Effectiveness of protected areas in conserving tropical forest birds

Effectiveness of protected areas in conserving avian communities amid human impact in Nigeria

Understanding the impacts of human activities on avian communities in- and outside protected areas (PAs) is essential for guiding conservation strategies and evaluating the effectiveness of PAs in conserving avian diversity. Effective PAs should not only safeguard species within their boundaries but also contribute to maintaining ecosystem functionality in surrounding landscapes. We used citizen science data from the Nigerian Bird Atlas Project (2015-2024) and the human footprint index (HFI) from the Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC) to analyze avian taxonomic and functional richness and diversity across 146 paired pentads (5' × 5' grid cells). Each protected area pentad (PAP) that covered ≥70% of a PA was paired with an unprotected pentad (UPP). Bayesian hierarchical models were applied to assess avian taxonomic and functional richness and diversity between PAPs and UPPs and to examine the influence of human activity on these community metrics based on HFI values. The PAPs had higher taxonomic richness and diversity than UPPs. In contrast, abundance-weighted functional diversity metrics (Rao's Q, functional dispersion, and divergence) were higher in UPPs than PAPs due to the proliferation of disturbance-tolerant generalist species. However, functional richness was lower in UPPs than PAPs, reflecting fewer ecological niches. Taxonomic and functional richness increased with moderate human impact, consistent with the intermediate disturbance hypothesis, but declined under higher levels of disturbance, suggesting a point beyond which species cannot adapt or persist. These findings support the critical role of PAs in conserving avian species and functional traits and highlight the effects of human impact on species survival. Conservation strategies must prioritize the maintenance of PAs and integrate sustainable management in UPAs to safeguard avian diversity and functional traits essential for ecosystem resilience, especially as anthropogenic pressures increase.

Global scale high-resolution habitat suitability modeling of avifauna providing pollination service (sunbirds, Nectariniidae)

Avian species provide important ecosystem services such as nutrient cycling, seed dispersal, meat provision, pest control, scavenging, and pollination. Currently, the populations of avian pollinators are declining due to climate change and human impact, and it is crucial to identify species-rich areas for their conservation. Sunbirds (Nectariniidae) are important vertebrate pollinators with a wide distribution that include Africa, Asia and Australasia. Here, we assembled distribution records of sunbird species and applied a maximum entropy approach to model sunbird habitat suitability in the world. We also quantified sunbirds composition similarity among the terrestrial biomes. We found that sunbird habitat suitability reached a peak in Southeast Asia, and in western and central parts of the African continent. Sunbird richness was highest in the Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests biome. Solar Radiation Index (SRI), precipitation of the warmest quarter, and human footprint index were the most important predictors of sunbirds global habitat suitability. Geographic regions identified to have the highest suitability and richness for sunbirds have high priority for conservation of this unique group of avian pollinators and the ecological services they provide.

Capability of big data to capture threatened vertebrate diversity in protected areas

Protected areas (PAs) are an essential tool for conservation amid the global biodiversity crisis. Optimizing PAs to represent species at risk of extinction is crucial. Vertebrate representation in PAs is assessed using species distribution databases from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). Evaluating and addressing discrepancies and biases in these data sources are vital for effective conservation strategies. Our objective was to gain insights into the potential constraints (e.g., differences and biases) of these global repositories to objectively depict the diversity of threatened vertebrates in the global system of PAs. We assessed differences in species richness (SR) of threatened vertebrates as reported by IUCN and GBIF in PAs globally and then compared how biased this information was with reports from independent sources for a subset of PAs. Both databases showed substantial differences in SR in PAs (t = -62.35, p ≤ 0.001), but differences varied among regions and vertebrate groups. When these results were compared with data from independent assessments, IUCN overestimated SR by 575% on average and GBIF underestimated SR by 63% on average, again with variable results among regions and groups. Our results indicate the need to improve analyses of the representativeness of threatened vertebrates in PAs such that robust and unbiased assessments of PA effectiveness can be conducted. The scientific community and decision makers should consider these regional and taxonomic disparities when using IUCN and GBIF distributional data sources in PA assessment. Overall, supplementing information in these databases could lead to more robust and reliable analyses. Additional efforts to acquire more comprehensive and unbiased data on species distributions to support conservation decisions are clearly needed.

Population dynamics and the role of protected areas in China's milu deer (Elaphurus davidianus) rewilding

Protected areas are refugia for wildlife and play a crucial role in biodiversity conservation, especially in the restoration of rare and endangered species. However, little attention has been paid to the long-term contribution of protected areas to rare species population rejuvenation. To identify the population growth of milu deer (Elaphurus davidianus)in protected areas and unprotected areas, we fitted the population dynamics curve of reintroduced free-ranging and wild populations based on long-term monitoring data in four protected areas: Jiangsu Dafeng Milu National Nature Reserve, Hubei Shishou Milu National Nature Reserve, Hunan East Dongting Lake National Nature Reserve, and Jiangxi Poyang Lake area. We also examined population dynamics in two unprotected areas: Yangbotan wetland and Sanheyuan wetland in Shishou County, Hubei province. We analyzed the habitat characteristics (coastal marshy wetland, riverine wetlands, and lake wetlands)in all these areas. The results showed that: (1) population growth in Dafeng, Shishou, Dongting, Sanheyuan and Yangbotan all followed an S-curve (p < 0.001); while population growth around Poyang Lake was linear (p < 0.001); (2) the population growth rate of Yangbotan wetland was significantly higher than that of Dongting Nature Reserve (p < 0.05); and (3) the two unprotected areas, Yangbotan and Sanheyuan wetlands, are important for the conservation of milu, as they have been facing the threats of urbanization and fragmentation in recent years. Our studies indicate that long-term conservation in protected areas has played an irreplaceable role in the reconstruction and rejuvenation of wild populations of milu deer over the past 30 years, and multiple reintroductions are an effective way to quickly restore wild milu populations in China.

The importance of protected areas for threatened Brazilian butterflies

The present study aims to disclose the importance existing protected areas (PAs) and their level of protection for the conservation of the threatened Brazilian butterflies. A total of 898 occurrence records were found for all 63 species of butterflies present in the current Brazilian Red list. For all studied taxa, at least one occurrence record is within the limits of a PA. More than half of the occurrence records (61.9%) are within the limits of PAs, but less than half (41.7%) of these records are present in fully protected areas. For 17 taxa (27%), less than 50% of their records are within PAs, thus being completely unprotected. For butterfly taxa in the category "critically endangered", 42.6% of their occurrence records falls outside PAs. Almost 99% of the records are concentrated in the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado, the two most threatened Brazilian biomes and global hostspots of biodiversity. In conclusion, the present study showed an important panorama of how threatened Brazilian butterflies are protected (or not). Anyway, it is important to highlight that for any record inside a PA, some level of protection is provided for these taxa against the advance of environmental destruction caused by human activities.

Addressing critical gaps in protected area coverage for bird habitats in China

Currently, protected areas cover approximately 14% of the Earth's land surface, yet 12.2% of the world's bird species remain unprotected by any designated areas and face significant threats. This study investigates the current status of bird conservation in China, aiming to evaluate the effectiveness of existing protected areas, analyze why certain bird species are not adequately protected, and propose strategies for optimizing protected area configurations. Utilizing citizen science data and the zonation optimization algorithm, we comprehensively assessed the conservation value of birds in China. We then employed anthropogenic stressor data to evaluate the conservation of threatened bird habitats through a binary conflict intensity model. Finally, we conducted a spatial overlap analysis to determine the coverage and effectiveness of Chinese nature reserves in regions with high conservation value and high conflict risk. Our findings indicate that only 10.0% of the highest conservation value bird habitats are covered by protected areas, and just 7.3% of these protected areas effectively safeguard these critical habitats. Additionally, only 5.9% of bird habitats impacted by human activity conflicts are within protected areas, and merely 22.0% of the total protected areas can effectively conserve high conflict risk habitats. Overall, China's current protected area system has substantial shortcomings in safeguarding bird habitats and requires further optimization and expansion to maximize conservation benefits.

Identifying protected areas in biodiversity hotspots at risk from climate and human-induced compound events for conserving threatened species

Anthropogenic pressure in areas of biodiversity importance erodes the integrity of the ecosystems they harbour, making features of biodiversity less buffered against extreme climatic events. We define the combination of these disturbances as compound events. We assessed compound event risk in protected areas (PAs) applying a spatial framework guided by criteria and quantitative thresholds associated with exposure to cyclones, drought, and intense human pressure. This assessment was used in a relational matrix to classify PAs with different risk of compound event occurrence. We identified PAs of higher conservation concern by quantifying the extent of human pressure in their surrounding landscape while harbouring large numbers of threatened vertebrate species. Of the 39,694 PAs assessed, very high risk of compound events was determined for 6965 PAs (17.5 %) related to cyclones and human pressure (mainly island hotspots), 6367 PAs (16 %) related to droughts and human pressure (island and continental hotspots), and 2031 PAs (5 %) to cyclones, drought and human pressure (mainly in island hotspots). From the subset of 2031 PAs assessed at very high risk, we identified 239 PAs of higher conservation concern distributed predominantly in the Caribbean Islands, Japan, North America Coastal Plain, Philippines, and Southwest Australia. Our work highlights PAs in the biodiversity hotspots where high risk of compound event occurrence poses a greater threat to species. We encourage researchers to adapt and apply this framework across other globally significant sites for conserving biodiversity to identify high risk-prone areas, and prevent further biodiversity decline.

Expanding China's protected areas network to enhance resilience of climate connectivity

Expanding the network of connected and resilient protected areas (PAs) for climate change adaptation can help species track suitable climate conditions and safeguard biodiversity. This is often overlooked when expanding PAs and quantifying their benefits, resulting in an underestimate of the benefits of expanding PAs. We expanded PAs through terrestrial mammalian species distribution hotspots, Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs), and wilderness areas. Then, we constructed climate connectivity networks using a resistance-based approach and further quantified the network resilience to propose resilient climate response strategies in China. The results showed that existing PAs suffered from location biases with important biodiversity areas. The existing PAs represented about half of the KBAs and wilderness areas, yet only 12.08% of terrestrial mammalian species distribution hotspots were located within existing PAs. Compared with the existing PA network, the network efficiency and resilience of the expanded PAs' climate connectivity increased to 1.80 times and 1.78 times, respectively. With 56% of the nodes remaining, the network efficiency of the expanded PAs was equivalent to that of the existing PAs with all nodes. The network resilience of preferentially protecting and restoring low human footprint patches was approximately 1.5-2 times that of the random scenario. These findings highlighted that confronted with the unoptimistic situation of global warming, nature conservation based on existing PAs was no longer optimal. It was critical to construct a connected and resilient conservation network relying on both important biodiversity areas and low human footprint patches.

The effectiveness of natural reserves from the perspective of habitat quality in the southern section of the Hengduan Mountains, Southwestern China

Natural reserves (NRs) play key roles in habitat integrity conservation and biodiversity loss mitigation, and the assessment of the conservation effectiveness of NRs is needed to better manage them. Habitat quality (HQ) comprehensively reflects habitat integrity and biodiversity, but the conservation effectiveness of NRs from the perspective of HQ has rarely been determined at high spatial resolution. Taking the southern section of the Hengduan Mountains (SSHM) in Southwest China as an example, combining an InVEST-HQ model and spatiotemporal change detection methods, the effectiveness of NRs from the perspective of HQ at 30-m spatial resolution was assessed in this study. The effectiveness disparities of NRs across different properties (i.e., management level, conservation target, size, and establishment age) was analyzed and the human pressures on NRs was investigated. The results showed that the HQ of the NRs is good in the SSHM, with the area ratio of the Higher and Highest HQ ≥ 93%. Most of the NR area (94.11%) was effective at improving or maintaining a good HQ. With regard to NR properties, county NRs, NRs designated to conserving wild animals, middle NRs, and younger NRs were more effective, corresponding to management level, conservation target, size, and establishment age, respectively. The human footprint for an effective area is significantly lower than that for an ineffective area, consistent with higher HQ in the effective area and lower HQ in the ineffective area. These findings support the management and zoning of NRs in the SSHM to ensure their effectiveness.

Landscape and Socioeconomic Factors Determine Malaria Incidence in Tropical Forest Countries

Deforestation, landscape dynamics, and socioeconomic factors within the tropical Americas, Africa, and Asia may have different impacts on malaria incidence. To evaluate how these drivers affect malaria incidence at the global and regional scale, we collected malaria incidence rates from 2000 to 2019 from 67 tropical countries, along with forest loss, land use change types, and socioeconomic elements. LASSO regression, linear mixed effect modeling, and k-fold cross validation were used to create and evaluate the models. Regionality plays a role in the significance of varying risk factors. The Tropical Americas model had the highest coefficient of determination (marginal R2 = 0.369), while the Africa model showed the highest predictive accuracy with only a 17.4% error rate. Strong associations between tree cover loss (β = -4037.73, p < 0.001) and percentage forest area (β = 5373.18, p = 0.012) in Africa, and percent of key biodiversity areas under protection (β = 496.71, p < 0.001; β = 1679.20, p < 0.001) in the tropical Americas and Asia with malaria incidence indicates that malaria risk should be considered during conservation policy development, and recommends that individual approaches to policy and investment be considered when implementing malaria interventions on different spatial scales.

Risk from future climate change to Pakistan's protected area network: A composite analysis for hotspot identification

As climate change becomes a primary driver of global ecosystem deterioration and biodiversity loss, protected areas (PAs) are posed to play a crucial conservation role. At a global scale, 17 % of land is currently covered by PAs; a figure expected to reach 30 % by 2030 under the UN post-2020 global biodiversity framework. However, focusing only on the percent coverage of PAs without assessing their efficacy may not accomplish the intended conservation goals. Here, we present the first assessment of the risk from climate change to existing PAs and non-protected lands across Pakistan by combining data on the local exposure and vulnerability of 409 species of birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians to multidimensional changes in climate by mid (2040-2060) and late (2061-2080) century under two climate emission scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5). We find that between 7 % (2050 RCP4.5) and 19 % (2080 RCP8.5) of the current network of PAs, mostly located in the eastern and southeastern parts of the country, are projected to be under future extreme risk (i.e., highly exposed areas containing highly vulnerable communities). Importantly, hotspots of risk within these PAs are projected to significantly expand over time and with increasing severity of the scenario. In contrast, PAs in the northern part of the country are projected to remain under moderate to low risk. Results are subject to variability across the country reflecting interesting differences in climate change exposure and species vulnerability between protected and non-protected lands. Importantly, significantly lower level of risks from future climate change are projected for PAs than non-protected lands across emission scenarios and periods suggesting potential candidate areas for the future expansion of the country's PA network. Our analysis provides novel insights that can help inform conservation decisions and management at a time when the country is investing in ambitious efforts to expand its network of protected areas.

Conservation gaps and priorities of range-restricted birds in the Northern Andes

The ongoing destruction of habitats in the tropics accelerates the current rate of species extinction. Range-restricted species are exceptionally vulnerable, yet we have insufficient knowledge about their protection. Species' current distributions, range sizes, and protection gaps are crucial to determining conservation priorities. Here, we identified priority range-restricted bird species and their conservation hotspots in the Northern Andes. We employed maps of the Area of Habitat (AOH), that better reflect their current distributions than existing maps. AOH provides unprecedented resolution and maps a species in the detail essential for practical conservation actions. We estimated protection within each species' AOH and for the cumulative distribution of all 335 forest-dependent range-restricted birds across the Northern Andes. For the latter, we also calculated protection across the elevational gradient. We estimated how much additional protection community lands (Indigenous and Afro-Latin American lands) would contribute if they were conservation-focused. AOHs ranged from 8 to 141,000 km2. We identified four conservation priorities based on cumulative species richness: the number of AOHs stacked per unit area. These priorities are high-resolution mapped representations of Endemic Bird Areas for the Tropical Andes that we consider critically important. Protected areas cover only 31% of the cumulative AOH, but community lands could add 19% more protection. Sixty-two per cent of the 335 species have ranges smaller than their published estimates, yet IUCN designates only 23% of these as Threatened. We identified 50 species as top conservation priorities. Most of these concentrate in areas of low protection near community lands and at middle elevations where, on average, only 34% of the land is protected. We highlight the importance of collaborative efforts among stakeholders: governments should support private and community-based conservation practices to protect the region with the most range-restricted birds worldwide.

Modeling the social drivers of environmental sustainability among Amazonian indigenous lands using Bayesian networks

Amazonia is an invaluable global asset for all its ecological and cultural significance. Indigenous peoples and their lands are pivotal in safeguarding this unique biodiversity and mitigating global climate change. Understanding the causal structure behind variation in the degree of environmental conservation across different indigenous lands-each with varying institutional, legal, and socioenvironmental conditions-is an essential source of information in the struggle for long-term sustainable management of Amazonian ecosystems. Here, we use data from the Instituto Socioambiental for 361 indigenous lands in the Brazilian Amazon coded for environmental integrity, territorial integrity, legal stability, indigenous governance, and threats due to infrastructure projects. Using Bayesian networks to learn the causal structure amongst these variables reveals two causal pathways leading to environmental integrity. One causal pathway starts with territorial integrity and is mediated by infrastructure projects, while the other is directly from legal stability. Hence, safeguarding indigenous lands from exploitation is best accomplished via legal land rights and stricter enforcement instead of placing the onus on indigenous governance, which is also a direct outcome of legal stability.

Evaluating community-wide temporal sampling in passive acoustic monitoring: A comprehensive study of avian vocal patterns in subtropical montane forests

BACKGROUND

From passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) recordings, the vocal activity rate (VAR), vocalizations per unit of time, can be calculated and is essential for assessing bird population abundance. However, VAR is subject to influences from a range of factors, including species and environmental conditions. Identifying the optimal sampling design to obtain representative acoustic data for VAR estimation is crucial for research objectives. PAM commonly uses temporal sampling strategies to decrease the volume of recordings and the resources needed for audio data management. Yet, the comprehensive impact of this sampling approach on VAR estimation remains insufficiently explored.

METHODS

In this study, we used vocalizations extracted from recordings of 12 bird species, taken at 14 PAM stations situated in subtropical montane forests over a four-month period, to assess the impact of temporal sampling on VAR across three distinct scales: short-term periodic, diel, and hourly. For short-term periodic sampling analysis, we employed hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) and the coefficient of variation (CV). Generalized additive models (GAMs) were utilized for diel sampling analysis, and we determined the average difference in VAR values per minute for the hourly sampling analysis.

RESULTS

We identified significant day and species-specific VAR fluctuations. The survey season was divided into five segments; the earliest two showed high variability and are best avoided for surveys. Data from days with heavy rain and strong winds showed reduced VAR values and should be excluded from analysis. Continuous recordings spanning at least seven days, extending to 14 days is optimal for minimizing sampling variance. Morning chorus recordings effectively capture the majority of bird vocalizations, and hourly sampling with frequent, shorter intervals aligns closely with continuous recording outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

While our findings are context-specific, they highlight the significance of strategic sampling in avian monitoring, optimizing resource utilization and enhancing the breadth of monitoring efforts.

Protected areas reduce deforestation and degradation and enhance woody growth across African woodlands

Protected areas are increasingly promoted for their capacity to sequester carbon, alongside biodiversity benefits. However, we have limited understanding of whether they are effective at reducing deforestation and degradation, or promoting vegetation growth, and the impact that this has on changes to aboveground woody carbon stocks. Here we present a new satellite radar-based map of vegetation carbon change across southern Africa's woodlands and combine this with a matching approach to assess the effect of protected areas on carbon dynamics. We show that protection has a positive effect on aboveground carbon, with stocks increasing faster in protected areas (+0.53% per year) compared to comparable lands not under protection (+0.08% per year). The positive effect of protection reflects lower rates of deforestation (-39%) and degradation (-25%), as well as a greater prevalence of vegetation growth (+12%) inside protected lands. Areas under strict protection had similar outcomes to other types of protection after controlling for differences in location, with effect scores instead varying more by country, and the level of threat. These results highlight the potential for protected areas to sequester aboveground carbon, although we caution that in some areas this may have negative impacts on biodiversity, and human wellbeing.

Protected areas slow declines unevenly across the tetrapod tree of life

Protected areas (PAs) are the primary strategy for slowing terrestrial biodiversity loss. Although expansion of PA coverage is prioritized under the Convention on Biological Diversity, it remains unknown whether PAs mitigate declines across the tetrapod tree of life and to what extent land cover and climate change modify PA effectiveness1,2. Here we analysed rates of change in abundance of 2,239 terrestrial vertebrate populations across the globe. On average, vertebrate populations declined five times more slowly within PAs (-0.4% per year) than at similar sites lacking protection (-1.8% per year). The mitigating effects of PAs varied both within and across vertebrate classes, with amphibians and birds experiencing the greatest benefits. The benefits of PAs were lower for amphibians in areas with converted land cover and lower for reptiles in areas with rapid climate warming. By contrast, the mitigating impacts of PAs were consistently augmented by effective national governance. This study provides evidence for the effectiveness of PAs as a strategy for slowing tetrapod declines. However, optimizing the growing PA network requires targeted protection of sensitive clades and mitigation of threats beyond PA boundaries. Provided the conditions of targeted protection, adequate governance and well-managed landscapes are met, PAs can serve a critical role in safeguarding tetrapod biodiversity.

Human Expansion-Induced Biodiversity Crisis over Asia from 2000 to 2020

Asia stands out as a priority for urgent biodiversity conservation due to its large protected areas (PAs) and threatened species. Since the 21st century, both the highlands and lowlands of Asia have been experiencing the dramatic human expansion. However, the threat degree of human expansion to biodiversity is poorly understood. Here, the threat degree of human expansion to biodiversity over 2000 to 2020 in Asia at the continental (Asia), national (48 Asian countries), and hotspot (6,502 Asian terrestrial PAs established before 2000) scales is investigated by integrating multiple large-scale data. The results show that human expansion poses widespread threat to biodiversity in Asia, especially in Southeast Asia, with Malaysia, Cambodia, and Vietnam having the largest threat degrees (∼1.5 to 1.7 times of the Asian average level). Human expansion in highlands induces higher threats to biodiversity than that in lowlands in one-third Asian countries (most Southeast Asian countries). The regions with threats to biodiversity are present in ∼75% terrestrial PAs (including 4,866 PAs in 26 countries), and human expansion in PAs triggers higher threat degrees to biodiversity than that in non-PAs. Our findings provide novel insight for the Sustainable Development Goal 15 (SDG-15 Life on Land) and suggest that human expansion in Southeast Asian countries and PAs might hinder the realization of SDG-15. To reduce the threat degree, Asian developing countries should accelerate economic transformation, and the developed countries in the world should reduce the demands for commodity trade in Southeast Asian countries (i.e., trade leading to the loss of wildlife habitats) to alleviate human expansion, especially in PAs and highlands.

How effective are protected areas for reducing threats to biodiversity? A systematic review protocol

BACKGROUND

Protected areas (PAs) have become one of the most important instruments to preserve nature and, when effective, can significantly reduce human pressure and derived threats to biodiversity. However, evidence suggests that despite the growing number and coverage of PAs worldwide, biodiversity trends continue to deteriorate, and human pressure increases outside and inside PAs. While many studies have focused on the effectiveness of PAs in maintaining ecological features, less attention has been given to the threat reduction potential of PAs, despite threats being one of the main factors leading to the need to conserve biodiversity. It is therefore essential to understand PAs' role in addressing threats. In this paper, we describe the protocol for conducting a systematic review to explore and review the evidence surrounding the effectiveness of PAs as an intervention to reduce threats to biodiversity. We will examine the role of PAs in addressing several types of threats. Thus, our primary research question is: How effective are protected areas for reducing threats to biodiversity?

METHODS

This protocol follows the Collaboration for Environmental Evidence guidelines for evidence synthesis and complies with the ROSES (Reporting Standards for Systematic Evidence Synthesis) reporting framework. We will use a comprehensive search, covering databases such as Web of Science-core collection and Scopus and organizational websites to capture relevant grey literature. Our search terms and strategies aim to find studies assessing change of threats given in PAs at any scale and ecosystem type capturing literature in English. Independent reviewers will screen search results at the title-abstract, and full text levels. In order to evaluate the relevance of the evidence, we will use the Collaboration for Environmental Evidence Critical Appraisal Tool. The results will be presented as a narrative synthesis supported by quantitative data. Additionally, a meta-analysis, if possible, will be performed.

Insights into the coexistence of birds and humans in cropland through meta-analyses of bird exclosure studies, crop loss mitigation experiments, and social surveys

Birds share lands with humans at a substantial scale and affect crops. Yet, at a global scale, systematic evaluations of human-bird coexistence in croplands are scarce. Here, we compiled and used meta-analysis approaches to synthesize multiple global datasets of ecological and social dimensions to understand this complex coexistence system. Our result shows that birds usually increase woody, but not herbaceous, crop production, implying that crop loss mitigation efforts are critical for a better coexistence. We reveal that many nonlethal technical measures are more effective in reducing crop loss, e.g., using scaring devices and changing sow practices, than other available methods. Besides, we find that stakeholders from low-income countries are more likely to perceive the crop losses caused by birds and are less positive toward birds than those from high-income ones. Based on our evidence, we identified potential regional clusters, particularly in tropical areas, for implementing win-win coexistence strategies. Overall, we provide an evidence-based knowledge flow and solutions for stakeholders to integrate the conservation and management of birds in croplands.

Ongoing over-exploitation and delayed responses to environmental change highlight the urgency for action to promote vertebrate recoveries by 2030

To safeguard nature, we must understand the drivers of biodiversity loss. Time-delayed biodiversity responses to environmental changes (ecological lags) are often absent from models of biodiversity change, despite their well-documented existence. We quantify how lagged responses to climate and land-use change have influenced mammal and bird populations around the world, while incorporating effects of direct exploitation and conservation interventions. Ecological lag duration varies between drivers, vertebrate classes and body size groupings-e.g. lags linked to climate-change impacts are 13 years for small birds, rising to 40 years for larger species. Past warming and land conversion generally combine to predict population declines; however, such conditions are associated with population increases for small mammals. Positive effects of management (>+4% annually for large mammals) and protected areas (>+6% annually for large birds) on population trends contrast with the negative impact of exploitation (<-7% annually for birds), highlighting the need to promote sustainable use. Model projections suggest a future with winners (e.g. large birds) and losers (e.g. medium-sized birds), with current/recent environmental change substantially influencing abundance trends to 2050. Without urgent action, including effective conservation interventions and promoting sustainable use, ambitious targets to stop declines by 2030 may already be slipping out of reach.

Diversity and relative abundance of bird species in the two habitat types of Dokima forest Awi zone, Ethiopia

Birds are the most widespread vertebrate group, as they can be found in practically every type of habitat. However, lack of knowledge on bird ecology in Afrotropical highlands and bird habitat degradation are the main problems that is why this research was studied. The study was conducted in Awi zone, Amhara National Regional State with the objective of the diversity and relative abundance of bird species in the two habitat types of Dokima forest in Awi zone, Ethiopia. Between November 2018 and December 2020, the transect method was conducted in both dry and wet seasons. Using one-way ANOVA, the effect of seasons and habitats on species richness and abundance was investigated and compared. In both the dry and wet seasons, a total of 2233 individuals, 47 species belonging to 35 families, and 14 orders were recorded. The abundance of bird species was not statistically differed between habitat types in the dry season, but it was statistically significantly in the wet season. The mean abundance of bird species differed significantly between the dry and wet seasons. In the dry season, the forest habitat type had the highest species diversity index (H' = 3.18) and the highest evenness (J = 0.94), while in the wet season, the forest habitat type had the highest evenness (J = 0.94). These habitats must be conserved in order to protect the birds that live in the area.

Diversity and relative abundance of bird species in the two habitat types of Dokima forest Awi zone, Ethiopia

Birds are the most widespread vertebrate group, as they can be found in practically every type of habitat. However, lack of knowledge on bird ecology in Afrotropical highlands and bird habitat degradation are the main problems that is why this research was studied. The study was conducted in Awi zone, Amhara National Regional State with the objective of the diversity and relative abundance of bird species in the two habitat types of Dokima forest in Awi zone, Ethiopia. Between November 2018 and December 2020, the transect method was conducted in both dry and wet seasons. Using one-way ANOVA, the effect of seasons and habitats on species richness and abundance was investigated and compared. In both the dry and wet seasons, a total of 2233 individuals, 47 species belonging to 35 families, and 14 orders were recorded. The abundance of bird species was not statistically differed between habitat types in the dry season, but it was statistically significantly in the wet season. The mean abundance of bird species differed significantly between the dry and wet seasons. In the dry season, the forest habitat type had the highest species diversity index (H’ = 3.18) and the highest evenness (J = 0.94), while in the wet season, the forest habitat type had the highest evenness (J = 0.94). These habitats must be conserved in order to protect the birds that live in the area.

Regional occupancy increases for widespread species but decreases for narrowly distributed species in metacommunity time series

While human activities are known to elicit rapid turnover in species composition through time, the properties of the species that increase or decrease their spatial occupancy underlying this turnover are less clear. Here, we used an extensive dataset of 238 metacommunity time series of multiple taxa spread across the globe to evaluate whether species that are more widespread (large-ranged species) differed in how they changed their site occupancy over the 10-90 years the metacommunities were monitored relative to species that are more narrowly distributed (small-ranged species). We found that on average, large-ranged species tended to increase in occupancy through time, whereas small-ranged species tended to decrease. These relationships were stronger in marine than in terrestrial and freshwater realms. However, in terrestrial regions, the directional changes in occupancy were less extreme in protected areas. Our findings provide evidence for systematic decreases in occupancy of small-ranged species, and that habitat protection could mitigate these losses in the face of environmental change.

The performance of protected-area expansions in representing tropical Andean species: past trends and climate change prospects

Protected area (PA) extent has increased significantly over the last 150 years globally, but it is yet unclear whether progress in expanding coverage has been accompanied by improved performance in ecological representation. Here, we explore temporal trends in the performance of PA networks in representing > 16,000 vertebrate and plant species in tropical Andean countries based on species bioclimatic niche modelling. We use a randomization analysis to assess whether representation gains over time (1937-2015) are the expected consequence of increasing the overall area of the network or the result of better designed networks. We also explore the impact of climate change on protected-area representation based on projected species distributions in 2070. We found that PAs added in the last three to four decades were better at representing species diversity than random additions overall. Threatened species, amphibians and reptiles are the exception. Species representation is projected to decrease across PAs under climate change, although PA expansions over the last decade (2006-2015) better represented species' future bioclimatic niches than did sites selected at random for most evaluated groups. These findings indicate an unbalanced representation across taxa, and raises concern over under-represented groups, including threatened species, and species' representation under climate change scenarios. However, they also suggest that decisions related to locating protected areas have become more strategic in recent decades and illustrate that indicators tracking representativeness of networks are crucial in PA monitoring frameworks.

Does the establishment of nature reserves increase rural residents' income? : Empirical evidence from China based on PSM-DID

Clarifying the impact of nature reserves on rural residents' income is of great significance to the organic integration of environmental protection and rural residents' income improvement. Based on the panel data of 600 counties from nine provinces in China, ranging from 2010 to 2019, this study employs the quasi-experimental method of Difference in Difference and Propensity Score Matching (PSM-DID) to examine how rural resident's income is influenced by the establishment of nature reserves. It is found that (1) Nature reserves, with a positive impact on rural resident's income, bring more earnings to the rural residents. (2) The impact varies with the heterogeneity of natural reserve types. That is, national and natural parks can increase rural residents' income, while the ones with wildlife or remote desert ecosystem play a limited role. (3) The increased income is mainly originated from the development of tourism, the improvement of facilities and the enhancement of ecosystem services. On this basis, multiple methods are proposed to promote rural residents' income and livelihood security of local communities. Policy recommendations are brought forth as well, including the focus on guaranteeing the livelihood security of rural residents nearby nature reserves where wildlife and remote desert ecosystem are protected.

Responses of spatial relationships between ecosystem services and the Sustainable Development Goals to urbanization

Ecosystem services (ES) are the important component supporting the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) realization. In recent decades, rapid urbanization has strongly affected the relationship between ES and SDGs, resulting in the decoupling of ES and SDGs. However, the key urbanization factors dominating the relationship between ES and SDGs are still unclear. In this study, a structural equation model was constructed to explore the impact path and its change of urbanization structure and scale factors on the relationship between ES and SDGs. The results showed that the economic urbanization structure indicator (Engel coefficient) under the influence of technology import significantly impacted the relationship between ES and SDGs in different periods. Under the influence of changes in urban and rural population, population urbanization structure indicator (labor force population proportion) had significant impact on the relationship between ES and economic SDGs, which was significantly stronger in the period of 2010-2015 than in the period of 2000-2005. Land urbanization scale indicators (construction land proportion, and protected natural area proportion) also significantly impacted the relationship between ES and SDGs. Especially for ecological SDGs, the negative impact of construction land on protected natural area increased significantly in the period of 2010-2015, which might further weaken the ES's contribution to SDGs. This study highlighted that along with the continuous transformation of China's society, the key impacts on the relationship between ES and SDGs resulted from the urbanization indicators of scale as well as structure, which provided an extensive support for the sustainable development and social transformation of developing countries and regions.

Forest Management Practice Influences Bird Diversity in the Mid-Hills of Nepal

Forest management practice plays a critical role in conserving biodiversity. However, there are few studies on how forest management practice affects bird communities. Here, we compare the effectiveness of the Panchase Protection Forest (PPF; protected forest with government administration) and the Tibrekot Community Forest (TCF; community forest with community forest users' group administration) in hosting bird diversity in the mid-hills of Nepal. We examined 96 point count stations during summer and winter in 2019 and recorded 160 species of birds with three globally threatened vultures (red-headed vulture Sarcogyps calvus, slender-billed vulture Gyps tenuirostris, and white-rumped vulture Gyps bengalensis). Forest management practice, season, and elevation all influenced the richness and abundance of birds. The diversity, richness, and abundance of birds and the most common feeding guilds (insectivore, omnivore, and carnivore) were higher in TCF than in PPF; however, globally threatened species were only recorded in PPF. We also recorded a higher bird species turnover (beta diversity) in TCF than in PPF. Our study indicates that community-managed forests can also provide quality habitats similar to those of protected forests managed by the government, and provide refuge to various bird species and guilds. However, we recommend more comparative studies in other tropical and sub-tropical areas to understand how different forest management practices influence bird diversity.

Occupancy winners in tropical protected forests: a pantropical analysis

The structure of forest mammal communities appears surprisingly consistent across the continental tropics, presumably due to convergent evolution in similar environments. Whether such consistency extends to mammal occupancy, despite variation in species characteristics and context, remains unclear. Here we ask whether we can predict occupancy patterns and, if so, whether these relationships are consistent across biogeographic regions. Specifically, we assessed how mammal feeding guild, body mass and ecological specialization relate to occupancy in protected forests across the tropics. We used standardized camera-trap data (1002 camera-trap locations and 2-10 years of data) and a hierarchical Bayesian occupancy model. We found that occupancy varied by regions, and certain species characteristics explained much of this variation. Herbivores consistently had the highest occupancy. However, only in the Neotropics did we detect a significant effect of body mass on occupancy: large mammals had lowest occupancy. Importantly, habitat specialists generally had higher occupancy than generalists, though this was reversed in the Indo-Malayan sites. We conclude that habitat specialization is key for understanding variation in mammal occupancy across regions, and that habitat specialists often benefit more from protected areas, than do generalists. The contrasting examples seen in the Indo-Malayan region probably reflect distinct anthropogenic pressures.

Species richness response to human pressure hides important assemblage transformations

SignificanceHuman activities are causing biodiversity loss, but there is still strong debate on their effect on species richness. Here, I propose a unification of five trajectories of species richness response to increasing human pressure under the "replace then remove framework." It consists in a first phase of assemblage transformation (with the replacement of "loser" by "winner" species), often followed by a second phase of steep decline in species richness (with the decline of many winner species) when human pressure exceeds a certain threshold. The empirical results presented in this study provide an outstanding illustration of assemblage transformations that may cause biotic homogenization, demonstrating how habitat specialist, endemic, sensitive, and threatened species are replaced by others with increasing human pressure.

Effectiveness of the conservation areas on the Mornington Peninsula for the common resident shorebird species using citizen science data

Conservation areas are critical for biodiversity conservation, but few citizen science studies have evaluated their efficiency. In the absence of thorough survey data, this study assessed which species benefit most from conservation areas using citizen science bird counts extracted from the Atlas of Living Australia. This was accomplished by fitting temporal models using citizen science data taken from ALA for the years 2010-2019 using the INLA approach. The trends for six resident shorebird species were compared to those for the Australian Pied Oystercatcher, with the Black-fronted Dotterel, Red-capped Dotterel, and Red-kneed Dotterel exhibiting significantly steeper increasing trends. For the Black-fronted Dotterel, Masked Lapwing, and Red-kneed Dotterel, steeper rising trends were recorded in conservation areas than in other locations. The Dotterel species' conservation status is extremely favourable. This study demonstrates that, with some limits, statistical models can be used to track the persistence of resident shorebirds and to investigate the factors affecting these data.

Patterns of Bat Diversity in an Undisturbed Forest and Forest Mosaic Habitats of the Afromontane Forest Biome of Western Cameroon

Anthropogenic activities continue to degrade natural montane ecosystems globally. Bats communities are altered by these changes. We analyzed how bats are affected by human-induced habitat changes by comparing the bat species diversity and functional diversity in undisturbed forest habitats and disturbed forest habitats of the Afromontane biome of Cameroon. We recorded 244 individuals from 13 species in the undisturbed forest, while 233 individuals from 16 species were recorded in the disturbed forest. Bat diversity was higher in disturbed habitats (D = 0.84) than undisturbed habitats (D = 0.67). Jackknife 1 species richness estimator suggests 21.53 species for the disturbed forest and 19.30 in the undisturbed forest. Closed-space forager insectivorous bats made up nearly half of the species in the undisturbed forest, but this dropped to 25% in the disturbed forest, meanwhile, edge-space foragers increased in the disturbed forest. Bat community analyses by ordination revealed a distinct bat community composition between the two forest types, demonstrated as a significant difference in diversity between the two forest types. The distribution of Rousettus aegyptiacus, Myonycteris angolensis, Hipposideros cf. ruber, and Micropteropus pusillus contribute the most to the difference in bat community composition between the two forest types. Edge and open-space species were likely to benefit from additional resources provided by the disturbed area, by expanding their range and distribution. However, this may not compensate for the decline in the population of forest species caused by the loss of pristine forests, thus measures to conserve montane forest remnants should be of utmost significance.

Assessment of Cholinesterase inhibition activity of birds inhabiting pesticide exposed croplands and protected area in hot semi-arid region of Pakistan

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity levels can be used as an indicator for AChE inhibition due to pesticide poisoning in bird species. We assessed the comparative brain cholinesterase (AChE) activity level of five bird species inhabiting pesticide exposed croplands and Protected Area i.e. Deva Vatala National Park (DVNP), Bhimber by using a spectrophotometric method. AChE activity levels ranged from 56.3 to 85.9 µmol/min/g of brain tissue of birds representing DVNP. However, AChE activity levels ranged from 27.6 to 79.9 µmol/min/g of brain tissue of birds representing croplands. AChE activity levels observed in Jungle babbler, Common babbler, and Red-vented bulbul showed significant differences (P < 0.05) at two sites. However, White wagtail and Black drongo demonstrated non-significant differences (P > 0.05). Maximum inhibition was recorded in Jungle babbler (53%) followed by Common babbler (35%), Red-vented bulbul (18%), White wagtail (15%), and Black drongo (7%). The brain cholinesterase inhibition levels under-protected ecosystems (DVNP, Bhimber) and agricultural landscape suggest insecticidal contamination and its impact on avifauna diversity. The study also emphasizes on the importance of pesticide-free zones to protect the biodiversity of birds.

Mismatch between bird species sensitivity and the protection of intact habitats across the Americas

Protected areas are highly heterogeneous in their effectiveness at buffering human pressure, which may hamper their ability to conserve species highly sensitive to human activities. Here, we use 60 million bird observations from eBird to estimate the sensitivity to human pressure of each bird species breeding in the Americas. Concerningly, we find that ecoregions hosting large proportions of high-sensitivity species, concentrated in tropical biomes, do not have more intact protected habitat. Moreover, 266 high-sensitivity species have little or no intact protected habitat within their distributions. Finally, we show that protected area intactness is decreasing faster where high-sensitivity species concentrate. Our results highlight a major mismatch between species conservation needs and the coverage of intact protected habitats, which likely hampers the long-term effectiveness of protected areas at retaining species. We highlight ecoregions where protection and management of intact habitats, complemented by restoration, is urgently needed.

Maximizing regional biodiversity requires a mosaic of protection levels

Protected areas are the flagship management tools to secure biodiversity from anthropogenic impacts. However, the extent to which adjacent areas with distinct protection levels host different species numbers and compositions remains uncertain. Here, using reef fishes, European alpine plants, and North American birds, we show that the composition of species in adjacent Strictly Protected, Restricted, and Non-Protected areas is highly dissimilar, whereas the number of species is similar, after controlling for environmental conditions, sample size, and rarity. We find that between 12% and 15% of species are only recorded in Non-Protected areas, suggesting that a non-negligible part of regional biodiversity occurs where human activities are less regulated. For imperiled species, the proportion only recorded in Strictly Protected areas reaches 58% for fishes, 11% for birds, and 7% for plants, highlighting the fundamental and unique role of protected areas and their environmental conditions in biodiversity conservation.

This study shows that the dissimilarity in species composition between sites with different levels of protection is consistently high, suggesting that adjacent and connected areas with different protection levels host very dissimilar species assemblages.

Environmental DNA metabarcoding reveals and unpacks a biodiversity conservation paradox in Mediterranean marine reserves

Although we are currently experiencing worldwide biodiversity loss, local species richness does not always decline under anthropogenic pressure. This conservation paradox may also apply in protected areas but has not yet received conclusive evidence in marine ecosystems. Here, we survey fish assemblages in six Mediterranean no-take reserves and their adjacent fishing grounds using environmental DNA (eDNA) while controlling for environmental conditions. We detect less fish species in marine reserves than in nearby fished areas. The paradoxical gradient in species richness is accompanied by a marked change in fish species composition under different managements. This dissimilarity is mainly driven by species that are often overlooked by classical visual surveys but detected with eDNA: cryptobenthic, pelagic, and rare fishes. These results do not negate the importance of reserves in protecting biodiversity but shed new light on how under-represented species groups can positively react to fishing pressure and how conservation efforts can shape regional biodiversity patterns.

What Will Remain? Predicting the Representation in Protected Areas of Suitable Habitat for Endangered Tropical Avifauna in Borneo under a Combined Climate- and Land-Use Change Scenario

The responses of threatened tropical avian species to projected climate change and land-use change are important for evaluating the ability of the existing protected areas to provide habitat to these species under future scenarios in biodiversity hotspots. This study uses Maxent, a species distribution model that employs a maximum entropy machine learning approach to map the spatial distributions of habitats suitable for the International Union for Conservation of Nature threatened birds under present and future climate and land-use change in Borneo. We find that the existing protected areas provide very low coverage of the threatened bird species’ suitable habitat areas (95%CI = 9.3–15.4%). Analysis of habitat suitability projections for 18 species of threatened birds suggests that in 2050, under Special Report on Emissions Scenarios A1B and B1, avian species with currently little suitable habitat may gain area but lose in the proportion of this that is protected. Large-ranged species are likely to lose habitat area and this will inflate the proportion of this remaining in protected areas. The present availability of suitable habitat was the most important determinant of future habitat availability under both the scenarios. Threat level, as measured by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and the habitat preferences considered here, Lowland or Lowland–Montane, are poor predictors of the amount of habitat contraction or expansion undergone by the species.

Framework for Sustainable Recovery of Tourism in Protected Areas

Tourism in protected areas was a fast-growing segment within the global travel and tourism industry prior to the economic fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic. As a development pathway, tourism generated foreign exchange for countries endowed with natural assets (protected areas, pristine landscapes, forests, oceans, wildlife), contributed to conservation revenues, and provided local development benefits for communities. However, the spread of COVID-19 and its associated travel restrictions severely impacted this sector. In this review, we describe the main challenges preventing the sector from achieving its development potential. We propose a framework to steer tourism in protected areas as a green recovery initiative, so that it may rebound sustainably and continue to support biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development.

The multifaceted challenge of evaluating protected area effectiveness

Protected areas (PAs) are the most important conservation tool, yet assessing their effectiveness is remarkably challenging. We clarify the links between the many facets of PA effectiveness, from evaluating the means, to analysing the mechanisms, to directly measuring biodiversity outcomes.