The genus Capsicum: a phytochemical review of bioactive secondary metabolites

Utilizing UHPLC-HRMS-metabolomic profiling to uncover enhanced bioactive potential and health benefits in chili (Capsicum annum L.) under salinity stress

The modern emphasis on food quality, nutritional value, and health benefits has increased demand for nutrient-rich foods. Incorporating functional foods with enhanced nutritional profiles into diets is becoming a key strategy in addressing chronic and acute diseases. In this study, a pot experiment was conducted on the 'Kashi Ratna' cultivar of Capsicum annuum L. under salinity levels of 50 and 100 mM as compared to control (0 mM). UHPLC-HRMS untargeted quantitative metabolomic profiling revealed a significant increase in bioactive compounds such as amino acids, vitamins, fatty acids, alkaloids, capsaicinoids, terpenoids and phenolics under salinity stress. While 50 mM led to higher accumulation of metabolites, but the overall impact of 100 mM salinity was higher, affecting more metabolites. Our findings highlight the potential for utilizing salinity-affected lands as a sustainable and cost-effective solution for enhancing nutritional quality of foods particularly in the context of Global Climate Change.

What Do We Know About Capsicum Volatilome?

The Capsicum genus includes several cultivated species that release complex blends of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with their unique aroma. These VOCs are essential info-chemicals in ecological interactions. In this review, we describe how the volatilomic profiling naturally varies based on specific plant organs and genotypes as well as how non-beneficial organisms affect VOCs biosynthesis and accumulation in pepper plants. Also, we show evidence about VOCs variation under the pressure of different abiotic factors such as water stress, soil type and nutrient availability. The contribution of specific metabolic pathways and gene expression related to the biosynthesis of particular VOCs is addressed. We highlighted the utility of VOCs as chemical markers for quality control in the food industry, breeding programs to generate resistant plants and to improve aroma innovation. Herein we present a database containing 2734 VOCs, revealing 113 as the basic core of the volatilome from five Capsicum species.

Multi-omics analysis of non-pungent (Capsicum annuum) and fiery hot ghost chili (C. chinense) provides insights into proteins involved in fruit development and metabolites biosynthesis

Global omics offer extensive insights into the diversity of essential biomolecules across various plant developmental stages. Despite advancements in high-throughput technologies, the integrated analysis of global omics such as proteomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics, is yet to be fully explored in fruits of Capsicum species. In this study, we used an integrated omics approach to identify proteins involved in fruit development, and metabolite biosynthesis in the placenta and pericarp tissues of two contrasting genotypes belonging to ghost chili (Capsicum chinense) and C. annuum. The mass spectrometry analysis identified a total of 4,473 and 2,012 proteins from the pericarp and placenta tissues of Capsicum fruits. We observed expression of developmental stage-specific proteins, such as kinases, transferases, ion transporters, F-box proteins, and transcription factors that were enriched in the biosynthesis of primary and secondary metabolites. The abundance of these proteins corresponded with RNAseq data. Key proteins related to capsaicinoids biosynthesis, such as Acyltransferase 3, 3-oxoacyl-[acyl-carrier protein], 4-coumaroyl co-A ligase, and 3-ketoacyl-coA synthase 3, were identified in placenta of highly pungent ghost chili, along with J-domain proteins and transcription factors such as MYB101, MYB 14-like, bHLH112, NAC, and Cyt p450 CYP82D47, suggesting their role in capsaicinoids and secondary metabolites biosynthesis. Further, we observed a correlation of the expression of genes and proteins with the abundance of primary and secondary metabolites, such as carbohydrates, alcohols, fatty acids, phenolics, glycerides, polyamines, and amino acids. Our findings provide a novel multiomics resources for future functional studies, with potential applications in breeding programs.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-025-01581-7.

The Multifaceted Chemistry of Chili Peppers: A Biodiversity Treasure for Nutrition and Biomedicine

Due to its biodiversity, traditional medicine has been recognized worldwide for centuries and continues to affect the development of complementary and alternative therapies. A wide variety of spices, herbs, and trees are known for their curative effects. Chili pepper (Ch-p), a spice-utilizing fruit, is rich in natural medicinally bioactive compounds, such as flavonoids, capsaicinoids, and many other phytochemicals and phytonutrients. Operating in synergy and consortium, these compounds demonstrate their functionality, in comparison to lonely treatment, as active agents in handling many disorders. These may include abnormal coagulation, oxidative stress, obesity, diabetes, inflammation, cancer, and microbe-inducing diseases. Recently, capsaicinoids, particularly capsaicin, have been shown to manage the symptoms of significant viral diseases, including COVID-19. Capsaicin also has the potential to be an effective anesthetic agent and enables Ch-p to be expandedly employed as a topical preparation in relieving pain as well. The phytochemicals of Ch-p are not only beneficial and inexpensive phyto-alternatives in disease management, but they can also be used as scaffolds for the production of novel medicines. The study also substantiates the role of the TRPV1 receptor in the mitigation of chronic diseases in conjunction with capsaicin. Nevertheless, the consumption of Ch-p is the subject of limited medicinal research, necessitating the confirmation of the results from animal studies. The nutritional and biomedical prospection of Ch-p-derived products has been addressed in an accessible format in this artifact, with the potential to precisely enhance and enrich our pharmaceutical industries in the pursuit of human well-being.

The genetic architecture of the pepper metabolome and the biosynthesis of its signature capsianoside metabolites

Capsicum (pepper) is among the most economically important species worldwide, and its fruits accumulate specialized metabolites with essential roles in plant environmental interaction and human health benefits as well as in conferring their unique taste. However, the genetics underlying differences in metabolite presence/absence and/or accumulation remain largely unknown. In this study, we carried out a genome-wide association study as well as generating and characterizing a novel backcross inbred line mapping population to determine the genetic architecture of the pepper metabolome. This genetic analysis provided over 1,000 metabolic quantitative trait loci (mQTL) for over 250 annotated metabolites. We identified 92 candidate genes involved in various mQTLs. Among the identified loci, we described and validated a gene cluster of eleven UDP-glycosyltransferases (UGTs) involved in monomeric capsianoside biosynthesis. We additionally constructed the gene-by-gene-based biosynthetic pathway of pepper capsianoside biosynthesis, including both core and decorative reactions. Given that one of these decorative pathways, namely the glycosylation of acyclic diterpenoid glycosides, contributes to plant resistance, these data provide new insights and breeding resources for pepper. They additionally provide a blueprint for the better understanding of the biosynthesis of species-specific natural compounds in general.

Genome-Wide Analysis of Fruit Color and Carotenoid Content in Capsicum Core Collection

This study investigated carotenoid content and fruit color variation in 306 pepper accessions from diverse Capsicum species. Red-fruited accessions were predominant (245 accessions), followed by orange (35) and yellow (20). Carotenoid profiles varied significantly across accessions, with capsanthin showing the highest mean concentration (239.12 μg/g), followed by β-cryptoxanthin (63.70 μg/g) and zeaxanthin (63.25 μg/g). Total carotenoid content ranged from 7.09 to 2566.67 μg/g, emphasizing the diversity within the dataset. Correlation analysis revealed complex relationships between carotenoids, with strong positive correlations observed between total carotenoids and capsanthin (r = 0.94 ***), β-cryptoxanthin (r = 0.87 ***), and zeaxanthin (r = 0.84 ***). Principal component analysis (PCA) identified two distinct carotenoid groups, accounting for 67.6% of the total variance. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified 91 significant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with fruit color (15 SNPs) and carotenoid content (76 SNPs). These SNPs were distributed across all chromosomes, with varying numbers on each. Among individual carotenoids, α-carotene was associated with 28 SNPs, while other carotenoids showed different numbers of associated SNPs. Candidate genes encoding diverse proteins were identified near significant SNPs, potentially contributing to fruit color variation and carotenoid accumulation. These included pentatricopeptide repeat-containing proteins, mitochondrial proton/calcium exchangers, E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase SINAT2, histone-lysine N-methyltransferase, sucrose synthase, and various enzymes involved in metabolic processes. Seven SNPs exhibited pleiotropic effects on multiple carotenoids, particularly β-cryptoxanthin and capsanthin. The findings of this study provide insights into the genetic architecture of carotenoid biosynthesis and fruit color in peppers, offering valuable resources for targeted breeding programs aimed at enhancing the nutritional and sensory attributes of pepper varieties.

Metabolic, toxicological, chemical, and commercial perspectives on esterification of dietary polyphenols: a review

Molecular modifications have been practiced for more than a century and nowadays they are widely applied in food, pharmaceutical, or other industries to manipulate the physicochemical, bioactivity, metabolic/catabolic, and pharmacokinetic properties. Among various structural modifications, the esterification/O-acylation has been well-established in altering lipophilicity and bioactivity of parent bioactive compounds, especially natural polyphenolics, while maintaining their high biocompatibility. Meanwhile, various classic chemical and enzymatic protocols and other recently emerged cell factory technology are being employed as viable esterification strategies. In this contribution, the main motivations of phenolic esterification, including the tendency to replace synthetic alkyl phenolics with safer alternatives in the food industry to improve the bioavailability of phenolics as dietary supplements/pharmaceuticals, are discussed. In addition, the toxicity, metabolism, and commercial application of synthetic and natural phenolics are briefly introduced. Under these contexts, the mechanisms and reaction features of several most prevalent chemical and enzymatic esterification pathways are demonstrated. In addition, insights into the studies of esterification modification of natural phenolic compounds and specific pros/cons of various reaction systems with regard to their practical application are provided.

Characterization of leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) activity in sweet pepper fruits during ripening and its inhibition by nitration and reducing events

KEY MESSAGE

Pepper fruits contain two leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) genes which are differentially modulated during ripening and by nitric oxide. The LAP activity increases during ripening but is negatively modulated by nitration. Leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) is an essential metalloenzyme that cleaves N-terminal leucine residues from proteins but also metabolizes dipeptides and tripeptides. LAPs play a fundamental role in cell protein turnover and participate in physiological processes such as defense mechanisms against biotic and abiotic stresses, but little is known about their involvement in fruit physiology. This study aims to identify and characterize genes encoding LAP and evaluate their role during the ripening of pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) fruits and under a nitric oxide (NO)-enriched environment. Using a data-mining approach of the pepper plant genome and fruit transcriptome (RNA-seq), two LAP genes, designated CaLAP1 and CaLAP2, were identified. The time course expression analysis of these genes during different fruit ripening stages showed that whereas CaLAP1 decreased, CaLAP2 was upregulated. However, under an exogenous NO treatment of fruits, both genes were downregulated. On the contrary, it was shown that during fruit ripening LAP activity increased by 81%. An in vitro assay of the LAP activity in the presence of different modulating compounds including peroxynitrite (ONOO-), NO donors (S-nitrosoglutathione and nitrosocyteine), reducing agents such as reduced glutathione (GSH), L-cysteine (L-Cys), and cyanide triggered a differential response. Thus, peroxynitrite and reducing compounds provoked around 50% inhibition of the LAP activity in green immature fruits, whereas cyanide upregulated it 1.5 folds. To our knowledge, this is the first characterization of LAP in pepper fruits as well as of its regulation by diverse modulating compounds. Based on the capacity of LAP to metabolize dipeptides and tripeptides, it could be hypothesized that the LAP might be involved in the GSH recycling during the ripening process.

Haplotype analysis, regulatory elements and docking simulation of structural models of different AT3 copies in the genus Capsicum

Capsaicinoids are responsible for the pungency in Capsicum species. These are synthesized by the Capsaicin synthase (CS) encoded by the AT3 gene, which catalyzes the transference of an acyl moiety from a branched-chain fatty acid-CoA ester to the vanillylamine to produce capsaicinoids. Some AT3 gene copies have been identified on the Capsicum genome. The absence of capsaicinoid in some nonpungent accessions is related to mutant AT3 alleles. The differences between CS protein copies can affect the tridimensional structure of the protein and the affinity for its substrates, and this could affect fruit pungency. This study characterized 32 AT3 sequences covering Capsicum pungent and non-pungent accessions. These were clustered in AT3-D1 and AT3-D2 groups and representative sequences were analyzed. Genomic upstream analysis shows different regulatory elements, mainly responsive to light and abiotic stress. AT3-D1 and AT3-D2 gene expression was confirmed in fruit tissues of C. annuum. Amino acid substitutions close to the predictable HXXXD and DFGWG motifs were also identified. AT3 sequences were modeled showing a BAHD acyltransferase structure with two connected domains. A pocket with different shape, size and composition between AT3 models was found inside the protein, with the conserved motif HXXXD exposed to it, and a channel for their accessibility. CS substrates exhibit high interaction energies with the His and Asp conserved residues. AT3 models have different interaction affinities with the (E)-8-methylnon-6-enoyl-CoA, 8-methylnonanoyl-CoA and vanillylamine substrates. These results suggested that AT3-D1 and AT3-D2 sequences encode CS enzymes with different regulatory factors and substratum affinities.

Evaluation of the in vitro schistosomicidal, leishmanicidal, and trypanocidal activities of the capsaicin metabolite, Capsicum frutescens, and Capsicum baccatum extracts and of their analysis of the main constituents by HPLC/UV and CG/MS

Neglected tropical diseases are significant causes of death and temporary or permanent disability for millions living in developing countries. Unfortunately, there is no effective treatment for these diseases. Thus, this work aimed to conduct a chemical analysis using HPLC/UV and GC/MS to identify the major constituents of the hydroalcoholic extracts of Capsicum frutescens and Capsicum baccatum fruits, evaluating these extracts and their constituents' schistosomicidal, leishmanicidal and trypanocidal activities. The results obtained for the extracts of C. frutescens are better when compared to those obtained for C. baccatum, which can be related to the different concentrations of capsaicin (1) present in the extracts. The lysis of trypomastigote forms results for capsaicin (1) led to a significant value of IC50 = 6.23 µM. Thus, the results point to capsaicin (1) as a possible active constituent in these extracts.

Solanum pseudocapsicum vs Capsicum annum; comparative phenolics profiling using green ultrasonic extraction and UHPLC analysis

BACKGROUND

Solanum pseudocapsicum (PC) and Capsicum annum (CA) belongs to the family of Solanaceae. CA have been reported a rich source of phenolics whereas, the phenolics content of GA (gallic acid), SC (scopoletin), RA (rosmarinic acid), and RV (resveratrol) are yet to be reported for the PC-fruit. This study comparatively evaluates the phenolics profile for different parts (seeds and skin) and colors (green and red) of the PC- and CA-fruits using the green solvents of ethanol (ET), acetone (AC), water (H2O), and different combinations of these solvents.

METHODOLOGY

Ultrasonics extraction (US) and UHPLC analysis were employed for phenolics evaluation.

RESULTS

The USMD (method development) revealed the highest extract yield of 62 mg/100 mg for the PC-skin in ET:AC (70:30) solvent whereas, more phenolics (ppm) were observed for PC-seeds in ET:AC (50:50) solvent, particularly the SC (29.46) and GA (16.92). The UHPLCMDMV exhibited significant accuracies (100.70-114.14 %) with r2-values (0.9993-0.9997) in the linearity range of 1-200 ppm. The USMV (method validation) in PC- and CA-fruit parts and colors revealed more extract yields for the red skin part of the PC- (180.5 mg) and CA-fruit (126.2 mg). The phenolics were seen more in the green seeds of the PC-fruit (ppm); SC (276), GA (147.36), RV (28.54), and RA (23.87) followed by the green PC-skin, and red/green CA-seeds. The statistical models of mean differences, ANOVA, and Pearson's correlation showed significant differences for the PC-fruit parts (seeds and skin) and colors (red and green) vs extract yield and phenolics content (P = 0.05).

CONCLUSION

PC-and CA-fruits were successfully evaluated where the seeds for the green fruits exhibited more phenolics amount.

Comprehensive phytochemical profiles and antioxidant activity of Korean local cultivars of red chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.)

Red chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), which belongs to the Solanaceae family, contains a variety of phytochemicals with health-promoting properties including capsaicinoids, phenolics and fatty acids. Red chili pepper is one of the most consumed vegetables in Korea and occupies the largest cultivated area among spices. In this study, the ethanolic extracts from two Korean local cultivars, namely Subicho and Eumseong, were analyzed using a hybrid trapped ion mobility Q-TOF mass spectrometer equipped with a UPLC system, and their phytochemical profiles were then compared with those of a common phytophthora disease-resistant cultivar called Dokbulwang, which is extensively used for red chili pepper powder in public spaces across Korea. Utilizing high-resolution ion-mobility Q-TOF MS analysis, 458 and 192 compounds were identified from the three different red chili peppers in positive and negative ion modes, respectively, by matching with a reference spectral library. Principal component analysis revealed clear distinctions among the three cultivars, allowing us to identify key phytochemical components responsible for discriminating the local cultivars from the public cultivar. Furthermore, the assessment of total flavonoid, phenolic, and antioxidant activity in the red pepper extracts, highlighted their diverse molecular and chemical profiles. Despite the higher total flavonoid and phenolic content values observed in the public cultivar, the radical scavenging rate was higher in the local cultivars, particularly in Subicho. This suggest the presence of stronger antioxidant compounds in the local cultivar, indicating their potential health benefits due to their rich content of bioactive compounds. Notably, the local cultivars exhibited significantly higher proportions of organic compounds (more than four times) and terpenoids (more than two times) compared to the public cultivar. Specifically, higher levels of five major capsaicinoid compounds were found in the local cultivars when compared to the public cultivar. The observed disparities in phytochemical composition and antioxidant activities indicate the molecular diversity present among these cultivars. Further exploration of the bioactive compounds in these local cultivars could prove invaluable for the development of native crops, potentially leading to the discovery of novel sources of bioactive molecules for various applications in health and agriculture.

Spice Up Your Kidney: A Review on the Effects of Capsaicin in Renal Physiology and Disease

Capsaicin, the organic compound which attributes the spicy flavor and taste of red peppers and chili peppers, has been extensively studied for centuries as a potential natural remedy for the treatment of several illnesses. Indeed, this compound exerts well-known systemic pleiotropic effects and may thus bring important benefits against various pathological conditions like neuropathic pain, rhinitis, itching, or chronic inflammation. Yet, little is known about the possible biological activity of capsaicin at the kidney level, as this aspect has only been addressed by sparse experimental investigations. In this paper, we aimed to review the available evidence focusing specifically on the effects of capsaicin on renal physiology, as well as its potential benefits for the treatment of various kidney disorders. Capsaicin may indeed modulate various aspects of renal function and renal nervous activity. On the other hand, the observed experimental benefits in preventing acute kidney injury, slowing down the progression of diabetic and chronic kidney disease, ameliorating hypertension, and even delaying renal cancer growth may set the stage for future human trials of capsaicin administration as an adjuvant or preventive therapy for different, difficult-to-treat renal diseases.

Evaluation of Food Intake Biomarkers for Red Bell Peppers in Human Urine Based on HPLC-MS/MS Analysis

SCOPE

The validation of dietary biomarkers is essential for the use in objective and quantitative assessment of the human dietary intake. In this study, the urinary excretion of previously identified potential biomarkers after intake of red bell peppers is analyzed.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The urine samples obtained after a two-phase dietary intervention study in which 14 volunteers participated are quantitatively analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) after an extensive validation. In the first phase, the volunteers abstain completely from bell peppers and paprika products (control group) and in the second phase, the volunteers consume a defined amount of fresh red bell peppers (case group). After analysis, all potential biomarkers show high dispersions of their concentration, indicating interindividual differences. The glucuronidated apocarotenoid (compound 1), which probably resulted from the main carotenoids of red Capsicum fruits, shows a rapid urinary excretion. The other glucuronidated metabolites (compounds 2-8), described as potential derivatives of capsianosides from Capsicum, show a slightly delayed but longer urinary excretion.

CONCLUSIONS

A correlation between an intake of red bell pepper and the urinary excretion of recently described potential biomarkers is observed. Due to large interindividual differences, it is reasonable to assume that at least the qualitative detection of the consumption of bell peppers and possibly all Capsicum fruits is feasible.

Improved production and quality of peppers irrigated with regenerated water by the application of 24-epibrassinolide

Water shortage for crop irrigation is reducing agricultural production worldwide and the use of sewage treatment plant (STP) water to irrigate horticultural fields is a solution to avoid the use of drinkable water in agriculture. In this study, two different genotypes of pepper (Red Cherry Small and Italian green) were irrigated with STP water, as an alternative to potable water. Moreover, the foliar application of a molecule with biostimulant properties (24-epibrassinolide; EBR) was tested as a strategy to ameliorate the production and quality of fruits. Both genotypes differed on their tolerance to the suffered oxidative stress due to their different salinity tolerance, but fruit commercial weight was reduced by 49% on the salt sensitive and by 37% on the salt tolerant. Moreover, ascorbic acid was also decreased by 37% after STP water irrigation in the Red Cherry Small peppers. However, EBR applications alleviated STP watering stress effects improving pepper plants fruit production and quality parameters, such as ascorbic acid and capsaicinoids. These results have important economic and environmental relevance to overcome present and future water deficiencies in the agricultural sector derived from climate change, guaranteeing the maintenance of production in peppers irrigated with STP water for a more sustainable agriculture following relevant circular economy actions.

Spice-Derived Phenolic Compounds: Potential for Skin Cancer Prevention and Therapy

Skin cancer is a condition characterized by the abnormal growth of skin cells, primarily caused by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun or artificial sources like tanning beds. Different types of skin cancer include melanoma, basal cell carcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma. Despite the advancements in targeted therapies, there is still a need for a safer, highly efficient approach to preventing and treating cutaneous malignancies. Spices have a rich history dating back thousands of years and are renowned for their ability to enhance the flavor, taste, and color of food. Derived from various plant parts like seeds, fruits, bark, roots, or flowers, spices are important culinary ingredients. However, their value extends beyond the culinary realm. Some spices contain bioactive compounds, including phenolic compounds, which are known for their significant biological effects. These compounds have attracted attention in scientific research due to their potential health benefits, including their possible role in disease prevention and treatment, such as cancer. This review focuses on examining the potential of spice-derived phenolic compounds as preventive or therapeutic agents for managing skin cancers. By compiling and analyzing the available knowledge, this review aims to provide insights that can guide future research in identifying new anticancer phytochemicals and uncovering additional mechanisms for combating skin cancer.

Antifungal activity of chili pepper extract with potential for the control of some major pathogens in grapevine

BACKGROUND

In recent years, biofungicides have drawn increasing interest in vineyards for a more sustainable integrated and copper-limited pest management. Among alternatives, botanicals could represent valuable tools, being rich sources of biologically active compounds. Conversely to the well-known antioxidant and biological properties in relation to health benefits, investigation on bioactivity of hot pungent Capsicum sp. products against fungal phytopathogens in vineyards is still scarce. Therefore, the present study aimed at exploring the biologically active compounds profile of a chili pepper (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) pod extract and its antimicrobial properties against some of the major fungal and Oomycetes pathogens of grapevine, including Botrytis cinerea Pers., Guignardia bidwellii (Ellis) Viala & Ravaz and Plasmopara viticola (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) Berl. & De Toni.

RESULTS

The ethyl acetate-extracted oleoresin from the most pungent varieties was rich in capsaicinoids and polyphenols (371.09 and 268.5 μg mg-1 dry weight, respectively). Capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids and quercetin derivatives were the most abundant, while carotenoids represented only a minor fraction. The oleoresin was efficient to inhibit all three pathogenic fungi and ED50 values were determined, evidencing that G. bidwellii was the more sensitive (0.233 ± 0.034 mg mL-1 ).

CONCLUSION

The results suggested a potentiality of chili pepper extract for the control of some important grapevine pathogens, their possible application being helpful for the recommended limitation in extensive use of copper in vineyard. The complex mixture of high amounts of capsaicinoids, associated to specific phenolic acids and other minor bioactive components might contribute to the observed antimicrobial action of chili pepper extract. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Plant-Derived Nutraceuticals Involved in Body Weight Control by Modulating Gene Expression

Obesity is the most prevalent health problem in the Western world, with pathological body weight gain associated with numerous co-morbidities that can be the main cause of death. There are several factors that can contribute to the development of obesity, such as diet, sedentary lifestyle, and genetic make-up. Genetic predispositions play an important role in obesity, but genetic variations alone cannot fully explain the explosion of obesity, which is why studies have turned to epigenetics. The latest scientific evidence suggests that both genetics and environmental factors contribute to the rise in obesity. Certain variables, such as diet and exercise, have the ability to alter gene expression without affecting the DNA sequence, a phenomenon known as epigenetics. Epigenetic changes are reversible, and reversibility makes these changes attractive targets for therapeutic interventions. While anti-obesity drugs have been proposed to this end in recent decades, their numerous side effects make them not very attractive. On the other hand, the use of nutraceuticals for weight loss is increasing, and studies have shown that some of these products, such as resveratrol, curcumin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, ginger, capsaicin, and caffeine, can alter gene expression, restoring the normal epigenetic profile and aiding weight loss.

The Genus Capsicum: A Review of Bioactive Properties of Its Polyphenolic and Capsaicinoid Composition

Chili is one of the world's most widely used horticultural products. Many dishes around the world are prepared using this fruit. The chili belongs to the genus Capsicum and is part of the Solanaceae family. This fruit has essential biomolecules such as carbohydrates, dietary fiber, proteins, and lipids. In addition, chili has other compounds that may exert some biological activity (bioactivities). Recently, many studies have demonstrated the biological activity of phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and capsaicinoids in different varieties of chili. Among all these bioactive compounds, polyphenols are one of the most studied. The main bioactivities attributed to polyphenols are antioxidant, antimicrobial, antihyperglycemic, anti-inflammatory, and antihypertensive. This review describes the data from in vivo and in vitro bioactivities attributed to polyphenols and capsaicinoids of the different chili products. Such data help formulate functional foods or food ingredients.

Antifungal Potential of Capsaicinoids and Capsinoids from the Capsicum Genus for the Safeguarding of Agrifood Production: Advantages and Limitations for Environmental Health

Opportunistic pathogenic fungi arise in agricultural crops as well as in surrounding human daily life. The recent increase in antifungal-resistant strains has created the need for new effective antifungals, particularly those based on plant secondary metabolites, such as capsaicinoids and capsinoids produced by Capsicum species. The use of such natural compounds is well-aligned with the One Health approach, which tries to find an equilibrium among people, animals, and the environment. Considering this, the main objective of the present work is to review the antifungal potential of capsaicinoids and capsinoids, and to evaluate the environmental and health impacts of biofungicides based on these compounds. Overall, capsaicinoids and their analogues can be used to control pathogenic fungi growth in plant crops, as eco-friendly alternatives to pest management, and assist in the conservation and long-term storage of agrifood products. Their application in different stages of the agricultural and food production chains improves food safety, nutritional value, and overcomes antimicrobial resistance, with a lower associated risk to humans, animals, and the environment than that of synthetic fungicides and pesticides. Nevertheless, research on the effect of these compounds on bee-like beneficial insects and the development of new preservatives and packaging materials is still necessary.

Freeze-Dried Powder of Fermented Chili Paste-New Approach to Cured Salami Production

Fermented chili powders were obtained through the freeze-drying of fermented chili pastes and used as a condiment, acidifier, antioxidant, colorant, and microbial starter carrier in fermented salami production. Fermented chili powders were examined regarding carbohydrates, organic acids, vitamin C, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and aroma profile. High concentrations of lactic (10.57-12.20%) and acetic acids (3.39-4.10%) were recorded. Vitamin C content was identified in the range of 398-1107 mg/100 g, with maximum values for C. annuum cv. Cayenne chili powder. Phenolic compounds showed values between 302-771 mg/100 g. Total carotenoid content was identified between 544-2462 µg/g, with high concentrations of capsanthin esters. Aroma profile analysis evidenced specific compounds (1-hexanol, 2-hexanol, hexenal, E-2-hexenal) with sensory importance and a more complex spectrum for Capsicum chinense cultivar. Plant-specific lactic acid bacteria showed dominance both in fermented chili paste, chili powder, and salami. Lactic and acetic acids from the fermented chili powder reduced the pH of the filling immediately, having a stabilizing effect on the meat. Nor molds or pathogens were identified in outer limits. Based on these results, fermented chili powders could be used as starter carriers in the production of fermented meat products for exceptional sensory properties and food safety management.

Surfactant-mediated extraction of capsaicin from Capsicum annuum L. fruit in various solvents

Capsaicin is a valuable compound found in Capsicum annuum. The present study aimed to explore the efficiency of different solvents and surfactants on its extraction by maceration. Ethyl acetate was found to be the best solvent followed by dichloromethane and acetone, respectively. Overall order of efficiency of the solvents used was this: ethyl acetate > dichloromethane > acetone > glycerol > acetonitrile > methanol > acetic acid > toluene. Extractability of ethyl acetate for capsaicin remained unaffected by the surfactants. Tween-80 had very positive effect on the extraction efficiency of dichloromethane (DCM) and acetone. Kinetics of the extraction with the most efficient solvent ethyl acetate showed extraction of capsaicin to follow a pseudo-second order kinetic model. In conclusion, for extraction of capsaicin from green chili, ethyl acetate was the most powerful amongst the solvents used in the present work and tween-80 had a notable positive effect on the efficiency of DCM and acetone.

Application of far-infrared radiation for sun-dried chili pepper (Capsicum annum L.): drying characteristics and color during roasting

BACKGROUND

Chili is hygroscopic and needs a fast-drying method before feeding into pulverizers. The far-infrared radiation (FIR) roasting technique provides various benefits, such as higher drying rates within a short duration, reduction of mycotoxins, and improvement in the textural quality of agricultural produce. In addition, thin-layer modeling supports understanding the drying kinetics of agricultural produce. Therefore, the objective of this research was to study the thin-layer drying characteristics and color of whole chili pod and its components (i.e. seeds, pedicel, and placenta) of sun-dried chili during FIR roasting. The samples were dried at 7.76 μm (100 °C), 6.12 μm (200 °C), 5.056 μm (300 °C), and 4.30 μm (400 °C) by exposing them to FIR in a single layer and the drying kinetics were studied using the Midilli model. Further, the color variation during FIR roasting was studied.

RESULTS

FIR roasting of chili pods and their components (i.e. seeds, pedicel, and placenta) shows a falling rate drying period at each wavelength. The moisture content decreased with decreasing FIR wavelength. The ∆E values for pods, pedicel, and placenta were increased during FIR roasting. The Midilli model results in R² and root-mean-square error value ranges of 0.7563-1.000 and 5 × 10^-8 -0.1238 respectively for the current study. The Midilli model at 300 °C shows that the FIR has minor variation compared with other FIR temperatures.

CONCLUSION

FIR technology can be implemented to roast chili pods and their components (i.e. seeds, pedicel, and placenta) within a short period. Further, the application of FIR for roasting purposes desirably increases the color variation. The Midilli model can effectively describe the drying kinetics of the chili pods and their components during FIR roasting. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

The powerful Solanaceae: Food and nutraceutical applications in a sustainable world

The Solanaceae family is considered one of the most important families among plant species because, on one hand encompasses many staple food crops of the human diet while, on the other hand, it includes species rich in powerful secondary metabolites that could be valorized in medicine or drug formulation as well as nutraceuticals and food supplements. The main genera are Solanum, Capsicum, Physalis, and Lycium which comprise several important cultivated crops (e.g., tomato, pepper, eggplant, tomatillo, and goji berry), as well as genera notable for species with several pharmaceutical properties (e.g., Datura, Nicotiana, Atropa, Mandragora, etc.). This chapter discusses the nutritional value of the most important Solanaceae species commonly used for their edible fruit, as well as those used in the development of functional foods, food supplements, and nutraceuticals due to their bioactive constituents. The toxic and poisonous effects are also discussed aiming to highlight possible detrimental consequences due to irrational use. Finally, considering the high amount of waste and by-products generated through the value chain of the main crops, the sustainable management practices implemented so far are presented with the aim to increase the added-value of these crops.

Convection Drying Influence on Thermo-Physical Properties, Bioactive Substances, Color and Texture Profile of Red Pepper (Capsicum Spp)

This work aimed to study the effect of convection drying on bioactive substances and on the texture profile of red pepper. Four mathematical models were used to model the drying kinetics, as a function of the temperature and the thickness of slices. These models are largely in agreement with experimental data. Effective diffusivity, Arrhenius constant, activation energy and thermal properties changed with temperature of dry process. The two varieties of pepper used in this work demonstrated a very high degree of spiciness (144799.37-160899.37 SU). This property is related to the high contents of capsaicin (39.60-44.01 mg/g) and dihydrocapsaicin (32.33-35.95 mg/g). Our results revealed that brittleness, hardness 1 and 2, firmness, chewiness, gumminess appearance and Young’s modulus are very important attributes in determining the textural profile of dried red pepper. Also, drying causes a strong degradation of natural pigments of red pepper and consequently decreases attractiveness of the texture profile. To avoid that, red pepper should be pretreated before the application of hot air drying.

Dynamics of Bioactive Compounds during Spontaneous Fermentation of Paste Obtained from Capsicum ssp.-Stage towards a Product with Technological Application

Six cultivars of chili (Cherry, Bulgarian Chilli, Cayenne, Fatalii, Habanero, and Carolina Reaper) from two species (Capsicum annuum and Capsicum chinense) have been studied. Anaerobic, spontaneous fermentation of pure chili paste was conducted for 21 days at 20 °C. The unfermented (UCP) and fermented chili pastes (FCP) were both subjected to physicochemical and microbiological characterization consisting of capsaicinoid, ascorbic acid, short-chain organic acids, phenolic compounds, and simple sugars analysis. Cell viability for Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and Leuconostoc was determined before and after fermentation. Results indicate that capsaicinoids are very stable compounds, as notable differences between unfermented and fermented samples could not be seen. Carolina Reaper and Fatalii cultivars were amongst the most pungent, whereas Cherry, Cayenne, and Bulgarian types were low to moderate in pungency. Average loss of total ascorbic acid was 19.01%. Total phenolic compounds ranged between 36.89−195.43 mg/100 g for the fresh fruits and 35.60−180.40 mg/100 g for the fermented product. Losses through fermentation were not significant (p < 0.05). Plate counts indicated low initial numbers for LAB in the fresh samples, values ranging between 50−3700 CFU/g (colony-forming units). After fermentation, day 21, concentration of LAB (3.8 × 106−6.2 × 108 CFU/g) was high in all samples. Fermented chilies paste with enhanced biochemical and bacterial properties might further be used in the technology of vegetable (brining) or meat (curing) products, processes that generally involve the fermenting activity of different microorganisms, especially (LAB). Thus, the purpose of this research was the investigation of biochemical and microbial transformations that naturally occur in fermented chilies with a future perspective towards technological applications in cured meat products.

Capsicum Leaves under Stress: Using Multi-Omics Analysis to Detect Abiotic Stress Network of Secondary Metabolism in Two Species

The plant kingdom contains an enormous diversity of bioactive compounds which regulate plant growth and defends against biotic and abiotic stress. Some of these compounds, like flavonoids, have properties which are health supporting and relevant for industrial use. Many of these valuable compounds are synthesized in various pepper (Capsicum sp.) tissues. Further, a huge amount of biomass residual remains from pepper production after harvest, which provides an important opportunity to extract these metabolites and optimize the utilization of crops. Moreover, abiotic stresses induce the synthesis of such metabolites as a defense mechanism. Two different Capsicum species were therefore exposed to chilling temperature (24/18 ℃ vs. 18/12 ℃), to salinity (200 mM NaCl), or a combination thereof for 1, 7 and 14 days to investigate the effect of these stresses on the metabolome and transcriptome profiles of their leaves. Both profiles in both species responded to all stresses with an increase over time. All stresses resulted in repression of photosynthesis genes. Stress involving chilling temperature induced secondary metabolism whereas stresses involving salt repressed cell wall modification and solute transport. The metabolome analysis annotated putatively many health stimulating flavonoids (apigetrin, rutin, kaempferol, luteolin and quercetin) in the Capsicum biomass residuals, which were induced in response to salinity, chilling temperature or a combination thereof, and supported by related structural genes of the secondary metabolism in the network analysis.

Supercritical fluids and fluid mixtures to obtain high-value compounds from Capsicum peppers

Peppers of the Capsicum genus have a rich nutritional composition and are widely consumed worldwide. Thus, they find numerous applications in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. One commercial application is oleoresin production, a nonpolar fraction rich in bioactive compounds, including capsaicinoids and carotenoids. Among the technologies for pepper processing, special attention is given to supercritical fluid technologies, such as supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) with pure solvents and CO2 plus modifiers, and SFE assisted by ultrasound. Supercritical fluid-based processes present advantages over the classical extraction techniques like using less solvents, short extraction times, specificity and scalability. In this review, we present a brief overview of the nutritional aspects of peppers, followed by studies that apply supercritical fluid technologies to produce extracts and concentrate bioactives, besides oleoresin encapsulation. Furthermore, we present related phase equilibrium, cost estimation, and the gaps and needs for the full use of peppers from a sustainable perspective.

Modulated Light Dependence of Growth, Flowering, and the Accumulation of Secondary Metabolites in Chilli

Chili is widely used as a food additive and a flavouring and colouring agent and also has great importance in health preservation and therapy due to the abundant presence of many bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, and capsaicinoids. Most of these secondary metabolites are strong antioxidants. In the present study, the effect of light intensity and spectral composition was studied on the growth, flowering, and yield of chilli together with the accumulation of secondary metabolites in the fruit. Two light intensities (300 and 500 μmol m-2 s-1) were applied in different spectral compositions. A broad white LED spectrum with and without FR application and with blue LED supplement was compared to blue and red LED lightings in different (80/20 and 95/5%) blue/red ratios. High light intensity increased the harvest index (fruit yield vs. biomass production) and reduced the flowering time of the plants. The amount of secondary metabolites in the fruit varied both by light intensity and spectral compositions; phenolic content and the radical scavenging activity were stimulated, whereas capsaicin accumulation was suppressed by blue light. The red colour of the fruit (provided by carotenoids) was inversely correlated with the absolute amount of blue, green, and far-red light. Based on the results, a schematic model was created, representing light-dependent metabolic changes in chilli. The results indicated that the accumulation of secondary metabolites could be modified by the adjustment of light intensity and spectral composition; however, different types of metabolites required different light environments.

Medicinal Plants for Anti-neurodegenerative diseases in West Africa

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Neurodegenerative diseases are neuronal diseases that affect the brain components by degenerating the structure and function of the central or peripheral nervous system progressively. It is a leading cause of death and affects huge amount of people worldwide. Plant-based medicines have been utilised in the therapies for many illnesses that have defied western treatments, including neurodegenerative diseases.

AIM OF THIS REVIEW

This review presents an overview of the major neurodegenerative diseases and reported prominent medicinal plants used in managing those diseases in West Africa.

METHODS

Scientific articles regarding medicinal plants and their usefulness in managing neurodegenerative diseases in West Africa were pooled from different scientific databases. We used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses to filter articles based on their relevance. Pharmacological activity, plant parts used, experimental models, and some isolated chemical compounds of those plants were summarised.

RESULTS

In the West Africa region, Fabaceae (19%) and Solanaceae (13%) have the highest representation of plant families used to treat neurological diseases, while Apocynaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae have also been utilised. Flavonoids, alkaloids, phenolic compounds, terpenoids, coumarins present in those plants and their derivatives are reported to possess neuro-protective effects. Biochemical enzymes correlating to antioxidants, anti-inflammatory effects are the potential targets against neurodegenerative diseases.

CONCLUSION

Medicinal plants for anti-neurodegenerative diseases in West Africa have been documented with their neuropharmacological activities. Plant families such as Fabaceae, Solanaceae, Apocynaceae, Asteraceae, and Euphorbiaceae could be a major natural source for discovery of anti-neurodegenerative drugs, thus the metabolites from them should be given priority for neurological research. This review will provide clues for further investigations on the screening and development of anti-neurodegenerative natural products from West African medicinal plants.

Identification of potential inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 main protease and spike receptor from 10 important spices through structure-based virtual screening and molecular dynamic study

The outbreak of novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2 poses a serious threat to human health and world economic activity. There is no specific drug for the treatment of COVID-19 patients at this moment. Traditionally, people have been using spices like ginger, fenugreek and onion, etc. for the remedy of a common cold. This work identifies the potential inhibitors of the main protease (Mpro) and spike (S) receptor of SARS-CoV-2 from 10 readily available spices. These two proteins, S and Mpro, play an important role during the virus entry into the host cell, and replication and transcription processes of the virus, respectively. To identify potential molecules an in-house databank containing 1040 compounds was built-up from the selected spices. Structure-based virtual screening of this databank was performed with two important SARS-CoV-2 proteins using Glide. Top hits resulted from virtual screening (VS) were subjected to molecular docking using AutoDock 4.2 and AutoDock Vina to eliminate false positives. The top six hits against Mpro and top five hits against spike receptor subjected to 130 ns molecular dynamic simulation using GROMACS. Finally, the compound 1-, 2-, 3- and 5-Mpro complexes, and compound 17-, 18-, 19-, 20- and 21- spike receptor complexes showed stability throughout the simulation time. The ADME values also supported the drug-like nature of the selected hits. These nine compounds are available in onion, garlic, ginger, peppermint, chili and fenugreek. All the spices are edible and might be used as home remedies against COVID-19 after proper biological evaluation.

Identification of Potential Urinary Biomarkers for Bell Pepper Intake by HPLC-HRMS-Based Metabolomics and Structure Elucidation by NMR

Dietary biomarkers show great promise for objectively assessing the food intake in humans. In this study, potential urinary biomarkers for red bell pepper intake were identified based on a dietary intervention study and a comprehensive metabolomics approach. Spot urine samples from 14 volunteers were collected in the two phases of the study (control phase: abstaining from any bell pepper/paprika products; case phase: consumption of a defined amount of fresh red bell pepper and abstaining from any further bell pepper/paprika products) and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-HRMS). Comparison of the obtained metabolomics data using statistical analysis revealed that the respective urine metabolomes differ significantly, which was attributable to the bell pepper intake. Some of the most discriminating metabolites were selected and isolated from human urine for unequivocal structure elucidation by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Herein, seven novel glucuronidated metabolites most likely derived from capsanthin and capsianosides were identified, implying their potential application as dietary biomarkers for the entire Capsicum genus.

Transcriptional Regulation of Ripening in Chili Pepper Fruits (Capsicum spp.)

Chili peppers represent a very important horticultural crop that is cultivated and commercialized worldwide. The ripening process makes the fruit palatable, desirable, and attractive, thus increasing its quality and nutritional value. This process includes visual changes, such as fruit coloration, flavor, aroma, and texture. Fruit ripening involves a sequence of physiological, biochemical, and molecular changes that must be finely regulated at the transcriptional level. In this review, we integrate current knowledge about the transcription factors involved in the regulation of different stages of the chili pepper ripening process.

An Ontology-Driven Personalized Faceted Search for Exploring Knowledge Bases of Capsicum

Capsicum is a genus of flowering plants in the Solanaceae family in which the members are well known to have a high economic value. The Capsicum fruits, which are popularly known as peppers or chili, have been widely used by people worldwide. It serves as a spice and raw material for many products such as sauce, food coloring, and medicine. For many years, scientists have studied this plant to optimize its production. A tremendous amount of knowledge has been obtained and shared, as reflected in multiple knowledge-based systems, databases, or information systems. An approach to knowledge-sharing is through the adoption of a common ontology to eliminate knowledge understanding discrepancy. Unfortunately, most of the knowledge-sharing solutions are intended for scientists who are familiar with the subject. On the other hand, there are groups of potential users that could benefit from such systems but have minimal knowledge of the subject. For these non-expert users, finding relevant information from a less familiar knowledge base would be daunting. More than that, users have various degrees of understanding of the available content in the knowledge base. This understanding discrepancy raises a personalization problem. In this paper, we introduce a solution to overcome this challenge. First, we developed an ontology to facilitate knowledge-sharing about Capsicum to non-expert users. Second, we developed a personalized faceted search algorithm that provides multiple structured ways to explore the knowledge base. The algorithm addresses the personalization problem by identifying the degree of understanding about the subject from each user. In this way, non-expert users could explore a knowledge base of Capsicum efficiently. Our solution characterized users into four groups. As a result, our faceted search algorithm defines four types of matching mechanisms, including three ranking mechanisms as the core of our solution. In order to evaluate the proposed method, we measured the predictability degree of produced list of facets. Our findings indicated that the proposed matching mechanisms could tolerate various query types, and a high degree of predictability can be achieved by combining multiple ranking mechanisms. Furthermore, it demonstrates that our approach has a high potential contribution to biodiversity science in general, where many knowledge-based systems have been developed with limited access to users outside of the domain.

TLC-ESI-MS as a QuEChERS approach to detection of capsaicin present in different matrices

Pepper is one of the most consumed spices in the world. Its main compound is capsaicin, a widely studied biomarker that has pharmacological activities due to its anti-inflammatory and analgesic capacity. Topical formulations such as patches based on capsaicin have been developed as an option in relieving pain and reducing swelling. In addition, capsaicin is used as an active ingredient in non-lethal weapon formulations such as pepper spray through the QuEChERS concept (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Robust, Safe) technique. Used for food analysis, it allows the direct analysis of the biomarker by TLC-ESI-MS, which are previously separated by HPTLC (High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography) using an internal standard for determination of Rf and confirmation of capsaicin in different matrices.

Capsanthin Production in Escherichia coli by Overexpression of Capsanthin/Capsorubin Synthase from Capsicum annuum

Capsanthin, a characteristic red carotenoid found in the fruits of red pepper (Capsicum annuum), is widely consumed as a food and a functional coloring additive. An enzyme catalyzing capsanthin synthesis was identified as capsanthin/capsorubin synthase (CCS) in the 1990s, but no microbial production of capsanthin has been reported. We report here the first successful attempt to biosynthesize capsanthin in Escherichia coli by carotenoid-pathway engineering. Our initial attempt to coexpress eight enzyme genes required for capsanthin biosynthesis did not detect the desired product. The dual activity of CCS as a lycopene β-cyclase as well as a capsanthin/capsorubin synthase likely complicated the task. We demonstrated that a particularly high expression level of the CCS gene and the minimization of byproducts by regulating the seven upstream carotenogenic genes were crucial for capsanthin formation in E. coli. Our results provide a platform for further study of CCS activity and capsanthin production in microorganisms.

Phytochemical Characterization of By-Products of Habanero Pepper Grown in Two Different Types of Soils from Yucatán, Mexico

By-products of edible plants may contain potentially useful phytochemicals. Herein, we valorized the by-products of Capsicum chinense by phytochemical characterization of its leaves, peduncles and stems. Plants of habanero pepper were grown in a greenhouse, in polyethylene bags with two soils that were named according to the Maya classification as: K'ankab lu'um (red soil) and Box lu'um (black soil). Habanero pepper by-products were dried using an oven, the extracts were obtained by Ultrasound Assisted Extraction, and phytochemical quantification in all the extracts was conducted by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled to Diode Array Detector (UPLC-DAD). Differences in the phytochemical content were observed according to the by-product and soil used. Catechin and rutin showed the highest concentrations in the peduncles of plants grown in both soils. The leaves of plants grown in black soil were rich in myricetin, β-carotene, and vitamin E, and the stems showed the highest protocatechuic acid content. While the leaves of plants grown in red soil were rich in myricetin and vitamin C, the stems showed the highest chlorogenic acid content. This novel information regarding the phytochemical composition of the by-products of C. chinense may be relevant in supporting their potential application in food and pharmaceutical industries.

Chili Pepper Carotenoids: Nutraceutical Properties and Mechanisms of Action

Chili pepper is a prominent cultivated horticultural crop that is traditionally used for food seasoning and is applied for the treatment and prevention of multiple diseases. Its beneficial health properties are due to its abundance and variety of bioactive components, such as carotenoids, capsaicinoids, and vitamins. In particular, carotenoids have important nutraceutical properties, and several studies have focused on their potential in the prevention and treatment of human diseases. In this article, we reviewed the state of knowledge of general aspects of chili pepper carotenoids (biosynthesis pathway, types and content in Capsicum spp., and the effects of processing on carotenoid content) and recent findings on the effects of carotenoid nutraceuticals, such as antioxidant, cancer preventive, anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular disorder preventive, and anti-obesity effects.

Open-tubular capillary electrochromatographic application of a sol-gel matrix with chilli peppers, garlic, or synthetic additives

This article describes a possible combination of two promising fields of analytical chemistry-the preparation of sol-gel matrices with varying additives and their application in capillary electrochromatography. The inner surfaces of capillaries were coated with the sol-gel solution containing either pure synthetic chemical additive-alliin or capsaicin-or an extract of their natural sources-garlic and chilli pepper, respectively. The modified capillaries were tested for interaction with two neurotransmitters, oligopeptides and nucleotides under conditions of open-tubular capillary electrochromatography. Because both of the natural extracts also contain vitamin C and saccharose, the capillaries with sol-gel modifiers containing each of these substances were also tested. The obtained results from the perspective of changes in the electrochromatograms and the effective mobilities of analytes are discussed with respect to mild conditions both in the preparation process of the sol-gel matrix and during the separations.