironment to expand the therapeutic window of cytokine therapy. Therefore, we have developed a novel immunocytokine that binds specifically to programmed death 1 (PD1) and fuses IL15/IL15Rα complex (referred to as IAP0971) for cancer immunotherapy.

Methods

We report here the making of IAP0971, a novel immunocytokine that binds specifically to PD1 and fuses IL15/IL15Rα complex, and preclinical characterization including pharmacology, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics and toxicology, and discuss its potential as a novel agent for treating patients with advanced malignant tumors.

Results

IAP0971 bound to human IL2/15Rβ proteins specifically and blocked PD1/PDL1 signaling transduction pathway. IAP0971 promoted the proliferation of CD8 + T cells and natural killer T (NKT) cells, and further activated NK cells to kill tumor cells validated by in vitro assays. In an hPD1 knock-in mouse model, IAP0971 showed potent anti-tumor activity. Preclinical studies in non-human primates following single or repeated dosing of IAP0971 showed favorable pharmacokinetics and well-tolerated toxicology profile.

Conclusion

IAP0971 has demonstrated a favorable safety profile and potent anti-tumor activities in vivo. A Phase I/IIa clinical trial to evaluate the safety, tolerability and preliminary efficacy of IAP0971 in patients with advanced malignant tumors is on-going (NCT05396391).

Synergistic influence of cytokine gene polymorphisms over the risk of dementia: A multifactor dimensionality reduction analysis

OBJECTIVE

Evidence supports the important role of neuroinflammation in some types of dementia. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of epistasis of gene cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-α, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNFα), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) on the susceptibility to the development of dementia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the study, 221 patients diagnosed with dementia and 710 controls were included. The multifactor-dimensionality reduction (MDR) analysis was performed to identify the epistasis between SNP located in genes of IL-α (rs1800587), IL-6 (rs1800796), TNFα (rs361525 and rs1800629), and IFNγ (rs2069705). The best risk prediction model was identified based on precision and cross-validation consistency.

RESULTS

Multifactor-dimensionality reduction analysis detected a significant model with the genes TNFα, IFNγ, IL1α, and IL6 (prediction success: 72%, p < 0.0001). When risk factors were analyzed with these polymorphisms, the model achieved a similar prediction for dementia as the genes-only model.

CONCLUSION

These data indicate that gene-gene interactions form significant models to identify populations susceptible to dementia.

A Peritumorally Injected Immunomodulating Adjuvant Elicits Robust and Safe Metalloimmunotherapy against Solid Tumors

Clinical immunotherapy of solid tumors elicits durable responses only in a minority of patients, largely due to the highly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Although rational combinations of vaccine adjuvants with inflammatory cytokines or immune agonists that relieve immunosuppression represent an appealing therapeutic strategy against solid tumors, there are unavoidable nonspecific toxicities due to the pleiotropy of cytokines and undesired activation of off-target cells. Herein, a Zn²⁺ doped layered double hydroxide (Zn-LDH) based immunomodulating adjuvant, which not only relieves immunosuppression but also elicits robust antitumor immunity, is reported. Peritumorally injected Zn-LDH sustainably neutralizes acidic TME and releases abundant Zn²⁺ , promoting a pro-inflammatory network composed of M1-tumor-associated macrophages, cytotoxic T cells, and natural-killer cells. Moreover, the Zn-LDH internalized by tumor cells effectively disrupts endo-/lysosomes to block autophagy and induces mitochondrial damage, and the released Zn²⁺ activates the cGas-STING signaling pathway to induce immunogenic cell death, which further promotes the release of tumor-associated antigens to induce antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Unprecedentedly, merely injection of Zn-LDH adjuvant, without using any cytotoxic inflammatory cytokines or immune agonists, significantly inhibits the growth, recurrence, and metastasis of solid tumors in mice. This study provides a rational bottom-up design of potent adjuvant for cancer metalloimmunotherapy against solid tumors.

Nanobiotherapeutic strategies to target immune microenvironment of triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the subtype with the least favourable outcomes in breast cancer. Besides chemotherapy, there is a chronic lack of other effective treatments. Advances in omic technologies have liberated us from the ambiguity of TNBC heterogeneity in terms of cancer cell and immune microenvironment in recent years. This new understanding of TNBC pathology has already led to the exploitation of novel nanoparticulate systems, including tumor vaccines, oncolytic viruses, and antibody derivatives. The revolutionary ideas in the therapeutic landscape provide new opportunities for TNBC patients. Translating these experimental medicines into clinical benefit is both appreciated and challenging. In this review, we describe the prospective nanobiotherapy of TNBC that has been developed to overcome clinical obstacles, and provide our vision for this booming field at the overlap of cancer biotherapy and nanomaterial design.

Radioimmunotherapy in HPV-Associated Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma

HPV-associated head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is a cancer entity with unique biological and clinical characteristics that requires more personalized treatment strategies. As the backbone of conventional therapeutics, radiation is now harnessed to synergize with immunotherapy in multiple malignancies. Accumulating preclinical and clinical data have suggested the potential of radioimmunotherapy in eliciting local and systemic anti-tumor response via direct killing of tumor cells and immunogenic cell death. However, this effect remains uncertain in HPV-associated HNSCC. Owing to its intrinsic radiosensitivity and distinct tumor microenvironment, HPV-associated HNSCC may represent a good candidate for radioimmunotherapy. In this review, we provide a detailed illustration of the biology, the genomic features, and immune landscapes of HPV-associated HNSCC that support the synergism between radiation and immune agents. The interaction between radiotherapy and immunotherapy is described. We also highlight the present evidence as well as ongoing trials using different combination strategies in the recurrent/metastatic or definitive settings. In addition, we have summarized the challenges and outlook for future trial design, with special emphasis on radiotherapy optimization and novel therapeutic options to incorporate.

Natural killer cell homing and trafficking in tissues and tumors: from biology to application

Natural killer (NK) cells, a subgroup of innate lymphoid cells, act as the first line of defense against cancer. Although some evidence shows that NK cells can develop in secondary lymphoid tissues, NK cells develop mainly in the bone marrow (BM) and egress into the blood circulation when they mature. They then migrate to and settle down in peripheral tissues, though some special subsets home back into the BM or secondary lymphoid organs. Owing to its success in allogeneic adoptive transfer for cancer treatment and its "off-the-shelf" potential, NK cell-based immunotherapy is attracting increasing attention in the treatment of various cancers. However, insufficient infiltration of adoptively transferred NK cells limits clinical utility, especially for solid tumors. Expansion of NK cells or engineered chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) NK cells ex vivo prior to adoptive transfer by using various cytokines alters the profiles of chemokine receptors, which affects the infiltration of transferred NK cells into tumor tissue. Several factors control NK cell trafficking and homing, including cell-intrinsic factors (e.g., transcriptional factors), cell-extrinsic factors (e.g., integrins, selectins, chemokines and their corresponding receptors, signals induced by cytokines, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), etc.), and the cellular microenvironment. Here, we summarize the profiles and mechanisms of NK cell homing and trafficking at steady state and during tumor development, aiming to improve NK cell-based cancer immunotherapy.

Immunogenic Cell Death Activates the Tumor Immune Microenvironment to Boost the Immunotherapy Efficiency

Tumor immunotherapy is only effective in a fraction of patients due to a low response rate and severe side effects, and these challenges of immunotherapy in clinics can be addressed through induction of immunogenic cell death (ICD). ICD is elicited from many antitumor therapies to release danger associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and tumor‐associated antigens to facilitate maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) and infiltration of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). The process can reverse the tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment to improve the sensitivity of immunotherapy. Nanostructure‐based drug delivery systems (NDDSs) are explored to induce ICD by incorporating therapeutic molecules for chemotherapy, photosensitizers (PSs) for photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal conversion agents for photothermal therapy (PTT), and radiosensitizers for radiotherapy (RT). These NDDSs can release loaded agents at a right dose in the right place at the right time, resulting in greater effectiveness and lower toxicity. Immunotherapeutic agents can also be combined with these NDDSs to achieve the synergic antitumor effect in a multi‐modality therapeutic approach. In this review, NDDSs are harnessed to load multiple agents to induce ICD by chemotherapy, PDT, PTT, and RT in combination of immunotherapy to promote the therapeutic effect and reduce side effects associated with cancer treatment.