Wound healing in the alpha2beta1 integrin-deficient mouse: altered keratinocyte biology and dysregulated matrix metalloproteinase expression

Integrin α11β1 as a Key Collagen Receptor in Human Skin Dermis: Insight into Fibroblast Function and Skin Dermal Aging

Collagen-binding integrins play a crucial role in facilitating fibroblast-collagen interactions and regulating cellular functions. In this study, we identified that among 4 collagen-binding integrins, integrin α11 was the predominant type in human skin dermal fibroblasts and that loss of integrin α11 expression contributed to skin dermal aging. Integrin α11β1 was critical for regulating fibroblast-collagen interactions, including cell adhesion, spreading, morphology, mechanical tension, and the production of collagenous extracellular matrix. TGF-β was recognized as the primary regulator of integrin α11 expression. Notably, dermal fibroblasts in aged human skin demonstrated impaired TGF-β signaling, which coincided with a loss of integrin α11 expression, whereas the expression of other collagen-binding integrins remained unchanged. Similarly, in senescent dermal fibroblasts in vitro, impaired TGF-β signaling was associated with a significant reduction in integrin α11 expression, whereas other collagen-binding integrins were upregulated or unaffected. Furthermore, collapsed dermal fibroblasts, a key characteristic of dermal fibroblasts in aged human skin, specifically downregulated integrin α11, whereas other collagen-binding integrins were upregulated or remained unchanged. These findings suggest a negative feedback loop in which an impaired TGF-β-integrin α11β1 axis and fibroblast collapse promote dermal aging in human skin. This self-reinforcing cycle reflects the progressive and unidirectional nature of biological aging.

Keratinocyte Integrin α3β1 Promotes Efficient Healing of Wound Epidermis

To date, studies of the role for epidermal integrin α3β1 in cutaneous wound re-epithelialization have produced conflicting results: wound studies in skin from global α3-null neonatal mice have implicated the integrin in promoting timely wound re-epithelialization, whereas studies in adult mice with constitutive, epidermal-specific α3β1 deletion have not. The objective of this study was to utilize a model of inducible α3β1 deletion in the epidermis to clarify the role of α3β1 in the healing of adult wounds. We utilized the recently developed transgenic K14Cre-ERT::α3flx/flx mice (ie, inducible α3 epidermal knockout), permitting us to delete floxed Itga3 alleles (α3flx/flx) from epidermis just prior to wounding with topical treatment of 4-hydroxytamoxifen. This allows for the elucidation of α3β1-dependent wound healing in adult skin, free from compensatory mechanisms that may occur after embryonic deletion of epidermal α3β1 in the widely used constitutive α3β1-knockout mouse. We found that re-epithelializing wound gaps are larger in inducible α3 epidermal knockout mice than in control mice, indicating delayed healing, and that epidermal integrin α3β1 promotes healing of wounds, at least in part by enhancing keratinocyte proliferation. This work provides essential rationale for future studies to investigate integrin α3β1 as a therapeutic target to facilitate wound healing.

Integrins as a bridge between bacteria and cells: key targets for therapeutic wound healing

Integrins are heterodimers composed of α and β subunits that are bonded through non-covalent interactions. Integrins mediate the dynamic connection between extracellular adhesion molecules and the intracellular actin cytoskeleton. Integrins are present in various tissues and organs where these heterodimers participate in diverse physiological and pathological responses at the molecular level in living organisms. Wound healing is a crucial process in the recovery from traumatic diseases and comprises three overlapping phases: inflammation, proliferation and remodeling. Integrins are regulated during the entire wound healing process to enhance processes such as inflammation, angiogenesis and re-epithelialization. Prolonged inflammation may result in failure of wound healing, leading to conditions such as chronic wounds. Bacterial colonization of a wound is one of the primary causes of chronic wounds. Integrins facilitate the infectious effects of bacteria on the host organism, leading to chronic inflammation, bacterial colonization, and ultimately, the failure of wound healing. The present study investigated the role of integrins as bridges for bacteria-cell interactions during wound healing, evaluated the role of integrins as nodes for bacterial inhibition during chronic wound formation, and discussed the challenges and prospects of using integrins as therapeutic targets in wound healing.

Dental pulp mesenchymal stem cells-response to fibrin hydrogel reveals ITGA2 and MMPs expression

Regenerative endodontic procedures (REP) aim at reestablishing tooth vitality by replacing the irreversibly damaged dental pulp removed by the dental practitioner with a new functional one. The current treatment of advanced caries relies on the replacement of the inflamed or necrosed dental pulp with an inert filling material. This leads to a functional but non-vital tooth, which lacks the ability to sense dental tissue damage, and to protect from further bacterial attack. Therapeutic strategies inspired by tissue engineering called REP propose to regenerate a fully functional dental pulp directly in the canal space. Promising results were obtained using dental pulp mesenchymal stem cells (DP-MSCs) in combination with bio-inspired artificial and temporary 3D hydrogels made of extracellular matrix molecules such as collagen and fibrin biomacromolecules. However, the uncontrolled mechanisms of DP regeneration from DP-MSCs in 3D biomacromolecules fail to regenerate a fully functional DP and can induce fibrotic scarring or mineralized tissue formation to a non-negligible extent. The lack of knowledge regarding the early molecular mechanisms initiated by DP-MSCs seeded in ECM-made hydrogels is a scientific lock for REP. In this study, we investigated the early DP-MSC-response in a 3D fibrin hydrogel. DP-MSCs isolated from human third molars were cultured for 24 h in the fibrin hydrogel. The differential transcript levels of extracellular and cell surface genes were screened with 84-gene PCR array. Out of the 84 genes screened, 9 were found to be overexpressed, including those coding for the integrin alpha 2 subunit, the collagenase MMP1 and stromelysins MMP3, MMP10 and MMP12. Over-expression of ITGA2 was confirmed by RT-qPCR. The expression of alpha 2 integrin subunit protein was assessed over time by immunoblot and immunofluorescence staining. The increase in the transcript level of MMP1, MMP3, MM10 and MMP12 was confirmed by RT-qPCR. The overexpression of MMP1 and 3 at the protein level was assessed by immunoblot. MMP3 expression by DP-MSCs was observed by immunofluorescence staining. This work demonstrates overexpression of ITGA2 and of MMP1, 3, 10 and 12 by DP-MSCs cultured in a fibrin hydrogel. The main preliminary extracellular and cell surface response of the DP-MSCs to fibrin hydrogel seems to rely on a ITGA2/MMP3 axis. Further investigations are needed to precisely decipher the role of this axis in dental pulp tissue building. Nevertheless, this work identifies extracellular and cell surface molecules that could be potential checkpoints to be targeted to guide proper dental pulp tissue regeneration.

Integrins regulation of wound healing processes: insights for chronic skin wound therapeutics

Integrins are heterodimers composed of non-covalently associated alpha and beta subunits that mediate the dynamic linkage between extracellular adhesion molecules and the intracellular actin cytoskeleton. Integrins are present in various tissues and organs and are involved in different physiological and pathological molecular responses in vivo. Wound healing is an important process in the recovery from traumatic diseases and consists of three overlapping phases: inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. Integrin regulation acts throughout the wound healing process to promote wound healing. Prolonged inflammation may lead to failure of wound healing, such as wound chronicity. One of the main causes of chronic wound formation is bacterial colonization of the wound. In this review, we review the role of integrins in the regulation of wound healing processes such as angiogenesis and re-epithelialization, as well as the role of integrins in mediating bacterial infections during wound chronicity, and the challenges and prospects of integrins as therapeutic targets for infected wound healing.

Enhanced growth and differentiation of neural stem cells on alginate/collagen/reduced graphene oxide composite hydrogel incorporated with lithium chloride

Introduction

Cell transplantation with hydrogel-based carriers is one of the advanced therapeutics for challenging diseases, such as spinal cord injury. Electrically conductive hydrogel has received much attention for its effect on nerve outgrowth and differentiation. Besides, a load of neuroprotective substances, such as lithium chloride can promote the differentiation properties of the hydrogel.

Methods

In this study, alginate/collagen/reduced graphene oxide hydrogel loaded with lithium chloride (AL/CO/rGO Li+) was prepared as an injectable cell delivery system for neural tissue regeneration. After determining the lithium-ion release profile, an MTT assay was performed to check neural viability. In the next step, real-time PCR was performed to evaluate the expression of cell adhesion and neurogenic markers.

Results

Our results showed that the combination of collagen fibers and rGO with alginates increased cell viability and the gene expression of collagen-binding receptor subunits such as integrin α1, and β1. Further, rGO contributed to the controlled release of lithium-ion hydrogel in terms of its plenty of negatively charged functional groups. The continuous culture of NSCs on AL/CO/rGO Li+ hydrogel increased neurogenic genes' expressions of nestin (5.9 fold), NF200 (36.8 fold), and synaptophysin (13.2 fold), as well as protein expression of NF200 and synaptophysin after about 14 days.

Conclusion

The simultaneous ability of electrical conduction and lithium-ion release of AL/CO/rGO Li+ hydrogel could provide a favorable microenvironment for NSCs by improving their survival, maintaining cell morphology, and expressing the neural marker. It may be potentially used as a therapeutic approach for stem cell transplantation in a spinal cord injury.

The Interplay between Integrins and Immune Cells as a Regulator in Cancer Immunology

Integrins are a group of heterodimers consisting of α and β subunits that mediate a variety of physiological activities of immune cells, including cell migration, adhesion, proliferation, survival, and immunotolerance. Multiple types of integrins act differently on the same immune cells, while the same integrin may exert various effects on different immune cells. In the development of cancer, integrins are involved in the regulation of cancer cell proliferation, invasion, migration, and angiogenesis; conversely, integrins promote immune cell aggregation to mediate the elimination of tumors. The important roles of integrins in cancer progression have provided valuable clues for the diagnosis and targeted treatment of cancer. Furthermore, many integrin inhibitors have been investigated in clinical trials to explore effective regimens and reduce side effects. Due to the complexity of the mechanism of integrin-mediated cancer progression, challenges remain in the research and development of cancer immunotherapies (CITs). This review enumerates the effects of integrins on four types of immune cells and the potential mechanisms involved in the progression of cancer, which will provide ideas for more optimal CIT in the future.

Targeting integrin pathways: mechanisms and advances in therapy

Integrins are considered the main cell-adhesion transmembrane receptors that play multifaceted roles as extracellular matrix (ECM)-cytoskeletal linkers and transducers in biochemical and mechanical signals between cells and their environment in a wide range of states in health and diseases. Integrin functions are dependable on a delicate balance between active and inactive status via multiple mechanisms, including protein-protein interactions, conformational changes, and trafficking. Due to their exposure on the cell surface and sensitivity to the molecular blockade, integrins have been investigated as pharmacological targets for nearly 40 years, but given the complexity of integrins and sometimes opposite characteristics, targeting integrin therapeutics has been a challenge. To date, only seven drugs targeting integrins have been successfully marketed, including abciximab, eptifibatide, tirofiban, natalizumab, vedolizumab, lifitegrast, and carotegrast. Currently, there are approximately 90 kinds of integrin-based therapeutic drugs or imaging agents in clinical studies, including small molecules, antibodies, synthetic mimic peptides, antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy, imaging agents, etc. A serious lesson from past integrin drug discovery and research efforts is that successes rely on both a deep understanding of integrin-regulatory mechanisms and unmet clinical needs. Herein, we provide a systematic and complete review of all integrin family members and integrin-mediated downstream signal transduction to highlight ongoing efforts to develop new therapies/diagnoses from bench to clinic. In addition, we further discuss the trend of drug development, how to improve the success rate of clinical trials targeting integrin therapies, and the key points for clinical research, basic research, and translational research.

α2β1 integrins spatially restrict Cdc42 activity to stabilise adherens junctions

Background

Keratinocytes form the main protective barrier in the skin to separate the underlying tissue from the external environment. In order to maintain this barrier, keratinocytes form robust junctions between neighbouring cells as well as with the underlying extracellular matrix. Cell–cell adhesions are mediated primarily through cadherin receptors, whereas the integrin family of transmembrane receptors is predominantly associated with assembly of matrix adhesions. Integrins have been shown to also localise to cell–cell adhesions, but their role at these sites remains unclear.

Results

Here we show that α2β1 integrins are enriched at mature keratinocyte cell–cell adhesions, where they play a crucial role in organising cytoskeletal networks to stabilize adherens junctions. Loss of α2β1 integrin has significant functional phenotypes associated with cell–cell adhesion destabilisation, including increased proliferation, reduced migration and impaired barrier function. Mechanistically, we show that α2β1 integrins suppress activity of Src and Shp2 at cell–cell adhesions leading to enhanced Cdc42–GDI interactions and stabilisation of junctions between neighbouring epithelial cells.

Conclusion

Our data reveals a new role for α2β1 integrins in controlling integrity of epithelial cell–cell adhesions.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12915-021-01054-9.

Integrin α2β1 plays an important role in the interaction between human articular cartilage-derived chondrocytes and atelocollagen gel

Although atelocollagen gel is used as a scaffold for culturing human articular cartilage-derived chondrocytes, little is known about cell-gel interactions. In this study, we investigated the mechanism via which atelocollagen gel affects human articular cartilage-derived chondrocytes. Two types of three-dimensional cultures of human articular cartilage-derived chondrocytes (i.e., with and without atelocollagen gel) were compared. While the amount of atelocollagen gel in culture gradually decreased with time, it promoted the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) during the early stages of culture. Genome-wide differential gene expression analysis revealed that cell membrane- and extracellular matrix-related genes were highly ranked among up- and down-regulated groups in cells cultured in the presence of atelocollagen gel. Among the integrin family of genes, the expression of integrin subunit alpha 2 and integrin subunit alpha 10 was significantly increased in the presence of atelocollagen gel. Blocking α2β1 integrin with the specific inhibitor BTT 3033 had a significant effect on cell proliferation, MMP expression, and cell shape, as well as on the response to mechanical stimulation. Taken together, our findings indicate that the α2β1 integrin pathway plays an important role in the interaction of atelocollagen gel with human articular cartilage-derived chondrocytes and may be a potential therapeutic target for articular cartilage disorders.

Review of Integrin-Targeting Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering

The ability to direct cell behavior has been central to the success of numerous therapeutics to regenerate tissue or facilitate device integration. Biomaterial scientists are challenged to understand and modulate the interactions of biomaterials with biological systems in order to achieve effective tissue repair. One key area of research investigates the use of extracellular matrix-derived ligands to target specific integrin interactions and induce cellular responses, such as increased cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells. These integrin-targeting proteins and peptides have been implemented in a variety of different polymeric scaffolds and devices to enhance tissue regeneration and integration. This review first presents an overview of integrin-mediated cellular processes that have been identified in angiogenesis, wound healing, and bone regeneration. Then, research utilizing biomaterials are highlighted with integrin-targeting motifs as a means to direct these cellular processes to enhance tissue regeneration. In addition to providing improved materials for tissue repair and device integration, these innovative biomaterials provide new tools to probe the complex processes of tissue remodeling in order to enhance the rational design of biomaterial scaffolds and guide tissue regeneration strategies.

CD9 regulates keratinocyte migration by negatively modulating the sheddase activity of ADAM17

CD9 is a trans-membrane protein, and has recently been implicated in different physiological and cellular processes, such as cell migration and adhesion. According to previous study, down-regulation of CD9 contributes to keratinocyte migration, critical for wound re-epithelialization. Nevertheless, it is widely believed that tetraspanin CD9 does not have ligands or function as the cell surface receptor, rather it is thought to associate with other transmembrane molecules, thereby mediate keratinocyte migration. Little is known about how CD9 associates with transmembrane molecules in migratory keratinocytes. Here, using confocal microscopy, we observed that tetraspanin CD9 and ADAM17 co-localized on the surface of keratinocytes in the course of wound repair in vivo and in vitro. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments demonstrated a direct association between CD9 and ADAM17 in HaCaT cells and C57-MKs. Functional studies revealed that down-regulation or over-expression of CD9 exerted negative regulatory effects on ADAM17 sheddase activity. This activity is involved in CD9-regulated cell motility and migration. Further studies found that ADAM17 inhibitor-TAPI-2 or siADAM17 significantly abolished the enhanced effect of keratinocyte migration induced by CD9 down-regulation. Meanwhile, the sheddase activity of ADAM17 was inhibited by TAPI-2, which decreased this release of AREG and HB-EGF in CD9-silenced HaCat cells and C57-MKs. Importantly, neutralizing antibody against HB-EGF significant weakened keratinocyte migration and motility in CD9-silenced keratinocytes, and the inhibition of CD9-regulated keratinocyte migration by siADAM17 was rescued by addition of recombinant HB-EGF, activating EGFR/ERK pathway. Collectively, our results suggest that ADAM17 sheddase activity is activated by down-regulation of CD9, thereby mediating shedding of HB-EGF and activation of EGFR/ERK signaling, which crucially affects the keratinocyte migration and wound healing.

Integrin α2β1 decelerates proliferation, but promotes survival and invasion of prostate cancer cells

High expression level of integrin α2β1 is a hallmark of prostate cancer stem cell like cells. The role of this collagen receptor is controversial since it is down regulated in poorly differentiated carcinomas, but concomitantly proposed to promote metastasis. Here, we show that docetaxel resistant DU145 prostate cancer cells express high levels of α2β1 and that α2β1^High subpopulation of DU145 cells proliferates slower than the cells representing α2β1^Low subpopulation. To further study this initial observation we used Crispr/Cas9 technology to create an α2β1 negative DU145 cell line. Furthermore, we performed rescue experiment by transfecting α2 knockout cells with vector carrying α2 cDNA or with an empty vector for appropriate control. When these two cell lines were compared, α2β1 positive cells proliferated slower, were more resistant to docetaxel and also migrated more effectively on collagen and invaded faster through matrigel or collagen. Integrin α2β1 was demonstrated to be a positive regulator of p38 MAPK phosphorylation and a selective p38 inhibitor (SB203580) promoted proliferation and inhibited invasion. Effects of α2β1 integrin on the global gene expression pattern of DU145 cells in spheroid cultures were studied by RNA sequencing. Integrin α2β1 was shown to regulate several cancer progression related genes, most notably matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1), a recognized invasion promoting protein. To conclude, the fact that α2β1 decelerates cell proliferation may explain the dominance of α2β1 negative/low cells in primary sites of poorly differentiated carcinomas, while the critical role of α2β1 integrin in invasion stresses the importance of this adhesion receptor in cancer dissemination.

Computational investigation of the α2β1 integrin–collagen triple helix complex interaction

In this paper, quantum biochemistry methods have been used to describe important protein–protein interactions for the complex integrin–collagen.

Smad2 overexpression enhances adhesion of gingival epithelial cells

OBJECTIVE

Gingival epithelial cells play an important role in preventing the initiation of periodontitis, by their hemidesmosomal adhesion to the tooth root surface. Adhesion requires integrin-extracellular matrix (ECM) interactions that are intricately regulated by transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling. However, the mechanisms underlying the interplay between adhesion molecules and TGF-β, especially the respective roles of Smad2 and Smad3, remain elusive. In this study, we examined the effects of Smad overexpression on gingival epithelial cell adhesion and expression profiles of integrin and ECM-related genes.

METHODS

Human gingival epithelial cells immortalized by the SV40 T-antigen were transfected with Smad2- and Smad3-overexpression vectors. A cell adhesion assay involving fluorescence detection of attached cells was performed using the ArrayScan imaging system. Real-time PCR was performed to examine the kinetics of integrin and ECM gene expression. In vitro and in vivo localization of adhesion molecules was examined by immunofluorescence analysis.

RESULTS

By using SB431542, a specific inhibitor of the TGF-β type I receptor, Smad2/3 signaling was confirmed to be dominant in TGF-β1-induced cell adhesion. The Smad2-transfectant demonstrated higher potency for cell adhesion and integrin expression (α2, α5, β4, and β6) than the Smad3-transfectant, whereas little or no change in ECM expression was observed in either transfectant. Moreover, the gingival epithelium of transgenic mice that overexpressed Smad2 driven by the keratin 14 promoter showed increased integrin α2 expression.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate the crucial role of Smad2 in increased adhesion of gingival epithelial cells via upregulation of integrin α2.

Integrin-mediated regulation of epidermal wound functions

During cutaneous wound healing, keratinocyte proliferation and migration are critical for re-epithelialization. In addition the epidermis secretes growth factors, cytokines, proteases, and matricellular proteins into the wound microenvironment that modify the extracellular matrix and stimulate other wound cells that control the inflammatory response, promote angiogenesis and facilitate tissue contraction and remodeling. Wound keratinocytes express at least seven different integrins-the major cell adhesion receptors for the extracellular matrix-that collectively control essential cell-autonomous functions to ensure proper re-epithelialization, including migration, proliferation, survival and basement membrane assembly. Moreover, it has become evident in recent years that some integrins can regulate paracrine signals from wound epidermis that stimulate other wound cells involved in angiogenesis, contraction and inflammation. Importantly, it is likely that abnormal integrin expression or function in the epidermis contributes to wound pathologies such as over-exuberant healing (e.g., hypertrophic scar formation) or diminished healing (e.g., chronic wounds). In this review, we discuss current knowledge of integrin function in the epidermis, which implicates them as attractive therapeutic targets to promote wound healing or treat wound pathologies. We also discuss challenges that arise from the complex roles that multiple integrins play in wound epidermis, which may be regulated through extracellular matrix remodeling that determines ligand availability. Indeed, understanding how different integrin functions are temporally coordinated in wound epidermis and which integrin functions go awry in pathological wounds, will be important to determine how best to target them clinically to achieve maximum therapeutic benefit. Graphical abstract In addition to their well-characterized roles in keratinocyte adhesion, migration and wound re-epithelialization, epidermal integrins play important roles in modifying the wound microenvironment by regulating the expression and secretion of growth factors, extracellular proteases, and matricellular proteins that stimulate other wound cells, including vascular endothelial cells and fibroblasts/myofibroblasts.

The integrin-collagen connection--a glue for tissue repair?

The α1β1, α2β1, α10β1 and α11β1 integrins constitute a subset of the integrin family with affinity for GFOGER-like sequences in collagens. Integrins α1β1 and α2β1 were originally identified on a subset of activated T-cells, and have since been found to be expressed on a number of cell types including platelets (α2β1), vascular cells (α1β1, α2β1), epithelial cells (α1β1, α2β1) and fibroblasts (α1β1, α2β1). Integrin α10β1 shows a distribution that is restricted to mesenchymal stem cells and chondrocytes, whereas integrin α11β1 appears restricted to mesenchymal stem cells and subsets of fibroblasts. The bulk of the current literature suggests that collagen-binding integrins only have a limited role in adult connective tissue homeostasis, partly due to a limited availability of cell-binding sites in the mature fibrillar collagen matrices. However, some recent data suggest that, instead, they are more crucial for dynamic connective tissue remodeling events--such as wound healing--where they might act specifically to remodel and restore the tissue architecture. This Commentary discusses the recent development in the field of collagen-binding integrins, their roles in physiological and pathological settings with special emphasis on wound healing, fibrosis and tumor-stroma interactions, and include a discussion of the most recently identified newcomers to this subfamily--integrins α10β1 and α11β1.

Chronic Wound Dressings Based on Collagen-Mimetic Proteins

Objective: Chronic wounds are projected to reach epidemic proportions due to the aging population and the increasing incidence of diabetes. There is a strong clinical need for an improved wound dressing that can balance wound moisture, promote cell migration and proliferation, and degrade at an appropriate rate to minimize the need for dressing changes. Approach: To this end, we have developed a bioactive, hydrogel microsphere wound dressing that incorporates a collagen-mimetic protein, Scl2_GFPGER, to promote active wound healing. A redesigned Scl2_GFPGER, engineered collagen (eCol_GFPGER), was created to reduce steric hindrance of integrin-binding motifs and increase overall stability of the triple helical backbone, thereby resulting in increased cell adhesion to substrates. Results: This study demonstrates the successful modification of the Scl2_GFPGER protein to eCol_GFPGER, which displayed enhanced stability and integrin interactions. Fabrication of hydrogel microspheres provided a matrix with adaptive moisture technology, and degradation rates have potential for use in human wounds. Innovation: This collagen-mimetic wound dressing was designed to permit controlled modulation of cellular interactions and degradation rate without impact on other physical properties. Its fabrication into uniform hydrogel microspheres provides a bioactive dressing that can readily conform to irregular wounds. Conclusion: Overall, this new eCol_GFPGER shows strong promise in the generation of bioactive hydrogels for wound healing as well as a variety of tissue scaffolds.

Epidermal Basement Membrane in Health and Disease

Skin, as the organ protecting the individual from environmental aggressions, constantly meets external insults and is dependent on mechanical toughness for its preserved function. Accordingly, the epidermal basement membrane (BM) zone has adapted to enforce tissue integrity. It harbors anchoring structures created through unique organization of common BM components and expression of proteins exclusive to the epidermal BM zone. Evidence for the importance of its correct assembly and the nonredundancy of its components for skin integrity is apparent from the multiple skin blistering disorders caused by mutations in genes coding for proteins associated with the epidermal BM and from autoimmune disorders in which autoantibodies target these molecules. However, it has become clear that these proteins not only provide mechanical support but are also critically involved in tissue homeostasis, repair, and regeneration. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the unique organization and components of the epidermal BM. A special focus will be given to its function during regeneration, and in inherited and acquired diseases.

Sulfonamide inhibitors of α2β1 integrin reveal the essential role of collagen receptors in in vivo models of inflammation

Small molecule inhibitors of α2β1 integrin, a major cellular collagen receptor, have been reported to inhibit platelet function, kidney injury, and angiogenesis. Since α2β1 integrin is abundantly expressed on various inflammation-associated cells, we tested whether recently developed α2β1 blocking sulfonamides have anti-inflammatory properties. Integrin α2β1 inhibitors were shown to reduce the signs of inflammation in arachidonic acid-induced ear edema, PAF stimulated air pouch, ovalbumin-induced skin hypersensitivity, adjuvant arthritis, and collagen-induced arthritis. Thus, these sulfonamides are potential drugs for acute and allergic inflammation, hypersensitivity, and arthritis. One sulfonamide with potent anti-inflammatory activity has previously been reported to be selective for activated integrins, but not to inhibit platelet function. Thus, the experiments also revealed fundamental differences in the action of nonactivated and activated α2β1 integrins in inflammation when compared to thrombosis.

The perlecan fragment LG3 regulates homing of mesenchymal stem cells and neointima formation during vascular rejection

Transplant vasculopathy is associated with neointimal accumulation of recipient-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Increased circulating levels of LG3, a C-terminal fragment of perlecan, were found in renal transplant patients with vascular rejection. Here, we evaluated whether LG3 regulates the migration and homing of mesenchymal stem cells and the accumulation of recipient-derived neointimal cells. Mice were transplanted with a fully-MHC mismatched aortic graft followed by intravenous injection of recombinant LG3. LG3 injections increased neointimal accumulation of α-smooth muscle actin positive cells. When green fluorescent protein (GFP)-transgenic mice were used as recipients, LG3 injection favored accumulation of GFP+ cells to sites of neointima formation. LG3 increased horizontal migration and transmigration of mouse and human MSC in vitro and led to increased ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Neutralizing β1 integrin antibodies or use of mesenchymal stem cells from α2 integrin-/- mice decreased migration in response to recombinant LG3. Reduced intima-media ratios and decreased numbers of neointimal cells showing ERK1/2 phosphorylation were found in α2-/- recipients injected with recombinant LG3. Collectively, our results suggest that LG3, through interactions with α2β1 integrins on recipient-derived cells leading to activation of ERK1/2 and increased migration, favors myointimal thickening.

Matrix remodeling by MMPs during wound repair

Repair following injury involves a range of processes - such as re-epithelialization, scar formation, angiogenesis, inflammation, and more - that function, often together, to restore tissue architecture. MMPs carry out diverse roles in all of these activities. In this article, we discuss how specific MMPs act on ECM during two critical repair processes: re-epithelialization and resolution of scar tissue. For wound closure, we discuss how two MMPs - MMP1 in human epidermis and MMP7 in mucosal epithelia - facilitate re-epithelialization by cleaving different ECM or ECM-associated proteins to affect similar integrin:matrix adhesion. In scars and fibrotic tissues, we discuss that a variety of MMPs carry out a diverse range of activities that can either promote or limit ECM deposition. However, few of these MMP-driven activities have been demonstrated to be due a direct action on ECM.

Reduced granulation tissue and wound strength in the absence of α11β1 integrin

Previous wound healing studies have failed to define a role for either α1β1 or α2β1 integrin in fibroblast-mediated wound contraction, suggesting the involvement of another collagen receptor in this process. Our previous work demonstrated that the integrin subunit α11 is highly induced during wound healing both at the mRNA and protein level, prompting us to investigate and dissect the role of the integrin α11β1 during this process. Therefore, we used mice with a global ablation of either α2 or α11 or both integrin subunits and investigated the repair of excisional wounds. Analyses of wounds demonstrated that α11β1 deficiency results in reduced granulation tissue formation and impaired wound contraction, independently of the presence of α2β1. Our combined in vivo and in vitro data further demonstrate that dermal fibroblasts lacking α11β1 are unable to efficiently convert to myofibroblasts, resulting in scar tissue with compromised tensile strength. Moreover, we suggest that the reduced stability of the scar is a consequence of poor collagen remodeling in α11^−/− wounds associated with defective transforming growth factor-β–dependent JNK signaling.

Integrins in Wound Healing

Significance: Regulation of cell adhesions during tissue repair is fundamentally important for cell migration, proliferation, and protein production. All cells interact with extracellular matrix proteins with cell surface integrin receptors that convey signals from the environment into the nucleus, regulating gene expression and cell behavior. Integrins also interact with a variety of other proteins, such as growth factors, their receptors, and proteolytic enzymes. Re-epithelialization and granulation tissue formation are crucially dependent on the temporospatial function of multiple integrins. This review explains how integrins function in wound repair. Recent Advances: Certain integrins can activate latent transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-β1) that modulates wound inflammation and granulation tissue formation. Dysregulation of TGF-β1 function is associated with scarring and fibrotic disorders. Therefore, these integrins represent targets for therapeutic intervention in fibrosis. Critical Issues: Integrins have multifaceted functions and extensive crosstalk with other cell surface receptors and molecules. Moreover, in aberrant healing, integrins may assume different functions, further increasing the complexity of their functionality. Discovering and understanding the role that integrins play in wound healing provides an opportunity to identify the mechanisms for medical conditions, such as excessive scarring, chronic wounds, and even cancer. Future Directions: Integrin functions in acute and chronic wounds should be further addressed in models better mimicking human wounds. Application of any products in acute or chronic wounds will potentially alter integrin functions that need to be carefully considered in the design.

A 3D matrix platform for the rapid generation of therapeutic anti-human carcinoma monoclonal antibodies

Efforts to develop unbiased screens for identifying novel function-blocking monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) in human carcinomatous states have been hampered by the limited ability to design in vitro models that recapitulate tumor cell behavior in vivo. Given that only invasive carcinoma cells gain permanent access to type I collagen-rich interstitial tissues, an experimental platform was established in which human breast cancer cells were embedded in 3D aldimine cross-linked collagen matrices and used as an immunogen to generate mAb libraries. In turn, cancer-cell-reactive antibodies were screened for their ability to block carcinoma cell proliferation within collagen hydrogels that mimic the in vivo environment. As a proof of principle, a single function-blocking mAb out of 15 identified was selected for further analysis and found to be capable of halting carcinoma cell proliferation, inducing apoptosis, and exerting global changes in gene expression in vitro. The ability of this mAb to block carcinoma cell proliferation and metastatic activity was confirmed in vivo, and the target antigen was identified by mass spectroscopy as the α2 subunit of the α2β1 integrin, one of the major type I collagen-binding receptors in mammalian cells. Validating the ability of the in vitro model to predict patterns of antigen expression in the disease setting, immunohistochemical analyses of tissues from patients with breast cancer verified markedly increased expression of the α2 subunit in vivo. These results not only highlight the utility of this discovery platform for rapidly selecting and characterizing function-blocking, anticancer mAbs in an unbiased fashion, but also identify α2β1 as a potential target in human carcinomatous states.

Integrin Regulation of Epidermal Functions in Wounds

Significance: Integrins are bidirectional signaling receptors for extracellular matrix that regulate both inside-out signaling that controls keratinocyte-mediated changes to the wound microenvironment and outside-in signaling that controls keratinocyte responses to microenvironmental changes. As such, integrins represent attractive therapeutic targets for treatment of chronic wounds or general promotion of wound healing. Advances in wound management are particularly important as the elderly and diabetic populations within the United States continue to grow. Recent Advances: Although integrins are best known for mediating cell adhesion and migration, integrins in wound epidermis also control cell survival, proliferation, matrix remodeling, and paracrine crosstalk to other cellular compartments of the wound. Importantly, the concept of targeting integrins in the clinic has been established for treatment of certain cancers and other diseases, laying the groundwork for similar exploitation of integrins as targets to treat chronic wounds. Critical Issues: Despite their attractiveness as therapeutic targets, integrins have complex roles in wound healing that are impacted by both their own expression and a highly dynamic wound microenvironment that determines ligand availability. Therefore, identifying relevant integrin ligands in the wound and understanding both distinct and overlapping functions that different integrins play in the epidermis will be critical to determine their precise roles in wound healing. Future Directions: Future research should focus on gaining a thorough understanding of the highly coordinated functions of different integrins in wound epidermis, and on determining which of these functions go awry in pathological wounds. This focus should facilitate development of integrin-targeting therapeutics for treating chronic wounds.

α2β1 Integrin

The α2β1 integrin, also known as VLA-2, GPIa-IIa, CD49b, was first identified as an extracellular matrix receptor for collagens and/or laminins [55, 56]. It is now recognized that the α2β1 integrin serves as a receptor for many matrix and nonmatrix molecules [35, 79, 128]. Extensive analyses have clearly elucidated the α2 I domain structural motifs required for ligand binding, and also defined distinct conformations that lead to inactive, partially active or highly active ligand binding [3, 37, 66, 123, 136, 137, 140]. The mechanisms by which the α2β1 integrin plays a critical role in platelet function and homeostasis have been carefully defined via in vitro and in vivo experiments [76, 104, 117, 125]. Genetic and epidemiologic studies have confirmed human physiology and disease states mediated by this receptor in immunity, cancer, and development [6, 20, 21, 32, 43, 90]. The role of the α2β1 integrin in these multiple complex biologic processes will be discussed in the chapter.

Molecular composition and function of integrin-based collagen glues-introducing COLINBRIs

BACKGROUND

Despite detailed knowledge about the structure and signaling properties of individual collagen receptors, much remains to be learned about how these receptors participate in linking cells to fibrillar collagen matrices in tissues. In addition to collagen-binding integrins, a group of proteins with affinity both for fibrillar collagens and integrins link these two protein families together. We have introduced the name COLINBRI (COLlagen INtegrin BRIdging) for this set of molecules. Whereas collagens are the major building blocks in tissues and defects in these structural proteins have severe consequences for tissue integrity, the mild phenotypes of the integrin type of collagen receptors have raised questions about their importance in tissue biology and pathology.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

We will discuss the two types of cell linkages to fibrillar collagen (direct- versus indirect COLINBRI-mediated) and discuss how the parallel existence of direct and indirect linkages to collagens may ensure tissue integrity.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

The observed mild phenotypes of mice deficient in collagen-binding integrins and the relatively restricted availability of integrin-binding sequences in mature fibrillar collagen matrices support the existence of indirect collagen-binding mechanisms in parallel with direct collagen binding in vivo.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

A continued focus on understanding the molecular details of cell adhesion mechanisms to collagens will be important and will benefit our understanding of diseases like tissue- and tumor fibrosis where collagen dynamics are disturbed. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Matrix-mediated cell behaviour and properties.

Focal adhesion complex proteins in epidermis and squamous cell carcinoma

Focal adhesions (FAs) are large, integrin-containing, multi-protein assemblies spanning the plasma membrane that link the cellular cytoskeleton to surrounding extracellular matrix. They play critical roles in adhesion and cell signaling and are major regulators of epithelial homeostasis, tissue response to injury, and tumorigenesis. Most integrin subunits and their associated FA proteins are expressed in skin, and murine genetic models have provided insight into the functional roles of FAs in normal and neoplastic epidermis. Here, we discuss the roles of these proteins in normal epidermal proliferation, adhesion, wound healing, and cancer. While many downstream signaling mechanisms remain unclear, the critically important roles of FAs are highlighted by the development of therapeutics targeting FAs for human cancer.

New insights into adhesion signaling in bone formation

Mineralized tissues that are protective scaffolds in the most primitive species have evolved and acquired more specific functions in modern animals. These are as diverse as support in locomotion, ion homeostasis, and precise hormonal regulation. Bone formation is tightly controlled by a balance between anabolism, in which osteoblasts are the main players, and catabolism mediated by the osteoclasts. The bone matrix is deposited in a cyclic fashion during homeostasis and integrates several environmental cues. These include diffusible elements that would include estrogen or growth factors and physicochemical parameters such as bone matrix composition, stiffness, and mechanical stress. Therefore, the microenvironment is of paramount importance for controlling this delicate equilibrium. Here, we provide an overview of the most recent data highlighting the role of cell-adhesion molecules during bone formation. Due to the very large scope of the topic, we focus mainly on the role of the integrin receptor family during osteogenesis. Bone phenotypes of some deficient mice as well as diseases of human bones involving cell adhesion during this process are discussed in the context of bone physiology.

The loss of α2β1 integrin suppresses joint inflammation and cartilage destruction in mouse models of rheumatoid arthritis

OBJECTIVE

Integrin α2β1 functions as a major receptor for type I collagen on different cell types, including fibroblasts and inflammatory cells. Although in vitro data suggest a role for α2β1 integrin in regulating both cell attachment and expression of matrix-degrading enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), mice that lack the α2 integrin subunit (Itga2(-/-) mice) develop normally and are fertile. We undertook this study to investigate the effect of Itga2 deficiency in 2 different mouse models of destructive arthritis: the antigen-induced arthritis (AIA) mouse model and the human tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα)-transgenic mouse model.

METHODS

AIA was induced in the knee joints of Itga2(-/-) mice and wild-type controls. Human TNF-transgenic mice were crossed with Itga2(-/-) mice and were assessed clinically and histopathologically for signs of arthritis, inflammation, bone erosion, and cartilage damage. MMP expression, proliferation, fibroblast attachment, and ERK activation were determined.

RESULTS

Under arthritic conditions, Itga2 deficiency led to decreased severity of joint pathology. Specifically, Itga2(-/-) mice showed less severe clinical symptoms and dramatically reduced pannus formation and cartilage erosion. Mice lacking α2β1 integrin exhibited reduced MMP-3 expression, both in their sera and in fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS), due to impaired ERK activation. Further, both the proliferation and attachment of FLS to cartilage were partially dependent on α2β1 integrin in vitro and in vivo.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that α2β1 integrin contributes significantly to inflammatory cartilage destruction by promoting fibroblast proliferation and attachment and MMP expression.

Integrins α2β1 and α11β1 regulate the survival of mesenchymal stem cells on collagen I

Although mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are the natural source for bone regeneration, the exact mechanisms governing MSC crosstalk with collagen I have not yet been uncovered. Cell adhesion to collagen I is mostly mediated by three integrin receptors - α1β1, α2β1 and α11β1. Using human MSC (hMSC), we show that α11 subunit exhibited the highest basal expression levels but on osteogenic stimulation, both α2 and α11 integrins were significantly upregulated. To elucidate the possible roles of collagen-binding integrins, we applied short hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated knockdown in hMSC and found that α2 or α11 deficiency, but not α1, results in a tremendous reduction of hMSC numbers owing to mitochondrial leakage accompanied by Bcl-2-associated X protein upregulation. In order to clarify the signaling conveyed by the collagen-binding integrins in hMSC, we analyzed the activation of focal adhesion kinase, extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase and serine/threonine protein kinase B (PKB/Akt) kinases and detected significantly reduced Akt phosphorylation only in α2- and α11-shRNA hMSC. Finally, experiments with hMSC from osteoporotic patients revealed a significant downregulation of α2 integrin concomitant with an augmented mitochondrial permeability. In conclusion, our study describes for the first time that disturbance of α2β1- or α11β1-mediated interactions to collagen I results in the cell death of MSCs and urges for further investigations examining the impact of MSCs in bone conditions with abnormal collagen I.

Endorepellin, the angiostatic module of perlecan, interacts with both the α2β1 integrin and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2): a dual receptor antagonism

Endorepellin, the C-terminal module of perlecan, negatively regulates angiogenesis counter to its proangiogenic parental molecule. Endorepellin (the C-terminal domain V of perlecan) binds the α2β1 integrin on endothelial cells and triggers a signaling cascade that leads to disruption of the actin cytoskeleton. Here, we show that both perlecan and endorepellin bind directly and with high affinity to both VEGF receptors 1 and 2, in a region that differs from VEGFA-binding site. In both human and porcine endothelial cells, this interaction evokes a physical down-regulation of both the α2β1 integrin and VEGFR2, with concurrent activation of the tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 and downstream attenuation of VEGFA transcription. We demonstrate that endorepellin requires both the α2β1 integrin and VEGFR2 for its angiostatic activity. Endothelial cells that express α2β1 integrin but lack VEGFR2, do not respond to endorepellin treatment. Thus, we provide a new paradigm for the activity of an antiangiogenic protein and mechanistically explain the specificity of endorepellin for endothelial cells, the only cells that simultaneously express both receptors. We hypothesize that a mechanism such as dual receptor antagonism could operate for other angiostatic fragments.

Cooperation between integrins and growth factor receptors in signaling and endocytosis

All multicellular animals express receptors for growth factors (GFs) and extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules. Integrin-type ECM receptors anchor cells to their surroundings and concomitantly activate intracellular signal transduction pathways. The same signaling mechanisms are regulated by GF receptors (GFRs). Recently, intensive research efforts have revealed novel mechanisms describing how the two receptor systems collaborate at many different levels. Integrins can directly bind to GFs and promote their activation. Adhesion receptors also organize signaling platforms and assist GFRs or even activate them via ligand-independent mechanisms. Furthermore, integrins can orchestrate endocytosis and recycling of GFRs. Here, we review the present knowledge about the interplay between integrins and GFRs and discuss recent ideas of how this collaboration may explain some previous controversies in integrin research.

Laminin-binding integrins induce Dll4 expression and Notch signaling in endothelial cells

RATIONALE

Integrins play a crucial role in controlling endothelial cell proliferation and migration during angiogenesis. The Delta-like 4 (Dll4)/Notch pathway establishes an adequate ratio between stalk and tip cell populations by restricting tip cell formation through "lateral inhibition" in response to a vascular endothelial growth factor gradient. Because angiogenesis requires a tight coordination of these cellular processes, we hypothesized that adhesion, vascular endothelial growth factor, and Notch signaling pathways are interconnected.

OBJECTIVE

This study was aimed at characterizing the cross-talk between integrin and Notch signaling in endothelial cells.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Adhesion of primary human endothelial cells to laminin-111 triggers Dll4 expression, leading to subsequent Notch pathway activation. SiRNA-mediated knockdown of α2β1 and α6β1 integrins abolishes Dll4 induction, which discloses a selective integrin signaling acting upstream of Notch pathway. The increase in Foxc2 transcription, triggered by α2β1 binding to laminin, is required but not sufficient per se for Dll4 expression. Furthermore, vascular endothelial growth factor stimulates laminin γ1 deposition, which leads to integrin signaling and Dll4 induction. Interestingly, loss of integrins α2 or α6 mimics the effects of Dll4 silencing and induces excessive network branching in an in vitro sprouting angiogenesis assay on three-dimensional matrigel.

CONCLUSIONS

We show that, in endothelial cells, ligation of α2β1 and α6β1 integrins induces the Notch pathway, and we disclose a novel role of basement membrane proteins in the processes controlling tip vs stalk cell selection.

Laminin induces matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression and activation in human cervical cancer cell line (SiHa)

PURPOSE

Interaction between cell surface integrin receptors and extracellular matrix (ECM) components plays an important role in cell survival, proliferation and migration including tumor development and invasion. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) are a family of metalloproteinases capable of digesting ECM and facilitate cell migration. Binding of ECM to integrins initiates signaling cascades modulating expression and activity of different MMPs. The present study investigates whether laminin-mediated signaling modulates matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) expression and activity in human cervical cancer cell (SiHa).

METHODS

Western blot, immunocytochemistry, ELISA, zymography, RT-PCR, EMSA and wound-healing assay were used.

RESULTS

Culture of SiHa cells on laminin (LN)-coated surface induces MMP-9 expression and activation. Wound-healing assay showed that SiHa cells migrate much faster on laminin-coated surface than that of control. LN-induced MMP-9 expression and activation was appreciably reduced with treatment of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) inhibitor, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI-3K) inhibitor and anti-α2 antibody. Phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), ERK, and PI-3K was increased upon LN stimulation. LN induces nuclear translocation of PI-3K and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB). LN increases DNA-binding activity of NF-κB and activator protein-1 (AP-1) to MMP-9 promoter.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate laminin-induced MMP-9 expression and activation possibly via α2β1 integrin-mediated signaling involving FAK, PI-3K, ERK followed by transcriptional upregulation of MMP-9.

Identification of a β1 integrin isoform with restricted tissue expression in a teleost fish

The composition and organisation of extracellular matrix (ECM)-related molecules change during development. These components interact with different cell surface receptors to modulate the transduction of signals for cell growth, differentiation, migration, proliferation and apoptosis. Previous findings in the teleost fish gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L., Teleostei), a marine protandrous hermaphrodite fish, showed that endocrine and immune stimuli are able to modulate the expression of ECM-related molecules, as well as specific correlations between them. In the present study, quantitative reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction was used to examine the gene expression profile of β1 integrin isoform b (ITGB1b) and its possible role in reproductive physiology, especially in relation to spermatogenesis. Expression profiles were analysed in the context of the reproductive cycle (RC) and in relation with other ECM-related molecules, including matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, MMP-9, MMP-13, tissue-specific inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-2a, TIMP-2b, collagen (COL1A1) and ITGB1a. Expression of ITGB1b was found in the testis and brain and, to some extent, in endothelial cells. In contrast, ITGB1a was expressed ubiquitously. In the testis, the ITGB1b expression peaked during spermatogenesis, whereas the expression of the other ECM-related molecules is induced mainly during the post-spawning stage, both stages of marked tissue remodelling during the first and second RC in males. In addition, in fish exposed to the endocrine disruptor 17α-ethynyloestradiol (at 5 and 50 μg g–1 food during 7, 14 and 21 days), ITGB1b expression in the testis was inhibited in a dose- and time-dependent manner and was related to reduced serum levels of testosterone. Together, these results suggest a different functionality for the two ITGB1 isoforms in the gilthead seabream, where ITGB1b is more specifically involved in reproduction. This is the first report of an ITGB1 gene isoform whose expression is restricted to endocrine-related tissues in vertebrates.

alpha2beta1 integrin controls association of Rac with the membrane and triggers quiescence of endothelial cells

Integrin receptors and their extracellular matrix ligands provide cues to cell proliferation, survival, differentiation and migration. Here, we show that alpha2beta1 integrin, when ligated to the basement membrane component laminin-1, triggers a proliferation arrest in primary endothelial cells. Indeed, in the presence of strong growth signals supplied by growth factors and fibronectin, alpha2beta1 engagement alters assembly of mature focal adhesions by alpha5beta1 and leads to impairment of downstream signaling and cell-cycle arrest in the G1 phase. Although the capacity of alpha5beta1 to signal for GTP loading of Rac is preserved, the joint engagement of alpha2beta1 interferes with membrane anchorage of Rac. Adapting the 'split-ubiquitin' sensor to screen for membrane-proximal alpha2 integrin partners, we identified the CD9 tetraspanin and further establish its requirement for destabilization of focal adhesions, control of Rac subcellular localization and growth arrest induced by alpha2beta1 integrin. Altogether, our data establish that alpha2beta1 integrin controls endothelial cell commitment towards quiescence by triggering a CD9-dependent dominant signaling.

Role of matrix metalloproteinases in epithelial migration

In response to injury, epithelial cells migrate across the denuded tissue to rapidly close the wound and restore barrier, thereby preventing the entry of pathogens and leakage of fluids. Efficient, proper migration requires a range of processes, acting both inside and out of the cell. Among the extracellular responses is the expression of various matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Though long thought to ease cell migration simply by breaking down matrix barriers, findings from various models demonstrate that MMPs facilitate (and sometimes repress) cell movement by other means, such as affecting the state of cell-matrix interactions or proliferation. In this Prospect, we review some key data indicting how specific MMPs function via their activity as proteinases to control closure of epithelial wounds.

Dermal transforming growth factor-beta responsiveness mediates wound contraction and epithelial closure

Stromal-epithelial interactions are important during wound healing. Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) signaling at the wound site has been implicated in re-epithelization, inflammatory infiltration, wound contraction, and extracellular matrix deposition and remodeling. Ultimately, TGF-beta is central to dermal scarring. Because scarless embryonic wounds are associated with the lack of dermal TGF-beta signaling, we studied the role of TGF-beta signaling specifically in dermal fibroblasts through the development of a novel, inducible, conditional, and fibroblastic TGF-beta type II receptor knockout (Tgfbr2(dermalKO)) mouse model. Full thickness excisional wounds were studied in control and Tgfbr2(dermalKO) back skin. The Tgfbr2(dermalKO) wounds had accelerated re-epithelization and closure compared with controls, resurfacing within 4 days of healing. The loss of TGF-beta signaling in the dermis resulted in reduced collagen deposition and remodeling associated with a reduced extent of wound contraction and elevated macrophage infiltration. Tgfbr2(dermalKO) and control skin had similar numbers of myofibroblastic cells, suggesting that myofibroblastic differentiation was not responsible for reduced wound contraction. However, several mediators of cell-matrix interaction were reduced in the Tgfbr2(dermalKO) fibroblasts, including alpha1, alpha2, and beta1 integrins, and collagen gel contraction was diminished. There were associated deficiencies in actin cytoskeletal organization of vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein-containing lamellipodia. This study indicated that paracrine and autocrine TGF-beta dermal signaling mechanisms mediate macrophage recruitment, re-epithelization, and wound contraction.

Alpha3beta1 integrin in epidermis promotes wound angiogenesis and keratinocyte-to-endothelial-cell crosstalk through the induction of MRP3

During cutaneous wound healing, epidermal keratinocytes play essential roles in the secretion of factors that promote angiogenesis. However, specific cues in the wound microenvironment that trigger the production of pro-angiogenic factors by keratinocytes, and the cellular receptors that mediate this response, remain unclear. In this study, we exploited a model of conditional integrin knockout to demonstrate impaired wound angiogenesis in mice that lack alpha3beta1 integrin in epidermis. In addition, we used genetic and shRNA approaches to determine that alpha3beta1-integrin deficiency in keratinocytes leads to reduced mRNA and protein expression of the pro-angiogenic factor mitogen-regulated protein 3 (MRP3; also known as PRL2C4), and to demonstrate that this regulation provides a mechanism of keratinocyte-to-endothelial-cell crosstalk that promotes endothelial-cell migration. Finally, we showed that the impaired wound angiogenesis in epidermis-specific alpha3-integrin-knockout mice is correlated with reduced expression of MRP3 in wounded epidermis. These findings identify a novel role for alpha3beta1 integrin in promoting wound angiogenesis through a mechanism of crosstalk from epidermal to endothelial cells, and they implicate MRP3 in this integrin-dependent crosstalk. Such a mechanism represents a novel paradigm for integrin-mediated regulation of wound angiogenesis that extends beyond traditional roles for integrins in cell adhesion and migration.

Basement membrane proteoglycans: modulators Par Excellence of cancer growth and angiogenesis

Proteoglycans located in basement membranes, the nanostructures underling epithelial and endothelial layers, are unique in several respects. They are usually large, elongated molecules with a collage of domains that share structural and functional homology with numerous extracellular matrix proteins, growth factors and surface receptors. They mainly carry heparan sulfate side chains and these contribute not only to storing and preserving the biological activity of various heparan sulfate-binding cytokines and growth factors, but also in presenting them in a more "active configuration" to their cognate receptors. Abnormal expression or deregulated function of these proteoglycans affect cancer and angiogenesis, and are critical for the evolution of the tumor microenvironment. This review will focus on the functional roles of the major heparan sulfate proteoglycans from basement membrane zones: perlecan, agrin and collagen XVIII, and on their roles in modulating cancer growth and angiogenesis.

Therapeutic ultrasound bypasses canonical syndecan-4 signaling to activate rac1

The application of pulsed, low intensity ultrasound is emerging as a potent therapy for the treatment of complex bone fractures and tissue damage. Ultrasonic stimuli accelerate fracture healing by up to 40% and enhance tendon and ligament healing by promoting cell proliferation, migration, and matrix synthesis through an unresolved mechanism. Ultrasound treatment also induces closure of nonunion fractures, at a success rate (85% of cases) similar to that of surgical intervention (68-96%) while avoiding the complications associated with surgery. The regulation of cell adhesion necessary for wound healing depends on cooperative engagement of the extracellular matrix receptors, integrin and syndecan, as exemplified by the wound healing defects observed in syndecan- and integrin-knock-out mice. This report distinguishes the influence of ultrasound on signals downstream of the prototypic fibronectin receptors, alpha(5)beta(1) integrin and syndecan-4, which cooperate to regulate Rac1 and RhoA. Ultrasonic stimulation fails to activate integrins or induce cell spreading on poor, electrostatic ligands. By contrast, ultrasound treatment overcomes the necessity of engagement or expression of syndecan-4 during the process of focal adhesion formation, which normally requires simultaneous engagement of both receptors. Ultrasound exerts an influence downstream of syndecan-4 and PKCalpha to specifically activate Rac1, itself a critical regulator of tissue repair, and to a lesser extent RhoA. The ability of ultrasound to bypass syndecan-4 signaling, which is known to facilitate efficient tissue repair, explains the reduction in healing times observed in ultrasound-treated patients. By substituting for one of the key axes of adhesion-dependent signaling, ultrasound therapy has considerable potential as a clinical technique.