1
|
Silva Z, Ferro T, Almeida D, Soares H, Ferreira JA, Deschepper FM, Hensbergen PJ, Pirro M, van Vliet SJ, Springer S, Videira PA. MHC Class I Stability is Modulated by Cell Surface Sialylation in Human Dendritic Cells. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12030249. [PMID: 32164343 PMCID: PMC7150992 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12030249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Maturation of human Dendritic Cells (DCs) is characterized by increased expression of antigen presentation molecules, and overall decreased levels of sialic acid at cell surface. Here, we aimed to identify sialylated proteins at DC surface and comprehend their role and modulation. Mass spectrometry analysis of DC’s proteins, pulled down by a sialic acid binding lectin, identified molecules of the major human histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I), known as human leucocyte antigen (HLA). After desialylation, DCs showed significantly higher reactivity with antibodies specific for properly folded MHC-I-β2-microglobulin complex and for β2-microglobulin but showed significant lower reactivity with an antibody specific for free MHC-I heavy chain. Similar results for antibody reactivities were observed for TAP2-deficient lymphoblastoid T2 cells, which express HLA-A*02:01. Using fluorescent peptide specifically fitting the groove of HLA-A*02:01, instead of antibody staining, also showed higher peptide binding on desialylated cells, confirming higher surface expression of MHC-I complex. A decay assay showed that desialylation doubled the half-life of MHC-I molecules at cell surface in both DCs and T2 cells. The biological impact of DC´s desialylation was evaluated in co-cultures with autologous T cells, showing higher number and earlier immunological synapses, and consequent significantly increased production of IFN-γ by T cells. In summary, sialic acid content modulates the expression and stability of complex MHC-I, which may account for the improved DC-T synapses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zélia Silva
- UCIBIO, Departamento Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (Z.S.); (T.F.); (D.A.); (F.M.D.)
| | - Tiago Ferro
- UCIBIO, Departamento Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (Z.S.); (T.F.); (D.A.); (F.M.D.)
- CDG & Allies – PPAIN- Congenital Disorders of Glycosylation & Allies - Professionals and Patient Associations International Network, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Danielle Almeida
- UCIBIO, Departamento Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (Z.S.); (T.F.); (D.A.); (F.M.D.)
| | - Helena Soares
- Human Immunobiology and Pathogenesis, CEDOC-Chronic Diseases Research Centre, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 1150-082 Lisbon, Portugal;
| | - José Alexandre Ferreira
- Experimental Pathology and Therapeutics Group, Portuguese Institute of Oncology, 4200-162 Porto, Portugal;
- Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center (P.ccc), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal
| | - Fanny M. Deschepper
- UCIBIO, Departamento Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (Z.S.); (T.F.); (D.A.); (F.M.D.)
| | - Paul J. Hensbergen
- Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands; (P.J.H.); (M.P.)
| | - Martina Pirro
- Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands; (P.J.H.); (M.P.)
| | - Sandra J. van Vliet
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HzAmsterdam, The Netherlands;
| | - Sebastian Springer
- Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University, 28759 Bremen, Germany;
| | - Paula A. Videira
- UCIBIO, Departamento Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (Z.S.); (T.F.); (D.A.); (F.M.D.)
- CDG & Allies – PPAIN- Congenital Disorders of Glycosylation & Allies - Professionals and Patient Associations International Network, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +351-212948530
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Balyan R, Gund R, Ebenezer C, Khalsa JK, Verghese DA, Krishnamurthy T, George A, Bal V, Rath S, Chaudhry A. Modulation of Naive CD8 T Cell Response Features by Ligand Density, Affinity, and Continued Signaling via Internalized TCRs. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 198:1823-1837. [PMID: 28100678 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1600083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
T cell response magnitudes increase with increasing antigenic dosage. However, it is unclear whether ligand density only modulates the proportions of responding ligand-specific T cells or also alters responses at the single cell level. Using brief (3 h) exposure of TCR-transgenic mouse CD8 T cells in vitro to varying densities of cognate peptide-MHC ligand followed by ligand-free culture in IL-2, we found that ligand density determined the frequencies of responding cells but not the expression levels of the early activation marker molecule, CD69. Cells with low glucose uptake capacity and low protein synthesis rates were less ligand-sensitive, implicating metabolic competence in the response heterogeneity of CD8 T cell populations. Although most responding cells proliferated, ligand density was associated with time of entry into proliferation and with the extent of cell surface TCR downmodulation. TCR internalization was associated, regardless of the ligand density, with rapidity of c-myc induction, loss of the cell cycle inhibitor p27kip1, metabolic reprogramming, and cell cycle entry. A low affinity peptide ligand behaved, regardless of ligand density, like a low density, high affinity ligand in all these parameters. Inhibition of signaling after ligand exposure selectively delayed proliferation in cells with internalized TCRs. Finally, internalized TCRs continued to signal and genetic modification of TCR internalization and trafficking altered the duration of signaling in a T cell hybridoma. Together, our findings indicate that heterogeneity among responding CD8 T cell populations in their ability to respond to TCR-mediated stimulation and internalize TCRs mediates detection of ligand density or affinity, contributing to graded response magnitudes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Renu Balyan
- National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi 110067, India; and
| | - Rupali Gund
- National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi 110067, India; and
| | - Chitra Ebenezer
- National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi 110067, India; and
| | | | | | | | - Anna George
- National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi 110067, India; and
| | - Vineeta Bal
- National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi 110067, India; and
| | - Satyajit Rath
- National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi 110067, India; and
| | - Ashutosh Chaudhry
- National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi 110067, India; and.,Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Joulia R, L'Faqihi FE, Valitutti S, Espinosa E. IL-33 fine tunes mast cell degranulation and chemokine production at the single-cell level. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2016; 140:497-509.e10. [PMID: 27876627 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.09.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Revised: 08/29/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mast cells are versatile key components of allergy and inflammation known to respond to both innate and adaptive immunologic stimuli. However, the response of individual mast cells to cumulative stimuli remains poorly understood. OBJECTIVES We sought to dissect mast cell responses at the single-cell level and their potentiation by IL-33. METHODS We monitored mast cell degranulation in real time by exploiting the capacity of fluorochrome-labeled avidin to stain degranulating cells. During the degranulation process, the granule matrix is externalized and immediately bound by fluorochrome-labeled avidin present in the culture medium. The degranulation process is monitored by using either time-lapse microscopy or fluorescence-activated cell sorting analysis. RESULTS Single-cell analysis revealed a strong heterogeneity of individual mast cell degranulation responses. We observed that the number of degranulating mast cells was graded according to the FcεRI stimulation strength, whereas the magnitude of individual mast cell degranulation remained unchanged, suggesting an all-or-none response of mast cells after FcεRI triggering. IL-33 pretreatment increased not only the number of degranulating and chemokine-producing mast cells but also the magnitude of individual mast cell degranulation and chemokine production. CONCLUSION We illustrate the effect of IL-33 on mast cell biology at the single-cell level by showing that IL-33 potentiates IgE-mediated mast cell responses by both increasing the number of responding cells and enhancing the responses of individual mast cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Régis Joulia
- INSERM U1043, and Université de Toulouse, UPS, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan (CPTP), Toulouse, France
| | - Fatima-Ezzahra L'Faqihi
- INSERM U1043, and Université de Toulouse, UPS, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan (CPTP), Toulouse, France
| | - Salvatore Valitutti
- INSERM U1043, and Université de Toulouse, UPS, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan (CPTP), Toulouse, France
| | - Eric Espinosa
- INSERM U1043, and Université de Toulouse, UPS, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan (CPTP), Toulouse, France.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Tkach K, Altan-Bonnet G. T cell responses to antigen: hasty proposals resolved through long engagements. Curr Opin Immunol 2012; 25:120-5. [PMID: 23276422 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2012.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2012] [Revised: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 12/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
T cells discriminate between peptide-MHC complexes on the surfaces of antigen presenting cells to enact appropriate downstream responses. Great progress has been made over the last 15 years in understanding varied aspects of T cell activation on short timescales (minutes), yet the mechanics and significance of long term T cell receptor signaling (hours or days) remain unclear. Furthermore, there remain some controversies regarding the correlation of the biophysical parameters of ligand-receptor interactions with the scaling of downstream effector functions. Here we review recent studies that emphasize the importance of long-term engagement of antigens to fine-tuning the activation of T cells over the duration of the complete immune response. We discuss how T cells dynamically regulate T cell receptor signaling via antigen crosstalk, competition and consumption to accurately counter antigenic challenges.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karen Tkach
- ImmunoDynamics Group, Programs in Computational Biology and Immunology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Abstract
The explosion of scientific interest in protein kinase-mediated signaling networks has led to the infusion of new chemical methods and their applications related to the analysis of phosphorylation pathways. We highlight some of these chemical biology approaches across three areas. First, we discuss the development of chemical tools to modulate the activity of protein kinases to explore kinase mechanisms and their contributions to phosphorylation events and cellular processes. Second, we describe chemical techniques developed in the past few years to dissect the structural and functional effects of phosphate modifications at specific sites in proteins. Third, we cover newly developed molecular imaging approaches to elucidate the spatiotemporal aspects of phosphorylation cascades in live cells. Exciting advances in our understanding of protein phosphorylation have been obtained with these chemical biology approaches, but continuing opportunities for technological innovation remain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mary Katherine Tarrant
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Dasatinib, a small-molecule protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor, inhibits T-cell activation and proliferation. Blood 2007; 111:1366-77. [PMID: 17962511 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2007-04-084814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 222] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Dasatinib is an oral small molecule inhibitor of Abl and Src family tyrosine kinases (SFK), including p56(Lck) (Lck). Given the central importance of Lck in transmitting signals from the T-cell receptor (TCR) signaling complex and the potent ability of dasatinib to inhibit Lck activity, we hypothesized this agent could provide a novel route of immunomodulation via targeted inhibition of antigen-induced signaling. Herein, we show that dasatinib inhibits TCR-mediated signal transduction, cellular proliferation, cytokine production, and in vivo T-cell responses. However, dasatinib-mediated inhibition does not induce apoptosis because the effect is reversible or may be overcome by signals bypassing the TCR, such as phorbol ester. Signal transduction and proliferative responses via IL-2 remain essentially unperturbed, suggesting that dasatinib displays specificity for TCR signaling. In addition, dasatinib combined with cyclosporine A or rapamycin led to a much more potent inhibition of T-cell activation, suggesting that targeted inhibition of Lck could be a useful adjunct for enhanced immunomodulation. In combination with currently available immunomodulatory agents, SFK inhibition could potentially increase immunomodulatory efficacy while minimizing toxicity of individual agents.
Collapse
|
7
|
Yole M, Wickstrom M, Blakley B. Cell death and cytotoxic effects in YAC-1 lymphoma cells following exposure to various forms of mercury. Toxicology 2006; 231:40-57. [PMID: 17210217 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2006.11.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2006] [Revised: 10/29/2006] [Accepted: 11/12/2006] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The effects of 1 min-4 h exposures to four Hg compounds (mercuric chloride [HgCl2], methyl mercuric chloride [CH3HgCl], p-chloromercuribenzoate [p-CMB] and thimerosal [TMS; ethylmercurithiosalicylate]) on cell death, microtubules, actin, CD3 receptor expression, protein tyrosine phosphorylation (PTyr-P) and intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) levels were investigated in YAC-1 lymphoma cells using flow cytometry. YOPRO-1 (YP) and propidium iodide (PI) dye uptake indicated all forms of Hg tested were toxic at concentrations ranging from 25.8-48.4 microM, with two distinct patterns of effects. Early apoptosis was prolonged for CH3HgCl- and TMS-treated cells, with more than 50% remaining YP+/PI- after 4h. Both CH3HgCl and TMS induced complete loss of beta-tubulin fluorescence, indicative of microtubule depolymerization and inhibition of tubulin synthesis and/or beta-tubulin degradation, while F-actin fluorescence diminished to a lesser degree and only after loss beta-tubulin. CH3HgCl and TMS induced an almost immediate two-fold increase in CD3 fluorescence, with levels returning to baseline within minutes. With continued exposure, CD3 fluorescence was reduced to approximately 50% of baseline values. Both compounds also increased PTyr-P two- to three-fold immediately, with levels returning to baseline at 4h. Similarly, two- to three-fold increases in [Ca2+]i were noted after 1 min exposure. [Ca2+]i increased progressively, reaching levels five- to eight-fold greater than control values. In contrast, dye uptake was delayed with HgCl2 and p-CMB, although cell death proceeded rapidly, with almost all non-viable cells being late apoptotic (YP+/PI+) by 4h. p-CMB produced early reductions in F-actin, and after 4h, complete loss of F-actin with only partial reduction of total beta-tubulin was seen with both p-CMB and HgCl2. HgCl2 reduced CD3 expression and PTyr-P slightly within minutes, while p-CMB produced similar effects on CD3 only at 4h, at which time PTyr-P was increased two- to three-fold. Both compounds increased [Ca2+]i within minutes, though levels remained under twice the baseline concentration after 15 min exposure. With continued exposure, [Ca2+]i increased to levels two- to five-fold greater than control values. These findings indicate the two groups of Hg compounds may induce cell death by distinct pathways, reflecting interactions with different cellular targets leading to cell death.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Margaret Yole
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, 52 Campus Drive, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon SK S7N 5B4, Canada.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Veenstra H, Baumann R, Carroll NM, Lukey PT, Kidd M, Beyers N, Bolliger CT, van Helden PD, Walzl G. Changes in leucocyte and lymphocyte subsets during tuberculosis treatment; prominence of CD3dimCD56+ natural killer T cells in fast treatment responders. Clin Exp Immunol 2006; 145:252-60. [PMID: 16879244 PMCID: PMC1809688 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2006.03144.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune responses against pulmonary tuberculosis are still poorly defined. This study describes changes in leucocyte and lymphocyte subsets during treatment to find reliable immunological markers for the disease and treatment response. Flow cytometric peripheral blood immune phenotyping, routine haematology and sputum microbiology were performed on 21 HIV-negative adult tuberculosis (TB) patients with positive sputum cultures during therapy in comparison with 14 healthy purified protein derivative (PPD)-positive volunteers. Patients at diagnosis showed high absolute neutrophil and monocyte counts which fell during treatment but low lymphocyte subset counts which increased [except natural killer (NK) and NK T cells]. High counts of a population of CD3(dim)/CD56+ NK T cells at diagnosis correlated significantly with negative sputum culture after 8 weeks of treatment. A multivariate classification technique showed improved correlation when NK cells were taken into account. In conclusion, peripheral blood white cell counts change significantly during treatment and counts at diagnosis, especially CD3(dim)/CD56+ NK T cells, hold promise in predictive models of TB treatment response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Veenstra
- Division of Molecular Biology and Genetics and MRC Centre for Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Stellenbosch, PO Box 19063, Tygerberg 7505, South Africa.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Fabre S, Lang V, Harriague J, Jobart A, Unterman TG, Trautmann A, Bismuth G. Stable activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase in the T cell immunological synapse stimulates Akt signaling to FoxO1 nuclear exclusion and cell growth control. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:4161-71. [PMID: 15778376 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.7.4161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
We have previously reported at the single cell level that PI3K is activated after conjugate formation between T lymphocytes and APCs. However, in contrast to cells exposed to an asymmetrical signal that usually increase 3'-phosphoinositides (3'-PI) transiently in the region of the activated receptors, T cells contacting APC accumulate 3'-PI across their whole plasma membrane far beyond the region of the immunological synapse (IS). Importantly, this effect is maintained over time, for hours, and although PI3K-dependent pathways translate in various cell types extracellular stimuli into a wide range of biological events, in primary T cells this stability is mostly required for cell division induced by Ag. Using imaging methodologies, the present article elucidates the molecular mechanisms responsible for this particular functioning of the PI3K pathway in primary human T lymphocytes interacting with APCs, especially with dendritic cells. The results reveal that the IS unremittingly recruits PI3K to maintain high 3'-PI levels in T cells through phosphotyrosine-dependent mechanisms, suggesting a major participation of class Ia PI3K. This persistent activation of PI3K results in the Akt-dependent sequestration of the FoxO transcription factor, FoxO1, outside the nucleus of T cells interacting with APCs. Using an active form of FoxO1, we demonstrate that this compartmentalization process can affect T cell growth after Ag recognition. We conclude that the need for sustained PI3K signaling within the consolidated IS is probably an undemanding tactic used by primary T cells critical for initiating cell cycle progression through the prolonged inactivation of FoxO1, one important factor that can control cell quiescence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Fabre
- Département de Biologie Cellulaire, Institut Cochin, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité 567, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université René Descartes, Paris, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Goldstein B, Faeder JR, Hlavacek WS. Mathematical and computational models of immune-receptor signalling. Nat Rev Immunol 2004; 4:445-56. [PMID: 15173833 DOI: 10.1038/nri1374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Byron Goldstein
- Theoretical Biology and Biophysics Group, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Schade AE, Levine AD. Phosphatases in concert with kinases set the gain for signal transduction through the T cell receptor. Mol Immunol 2003; 40:531-7. [PMID: 14563372 DOI: 10.1016/s0161-5890(03)00170-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The 'tunable activation thresholds' model for signal transduction through the T cell receptor (TCR)/CD3 signaling complex proposes that rapid cycles of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are integral to regulating the frequency of protein-protein interaction, thus having considerable influence over the activation of downstream signaling pathways. Co-temporal activation of kinases and phosphatases could serve to modulate the ongoing signaling response, depending on the relative balance of their opposing enzymatic activities. Although recent reports have addressed the mechanisms by which specific kinase/phosphatase pairs contribute to the initiation and termination of signaling, we sought a more global understanding of the ability of the kinase/phosphatase balance to regulate, or "tune", the very proximal steps of TCR signaling in primary human T cells. Herein, we provide biochemical evidence that phosphotyrosine induction via the TCR is subject to fine-tuning based on the overall activity of kinases and phosphatases relative to one another, leading to cycles of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, with implications for developing the next generation of immunotherapeutic agents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew E Schade
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106-4952, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Schrum AG, Turka LA, Palmer E. Surface T-cell antigen receptor expression and availability for long-term antigenic signaling. Immunol Rev 2003; 196:7-24. [PMID: 14617194 DOI: 10.1046/j.1600-065x.2003.00083.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
It is important to understand how T-cell antigen receptor (TCR) engagement and signaling are regulated throughout an immune response. This review examines the dynamics of surface TCR expression and signaling capacity during thymic and effector T-cell development. Although the TCR can undergo vast changes in surface expression, T cells remain capable of sustaining TCR engagement for long periods of time. This may be achieved by a combination of mechanisms that involve (a) controlling the quantity of surface TCR available for ligand interaction and (b) controlling the quality of surface TCR expression during T-cell activation. TCR signaling itself appears to be one of the main quantitative modulators of surface TCR expression, and it can cause both downregulation and upregulation at different times of T-cell activation. Recent studies indicate that the degree of upregulation is tunable by the strength of antigenic stimulation. There is evidence that qualitatively distinct forms of the TCR exist, and their potential role in sustained antigenic signaling is also discussed. A goal of future studies will be to better characterize these modulations in surface TCR expression and to clarify their impact on the regulation of immune responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adam G Schrum
- Laboratory of Transplantation Immunology and Nephrology, Department of Research, University Hospital-Basel, Hebelstrasse 20, CH-4031 Basel, Switzerland.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Favier B, Espinosa E, Tabiasco J, Dos Santos C, Bonneville M, Valitutti S, Fournié JJ. Uncoupling between Immunological Synapse Formation and Functional Outcome in Human γδ T Lymphocytes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2003; 171:5027-33. [PMID: 14607899 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.171.10.5027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Human T lymphocytes expressing the Vgamma9Vdelta2 TCR recognize non-peptidic Ags, referred to as phosphoantigens, produced by microbial pathogens and by human tumor cells. Here we show that gammadelta T cells establish a mature immunological synapse (IS) with the myelomonocytic THP-1 tumoral cell line. This synapse is characterized by an enrichment for phosphotyrosine, CD2, and gammadelta TCR together with the exclusion of CD45. The CD94 and NKG2D receptors are also recruited to the signaling area, while the C-lectin-like activation marker CD69 segregates out of the synapse. gammadelta T cell conjugation to THP-1 increases upon stimulation by soluble phosphoantigen, is paralleled by the metabolic activation of gammadelta T cells and leads to cytokine production. Molecular segregation of the above molecules also occurs at the gammadelta T cell/THP-1 interface in the absence of exogenously added phosphoantigen, although it does not result in intracellular signaling and cytokine production under these conditions. Hence the molecular interactions at the gammadelta T cell-THP-1 target cell interface are sufficient to induce the formation of an IS, but cytokine production requires the full engagement of gammadelta TCR by a strong agonist. Thus in gammadelta T cells, formation of the IS is uncoupled from its functional outcome.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Antigens/pharmacology
- Antigens, CD/metabolism
- Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte/metabolism
- Biomarkers
- Cell Aggregation/immunology
- Cell Communication/immunology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- Cytokines/metabolism
- Diphosphates/pharmacology
- Histocompatibility Antigens Class I/biosynthesis
- Humans
- Killer Cells, Natural/immunology
- Killer Cells, Natural/metabolism
- Lectins, C-Type/metabolism
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- NK Cell Lectin-Like Receptor Subfamily D
- NK Cell Lectin-Like Receptor Subfamily K
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta/metabolism
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta/physiology
- Receptors, Immunologic/metabolism
- Receptors, Natural Killer Cell
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- Solubility
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Favier
- Department of Immunology, Unité 563, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Purpan, Toulouse, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Faroudi M, Zaru R, Paulet P, Müller S, Valitutti S. Cutting edge: T lymphocyte activation by repeated immunological synapse formation and intermittent signaling. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 171:1128-32. [PMID: 12874197 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.171.3.1128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The activation of biological T cell responses requires prolonged contact with APCs and sustained signaling. We investigated whether signaling must be uninterrupted to commit T cells to cytokine production or whether T cell activation may also result from summation of interrupted signals. Upon periodic addition and removal of a src kinase inhibitor, human CD4(+) T cells destroyed and re-formed immunological synapses while aborting and restarting signal transduction. Remarkably, under these conditions, T cells were eventually activated to IFN-gamma production and the amount of IFN-gamma produced was directly related to the total signaling time despite the repeated interruptions. Our results illustrate that T cell activation does not require a stable immunological synapse and can be achieved by interrupted signaling. It is implied that T cells can add activation signals, possibly collected on multiple APCs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mustapha Faroudi
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale Unité 563, Lymphocyte Interaction Group, Institut Claude de Préval, Toulouse, France
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
Recent advances in analytical techniques have made the performance of biochemical assays on individual mammalian cells possible. Of particular interest is the ability to measure the activation of kinases, enzymes with critical roles in virtually every aspect of cell physiology. Single-cell kinase assays promise to deliver a newfound understanding of the molecular mechanisms responsible for cellular control and behavior by revealing the dynamic nature of signal transduction networks in living cells. A recent exciting development is the potential to perform assays of multiple kinases simultaneously in a single cell.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher E Sims
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, D380 Medical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-4560, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Rachmilewitz J, Lanzavecchia A. A temporal and spatial summation model for T-cell activation: signal integration and antigen decoding. Trends Immunol 2002; 23:592-5. [PMID: 12464571 DOI: 10.1016/s1471-4906(02)02342-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Commitment of T cells to cytokine production and proliferation requires sustained (up to several hours) T-cell receptor (TCR) signaling that is achieved through serial engagement. This article proposes a kinetic model, adopted from neurons, which is based on the local temporal summation of successive signals. This model offers an explanation for how signals originating from serially triggered TCRs are accumulated and integrated over the period required for T-cell activation, given that each TCR-evoked signal is rapidly lost. The principal innovation of this model is the suggestion that signaling intermediates produced by serially triggered TCRs are not simply sustained but are incrementally built up. Several phenomena related to T-cell behavior and self-nonself discrimination are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Rachmilewitz
- Goldyne Savad Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah University Hospital, PO Box 12000, Jerusalem, 91120, Israel.
| | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Smyth LA, Ardouin L, Williams O, Norton T, Tybulewicz V, Kioussis D. Inefficient clustering of tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins at the immunological synapse in response to an antagonist peptide. Eur J Immunol 2002; 32:3386-94. [PMID: 12432569 DOI: 10.1002/1521-4141(200212)32:12<3386::aid-immu3386>3.0.co;2-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Interactions of T cells with MHC plus peptide in the peripheral lymphoid system are important for their survival. In this study we investigated further the molecular consequences of such interactions using F5 TCR transgenic mice and peptides previously shown to induce either negative or positive selection in the thymus. Following TCR ligation with the negatively selecting agonist peptide, mature CD8(+) cells proliferated and up-regulated the activation marker CD69. Interestingly, ligation of this TCR with MHC molecules loaded with high concentrations of the positively selecting peptide also resulted in the aforementioned changes, but with slower kinetics. Analysis of the biochemical changes that occur following stimulation with these peptides showed that phosphorylation of key signaling molecules, such as ZAP-70, CD3zeta, Vav, SLP-76, LAT, and ERK-1 and 2, could be detected after exposure to agonist but not antagonist peptide. Confocal microscopy, however, revealed infrequent phosphorylation 'patches' at the site of contact between T cells and APC presenting the antagonist peptide. Our data suggest that peptides capable of inducing positive selection in the thymus can be recognized by mature T cells and cause proliferation, up-regulation of CD69 and accumulation of phosphorylated proteins at the immunological synapse with low efficiency; however no phosphorylation of signaling molecules can be detected using conventional biochemical assays.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigen-Presenting Cells/immunology
- Antigen-Presenting Cells/metabolism
- Antigens, CD/metabolism
- Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte/metabolism
- Binding Sites
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Lectins, C-Type
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- Peptides/pharmacology
- Phosphorylation
- Proteins/chemistry
- Proteins/metabolism
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/metabolism
- Signal Transduction
- Tyrosine/chemistry
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lesley A Smyth
- Division of Molecular Immunology, The National Institute for Medical Research, London, GB
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Gauthier L, Rossi B, Roux F, Termine E, Schiff C. Galectin-1 is a stromal cell ligand of the pre-B cell receptor (BCR) implicated in synapse formation between pre-B and stromal cells and in pre-BCR triggering. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99:13014-9. [PMID: 12271131 PMCID: PMC130578 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.202323999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Although preB cell-receptor (pre-BCR) formation and cell-surface expression is essential for B cell development, pre-BCR generation of signal transduction remains elusive. Here, we report that recombinant pre-BCRs and the surrogate light chain bind specifically to the bone marrow stromal cell galectin-1 (GAL1), an S-type lectin. The surrogate light chain/GAL1 association is a direct protein-protein interaction (K(a) = 2 x 10(6) M(-1)), and the NH(2) extra loop of lambda-like is the major binding element. Pre-BCR binding to stromal cells depends upon GAL1 anchoring to glycosylated counter-receptors, and these complexes completely relocalize to form a synapse at the contact zone between preB and stromal cells. This immune developmental synapse is accompanied by the initiation of intracellular tyrosine kinase activity and signal transduction from the pre-BCR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Gauthier
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique-Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale -Université Méditerranée, Campus de Luminy, Case 906, 13288 Marseille Cedex 09, France
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Espinosa E, Tabiasco J, Hudrisier D, Fournié JJ. Synaptic transfer by human gamma delta T cells stimulated with soluble or cellular antigens. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 168:6336-43. [PMID: 12055250 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.168.12.6336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
B, alpha beta T, and NK lymphocytes establish immunological synapses (IS) with their targets to enable recognition. Transfer of target cell-derived Ags together with proximal molecules onto the effector cell appears also to occur through synapses. Little is known about the molecular basis of this transfer, but it is assumed to result from Ag receptor internalization. Because human gamma delta T cells recognize soluble nonpeptidic phosphoantigens as well as tumor cells such as Daudi, it is unknown whether they establish IS with, and extract molecules from, target cells. Using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy, we show in this work that Ag-stimulated human V gamma 9/V delta 2 T cells conjugate to, and perform molecular transfer from, various tumor cell targets. The molecular transfer appears to be linked to IS establishment, evolves in a dose-dependent manner in the presence of either soluble or cellular Ag, and requires gamma delta TCR ligation, Src family kinase signaling, and participation of the actin cytoskeleton. Although CD45 exclusion characterized the IS performed by gamma delta T cells, no obvious capping of the gamma delta TCR was detected. The synaptic transfer mediated by gamma delta T cells involved target molecules unrelated to the cognate Ag and occurred independently of MHC class I expression by target cells. From these observations, we conclude that despite the particular features of gamma delta T cell activation, both synapse formation and molecular transfer of determinants belonging to target cell characterize gamma delta T cell recognition of Ags.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric Espinosa
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Purpan, Toulouse, France
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Borovsky Z, Mishan-Eisenberg G, Yaniv E, Rachmilewitz J. Serial triggering of T cell receptors results in incremental accumulation of signaling intermediates. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:21529-36. [PMID: 11940589 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m201613200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Triggering of the T cell receptor (TCR) leads to the production of intracellular intermediates with half-life of a few minutes. Signaling kinetics of events originating from serial TCR triggering and its relation to antigen dose was investigated. In this study we documented incremental accumulation of short-lived intermediates of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) family, produced during successive TCR triggering. The rate and extent of the intermediate accumulation are essentially determined by the level of TCR engagement and are augmented by costimulation. ERK-1 and ERK-2 exhibit different rates of accumulation following serial receptor triggering. The data indicate that the quantitative kinetic differences in downstream signaling pathways induce qualitatively distinct biological outcomes. Although CD69, interleukin-2, and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) were primarily produced by high antigen doses that supported high MAPK phosphorylation, maximal interleukin-5 expression is induced by low and intermediate stimulus doses that do not support significant accumulation of activated ERK. We further demonstrated that the rate of phosphorylated ERK accumulation correlates with the duration of delay between T cell stimulation and the onset of IFN-gamma response, with stronger stimuli giving a more rapid IFN-gamma response. This delay might reflect the time required for the accumulation of signaling intermediates up to a threshold level that is necessary for activation. Thus, the data suggest that signaling events originating from serially triggered TCR are not simply sustained but are gradually accumulated and are integrated in a corresponding response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zipora Borovsky
- Goldyne Savad Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Zaru R, Cameron TO, Stern LJ, Müller S, Valitutti S. Cutting edge: TCR engagement and triggering in the absence of large-scale molecular segregation at the T cell-APC contact site. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 168:4287-91. [PMID: 11970969 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.168.9.4287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the functional role of large-scale molecular segregation at the T cell-APC contact site during T lymphocyte Ag recognition. Inhibition of CD2-CD58 interaction markedly affected segregation of CD2 and CD2AP from CD45. Under these conditions, Ag-induced calcium mobilization, PKC theta; clustering at the immunological synapse, and IFN-gamma production also were inhibited. However, early TCR signaling and T cell polarization toward APCs were unaffected. Our results indicate that the "raison d'être" of a large-scale segregation of surface molecules and intracellular enzymes and adapters, in Ag-stimulated T cells, is to reinforce the assembly of the signal transduction cascade rather than favor TCR engagement and triggering.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rossana Zaru
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale Unité 536, Institut Claude de Préval, Toulouse, France
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Affiliation(s)
- T Harder
- Basel Institute for Immunology, CH-4005 Basel, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Zaru R, Berrie CP, Iurisci C, Corda D, Valitutti S. CD28 co-stimulates TCR/CD3-induced phosphoinositide turnover in human T lymphocytes. Eur J Immunol 2001; 31:2438-47. [PMID: 11500828 DOI: 10.1002/1521-4141(200108)31:8<2438::aid-immu2438>3.0.co;2-p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Upon engagement of TCR with peptide-MHC complexes displayed on the surface of antigen-presenting cells, T lymphocytes undergo a sustained elevation of intracellular Ca(2+) concentration([Ca(2+)](i)), which is required for cytokine production. In the present work, we investigate how inositol lipid metabolism can be activated for a prolonged time to ensure a sustained link between receptor triggering and downstream signaling effectors. Four lines of evidence indicate that an extensive phosphoinositide turnover induced by TCR and CD28 engagement allows this task to be accomplished: (i) continuous phosphoinositide breakdown is required for a sustained [Ca(2+)](i )increase in antigen-stimulated T cells; (ii) TCR triggering results in a continuous release of inositol phosphates from the cell membrane paralleled by a massive and sustained phosphoinositide re-synthesis due to free inositol re-incorporation; (iii) TCR-induced phosphoinositide turnover is strongly increased by CD28 ligation; and (iv) CD28 engagement augments and sustains the TCR-induced [Ca(2+)](i )increase. Our results show that the T cell pool of phosphoinositides is continuously re-formed during T cell-APC cognate interaction, thereby explaining how sustained receptor triggering can transduce an equally sustained [Ca(2+)](i) increase. Importantly, our data identify a novel step in the signaling cascade where co-stimulation converges with TCR-generated signals to sustain and amplify the activation process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Zaru
- INSERM U395, Institut Claude de Préval, Toulouse, France
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Hudrisier D, Riond J, Mazarguil H, Gairin JE, Joly E. Cutting edge: CTLs rapidly capture membrane fragments from target cells in a TCR signaling-dependent manner. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 166:3645-9. [PMID: 11238601 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.166.6.3645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Upon encounter of a CTL with a target cell carrying foreign Ags, the TCR internalizes with its ligand, the peptide-MHC class I complex. However, it is unclear how this can happen mechanistically because MHC molecules are anchored to the target cell's surface via a transmembrane domain. By using antigenic peptides and lipids that were fluorescently labeled, we found that CTLs promptly capture target cell membranes together with the antigenic peptide as well as various other surface proteins. This efficient and specific capture process requires sustained TCR signaling. Our observations indicate that this process allows efficient acquisition of the Ag by CTL, which may in turn regulate lymphocyte activation or elimination.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- 3T3 Cells
- Animals
- Antigen Presentation
- Antigens, Viral
- Cell Membrane/immunology
- Cell Membrane/metabolism
- Cytotoxicity Tests, Immunologic
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic
- Flow Cytometry
- Fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate/metabolism
- Glycoproteins/immunology
- Glycoproteins/metabolism
- Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- Peptide Fragments/immunology
- Peptide Fragments/metabolism
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/physiology
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/metabolism
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
- Viral Proteins
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Hudrisier
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité 395, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Purpan, BP3028, Toulouse, France.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Leupin O, Zaru R, Laroche T, Müller S, Valitutti S. Exclusion of CD45 from the T-cell receptor signaling area in antigen-stimulated T lymphocytes. Curr Biol 2000; 10:277-80. [PMID: 10712909 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-9822(00)00362-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
T lymphocytes are activated by the engagement of their antigen receptors (TCRs) with complexes of peptide and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules displayed on the cell surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) [1]. An unresolved question of antigen recognition by T cells is how TCR triggering actually occurs at the cell-cell contact area. We visualized T-cell-APC contact sites using confocal microscopy and three-dimensional reconstruction of z-sections. We show the rapid formation of a specialized signaling domain at the T-cell-APC contact site that is characterized by a broad and sustained area of tyrosine phosphorylation. The T-lymphocyte cell-surface molecule CD2 is rapidly recruited into this signaling domain, whereas TCRs progressively percolate from the entire T-cell surface into the phosphorylation area. Remarkably, the highly expressed phosphatase CD45 is excluded from the signaling domain. Our results indicate that physiological TCR triggering at the T-cell-APC contact site is the result of a localized alteration in the balance between cellular kinases and phosphatases. We therefore provide experimental evidence to support current models of T-cell activation based on CD45 exclusion from the TCR signaling area [2] [3] [4].
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- O Leupin
- BIL Research Center, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Lausanne, Epalinges, 1066, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|