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Gravitational Influence on Human Living Systems and the Evolution of Species on Earth. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26092784. [PMID: 34066886 PMCID: PMC8125950 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Gravity constituted the only constant environmental parameter, during the evolutionary period of living matter on Earth. However, whether gravity has affected the evolution of species, and its impact is still ongoing. The topic has not been investigated in depth, as this would require frequent and long-term experimentations in space or an environment of altered gravity. In addition, each organism should be studied throughout numerous generations to determine the profound biological changes in evolution. Here, we review the significant abnormalities presented in the cardiovascular, immune, vestibular and musculoskeletal systems, due to altered gravity conditions. We also review the impact that gravity played in the anatomy of snakes and amphibians, during their evolution. Overall, it appears that gravity does not only curve the space–time continuum but the biological continuum, as well.
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Sun Y, Kuang Y, Zuo Z. The Emerging Role of Macrophages in Immune System Dysfunction under Real and Simulated Microgravity Conditions. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:2333. [PMID: 33652750 PMCID: PMC7956436 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
In the process of exploring space, the astronaut's body undergoes a series of physiological changes. At the level of cellular behavior, microgravity causes significant alterations, including bone loss, muscle atrophy, and cardiovascular deconditioning. At the level of gene expression, microgravity changes the expression of cytokines in many physiological processes, such as cell immunity, proliferation, and differentiation. At the level of signaling pathways, the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway participates in microgravity-induced immune malfunction. However, the mechanisms of these changes have not been fully elucidated. Recent studies suggest that the malfunction of macrophages is an important breakthrough for immune disorders in microgravity. As the first line of immune defense, macrophages play an essential role in maintaining homeostasis. They activate specific immune responses and participate in large numbers of physiological activities by presenting antigen and secreting cytokines. The purpose of this review is to summarize recent advances on the dysfunction of macrophages arisen from microgravity and to discuss the mechanisms of these abnormal responses. Hopefully, our work will contribute not only to the future exploration on the immune system in space, but also to the development of preventive and therapeutic drugs against the physiological consequences of spaceflight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulong Sun
- Key Laboratory for Space Biosciences & Biotechnology, Institute of Special Environmental Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China; (Y.K.); (Z.Z.)
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Turroni S, Magnani M, Kc P, Lesnik P, Vidal H, Heer M. Gut Microbiome and Space Travelers' Health: State of the Art and Possible Pro/Prebiotic Strategies for Long-Term Space Missions. Front Physiol 2020; 11:553929. [PMID: 33013480 PMCID: PMC7505921 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.553929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The upcoming exploration missions will imply a much longer duration than any of the missions flown so far. In these missions, physiological adaptation to the new environment leads to changes in different body systems, such as the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems, metabolic and neurobehavioral health and immune function. To keep space travelers healthy on their trip to Moon, Mars and beyond and their return to Earth, a variety of countermeasures need to be provided to maintain body functionality. From research on the International Space Station (ISS) we know today, that for instance prescribing an adequate training regime for each individual with the devices available in the respective spacecraft is still a challenge. Nutrient supply is not yet optimal and must be optimized in exploration missions. Food intake is intrinsically linked to changes in the gut microbiome composition. Most of the microbes that inhabit our body supply ecosystem benefit to the host-microbe system, including production of important resources, bioconversion of nutrients, and protection against pathogenic microbes. The gut microbiome has also the ability to signal the host, regulating the processes of energy storage and appetite perception, and influencing immune and neurobehavioral function. The composition and functionality of the microbiome most likely changes during spaceflight. Supporting a healthy microbiome by respective measures in space travelers might maintain their health during the mission but also support rehabilitation when being back on Earth. In this review we are summarizing the changes in the gut microbiome observed in spaceflight and analog models, focusing particularly on the effects on metabolism, the musculoskeletal and immune systems and neurobehavioral disorders. Since space travelers are healthy volunteers, we focus on the potential of countermeasures based on pre- and probiotics supplements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Turroni
- Unit of Microbial Ecology of Health, Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marciane Magnani
- Laboratory of Microbial Processes in Foods, Department of Food Engineering, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil
| | - Pukar Kc
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (Inserm, UMR_S 1166), Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Lesnik
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (Inserm, UMR_S 1166), Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.,Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Hubert Vidal
- CarMeN Laboratory, INSERM, INRA, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Pierre-Benite, France
| | - Martina Heer
- International University of Applied Sciences, Bad Reichenhall, Germany.,Institute of Nutritional and Food Sciences, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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Rettig TA, Bye BA, Nishiyama NC, Hlavacek S, Ward C, Pecaut MJ, Chapes SK. Effects of skeletal unloading on the antibody repertoire of tetanus toxoid and/or CpG treated C57BL/6J mice. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0210284. [PMID: 30653556 PMCID: PMC6336310 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0210284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Spaceflight affects the immune system, but the effects on the antibody repertoire, responsible for humoral immunity, has not been well explored. In particular, the complex gene assembly and expression process; including mutations, might make this process vulnerable. Complementarity determining region 3 (CDR3), composed of parts of the V-(D-)J-gene segments, is very important for antigen binding and can be used as an important measure of variability. Skeletal unloading, and the physiological effects of it, parallel many impacts of space flight. Therefore, we explored the impact of skeletal unloading using the antiorthostatic suspension (AOS) model. Animals were experimentally challenged with tetanus toxoid (TT) and/or the adjuvant CpG. Blood was analyzed for anti-TT antibody and corticosterone concentrations. Whole spleen tissue was prepared for repertoire characterization. AOS animals showed higher levels of corticosterone levels, but AOS alone did not affect anti-TT serum antibody levels. Administration of CpG significantly increased the circulating anti-TT antibody concentrations. AOS did alter constant gene usage resulting in higher levels of IgM and lower levels of IgG. CpG also altered constant gene region usage increasing usage of IgA. Significant changes could be detected in multiple V-, D-, and J-gene segments in both the heavy and light chains in response to AOS, TT, and CpG treatments. Analysis of class-switched only transcripts revealed a different pattern of V-gene segment usage than detected in the whole repertoire and also showed significant alterations in gene segment usage after challenge. Alterations in V/J pairing were also detected in response to challenge. CDR3 amino acid sequence overlaps were similar among treatment groups, though the addition of CpG lowered overlap in the heavy chain. We isolated 3,045 whole repertoire and 98 potentially TT-specific CDR3 sequences for the heavy chain and 569 for the light chain. Our results demonstrate that AOS alters the repertoire response to challenge with TT and/or CpG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trisha A. Rettig
- Division of Biology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Bailey A. Bye
- Division of Biology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Nina C. Nishiyama
- Division of Biomedical Engineering Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California, United States of America
| | - Savannah Hlavacek
- Division of Biology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Claire Ward
- Division of Biology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Michael J. Pecaut
- Division of Biomedical Engineering Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California, United States of America
| | - Stephen K. Chapes
- Division of Biology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
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5
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Low EK, Brudvik E, Kuhlman B, Wilson PF, Almeida-Porada G, Porada CD. Microgravity Impairs DNA Damage Repair in Human Hematopoietic Stem/Progenitor Cells and Inhibits Their Differentiation into Dendritic Cells. Stem Cells Dev 2018; 27:1257-1267. [DOI: 10.1089/scd.2018.0052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Erica K. Low
- Banner Good Samaritan Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona
| | - Egil Brudvik
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston Salem, North Carolina
| | - Bradford Kuhlman
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston Salem, North Carolina
| | - Paul F. Wilson
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of California Davis Comprehensive Cancer Center, Sacramento, California
| | - Graça Almeida-Porada
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston Salem, North Carolina
| | - Christopher D. Porada
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston Salem, North Carolina
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Almeida-Porada G, Rodman C, Kuhlman B, Brudvik E, Moon J, George S, Guida P, Sajuthi SP, Langefeld CD, Walker SJ, Wilson PF, Porada CD. Exposure of the Bone Marrow Microenvironment to Simulated Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation Induces Biological Bystander Effects on Human Hematopoiesis. Stem Cells Dev 2018; 27:1237-1256. [PMID: 29698131 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2018.0005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The stem cell compartment of the hematopoietic system constitutes one of the most radiosensitive tissues of the body and leukemias represent one of the most frequent radiogenic cancers with short latency periods. As such, leukemias may pose a particular threat to astronauts during prolonged space missions. Control of hematopoiesis is tightly governed by a specialized bone marrow (BM) microenvironment/niche. As such, any environmental insult that damages cells of this niche would be expected to produce pronounced effects on the types and functionality of hematopoietic/immune cells generated. We recently reported that direct exposure of human hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) to simulated solar energetic particle (SEP) and galactic cosmic ray (GCR) radiation dramatically altered the differentiative potential of these cells, and that simulated GCR exposures can directly induce DNA damage and mutations within human HSC, which led to leukemic transformation when these cells repopulated murine recipients. In this study, we performed the first in-depth examination to define changes that occur in mesenchymal stem cells present in the human BM niche following exposure to accelerated protons and iron ions and assess the impact these changes have upon human hematopoiesis. Our data provide compelling evidence that simulated SEP/GCR exposures can also contribute to defective hematopoiesis/immunity through so-called "biological bystander effects" by damaging the stromal cells that comprise the human marrow microenvironment, thereby altering their ability to support normal hematopoiesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graça Almeida-Porada
- 1 Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine , Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Christopher Rodman
- 1 Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine , Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Bradford Kuhlman
- 1 Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine , Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Egil Brudvik
- 1 Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine , Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - John Moon
- 1 Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine , Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Sunil George
- 1 Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine , Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Peter Guida
- 2 Biological, Environmental, and Climate Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Upton, New York
| | - Satria P Sajuthi
- 3 Division of Public Health Sciences, Department of Biostatistical Sciences, Center for Public Health Genomics , Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Carl D Langefeld
- 3 Division of Public Health Sciences, Department of Biostatistical Sciences, Center for Public Health Genomics , Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Stephen J Walker
- 1 Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine , Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Paul F Wilson
- 4 Department of Radiation Oncology, University of California Davis Comprehensive Cancer Center , Sacramento, California
| | - Christopher D Porada
- 1 Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine , Winston-Salem, North Carolina
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Seawright JW, Samman Y, Sridharan V, Mao XW, Cao M, Singh P, Melnyk S, Koturbash I, Nelson GA, Hauer-Jensen M, Boerma M. Effects of low-dose rate γ-irradiation combined with simulated microgravity on markers of oxidative stress, DNA methylation potential, and remodeling in the mouse heart. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180594. [PMID: 28678877 PMCID: PMC5498037 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Space travel is associated with an exposure to low-dose rate ionizing radiation and the microgravity environment, both of which may lead to impairments in cardiac function. We used a mouse model to determine short- and long-term cardiac effects to simulated microgravity (hindlimb unloading; HU), continuous low-dose rate γ-irradiation, or a combination of HU and low-dose rate γ-irradiation. Methods Cardiac tissue was obtained from female, C57BL/6J mice 7 days, 1 month, 4 months, and 9 months following the completion of a 21 day exposure to HU or a 21 day exposure to low-dose rate γ-irradiation (average dose rate of 0.01 cGy/h to a total of 0.04 Gy), or a 21 day simultaneous exposure to HU and low-dose rate γ-irradiation. Immunoblot analysis, rt-PCR, high-performance liquid chromatography, and histology were used to assess inflammatory cell infiltration, cardiac remodeling, oxidative stress, and the methylation potential of cardiac tissue in 3 to 6 animals per group. Results The combination of HU and γ-irradiation demonstrated the strongest increase in reduced to oxidized glutathione ratios 7 days and 1 month after treatment, but a difference was no longer apparent after 9 months. On the other hand, no significant changes in 4-hydroxynonenal adducts was seen in any of the groups, at the measured endpoints. While manganese superoxide dismutase protein levels decreased 9 months after low-dose γ-radiation, no changes were observed in expression of catalase or Nrf2, a transcription factor that determines the expression of several antioxidant enzymes, at the measured endpoints. Inflammatory marker, CD-2 protein content was significantly decreased in all groups 4 months after treatment. No significant differences were observed in α-smooth muscle cell actin protein content, collagen type III protein content or % total collagen. Conclusions This study has provided the first and relatively broad analysis of small molecule and protein markers of oxidative stress, T-lymphocyte infiltration, and cardiac remodeling in response to HU with simultaneous exposure to low-dose rate γ-radiation. Results from the late observation time points suggest that the hearts had mostly recovered from these two experimental conditions. However, further research is needed with larger numbers of animals for a more robust statistical power to fully characterize the early and late effects of simulated microgravity combined with exposure to low-dose rate ionizing radiation on the heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W. Seawright
- Division of Radiation Health, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, The United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Yusra Samman
- Division of Radiation Health, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, The United States of America
| | - Vijayalakshmi Sridharan
- Division of Radiation Health, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, The United States of America
| | - Xiao Wen Mao
- Department of Basic Sciences and Radiation Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, The United States of America
| | - Maohua Cao
- Division of Radiation Health, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, The United States of America
| | - Preeti Singh
- Division of Radiation Health, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, The United States of America
| | - Stepan Melnyk
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, The United States of America
| | - Igor Koturbash
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, The United States of America
| | - Gregory A. Nelson
- Department of Basic Sciences and Radiation Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, The United States of America
| | - Martin Hauer-Jensen
- Division of Radiation Health, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, The United States of America
| | - Marjan Boerma
- Division of Radiation Health, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, The United States of America
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Is spaceflight-induced immune dysfunction linked to systemic changes in metabolism? PLoS One 2017; 12:e0174174. [PMID: 28542224 PMCID: PMC5443495 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0174174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The Space Shuttle Atlantis launched on its final mission (STS-135) on July 8, 2011. After just under 13 days, the shuttle landed safely at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) for the last time. Female C57BL/6J mice flew as part of the Commercial Biomedical Testing Module-3 (CBTM-3) payload. Ground controls were maintained at the KSC facility. Subsets of these mice were made available to investigators as part of NASA’s Bio-specimen Sharing Program (BSP). Our group characterized cell phenotype distributions and phagocytic function in the spleen, catecholamine and corticosterone levels in the adrenal glands, and transcriptomics/metabolomics in the liver. Despite decreases in most splenic leukocyte subsets, there were increases in reactive oxygen species (ROS)-related activity. Although there were increases noted in corticosterone levels in both the adrenals and liver, there were no significant changes in catecholamine levels. Furthermore, functional analysis of gene expression and metabolomic profiles suggest that the functional changes are not due to oxidative or psychological stress. Despite changes in gene expression patterns indicative of increases in phagocytic activity (e.g. endocytosis and formation of peroxisomes), there was no corresponding increase in genes related to ROS metabolism. In contrast, there were increases in expression profiles related to fatty acid oxidation with decreases in glycolysis-related profiles. Given the clear link between immune function and metabolism in many ground-based diseases, we propose a similar link may be involved in spaceflight-induced decrements in immune and metabolic function.
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In vitro and in vivo assessment of direct effects of simulated solar and galactic cosmic radiation on human hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells. Leukemia 2016; 31:1398-1407. [PMID: 27881872 DOI: 10.1038/leu.2016.344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Revised: 10/10/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Future deep space missions to Mars and near-Earth asteroids will expose astronauts to chronic solar energetic particles (SEP) and galactic cosmic ray (GCR) radiation, and likely one or more solar particle events (SPEs). Given the inherent radiosensitivity of hematopoietic cells and short latency period of leukemias, space radiation-induced hematopoietic damage poses a particular threat to astronauts on extended missions. We show that exposing human hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells (HSC) to extended mission-relevant doses of accelerated high-energy protons and iron ions leads to the following: (1) introduces mutations that are frequently located within genes involved in hematopoiesis and are distinct from those induced by γ-radiation; (2) markedly reduces in vitro colony formation; (3) markedly alters engraftment and lineage commitment in vivo; and (4) leads to the development, in vivo, of what appears to be T-ALL. Sequential exposure to protons and iron ions (as typically occurs in deep space) proved far more deleterious to HSC genome integrity and function than either particle species alone. Our results represent a critical step for more accurately estimating risks to the human hematopoietic system from space radiation, identifying and better defining molecular mechanisms by which space radiation impairs hematopoiesis and induces leukemogenesis, as well as for developing appropriately targeted countermeasures.
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Zhao L, Gao Y, Mi D, Sun Y. Mining potential biomarkers associated with space flight in Caenorhabditis elegans experienced Shenzhou-8 mission with multiple feature selection techniques. Mutat Res 2016; 791-792:27-34. [PMID: 27573923 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2016.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
To identify the potential biomarkers associated with space flight, a combined algorithm, which integrates the feature selection techniques, was used to deal with the microarray datasets of Caenorhabditis elegans obtained in the Shenzhou-8 mission. Compared with the ground control treatment, a total of 86 differentially expressed (DE) genes in responses to space synthetic environment or space radiation environment were identified by two filter methods. And then the top 30 ranking genes were selected by the random forest algorithm. Gene Ontology annotation and functional enrichment analyses showed that these genes were mainly associated with metabolism process. Furthermore, clustering analysis showed that 17 genes among these are positive, including 9 for space synthetic environment and 8 for space radiation environment only. These genes could be used as the biomarkers to reflect the space environment stresses. In addition, we also found that microgravity is the main stress factor to change the expression patterns of biomarkers for the short-duration spaceflight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhao
- Institute of Environmental Systems Biology, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Gao
- Center of Medical Physics and Technology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shushanhu Road 350, Hefei 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Dong Mi
- Department of Physics, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yeqing Sun
- Institute of Environmental Systems Biology, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, People's Republic of China.
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Hormetic Effect of Chronic Hypergravity in a Mouse Model of Allergic Asthma and Rhinitis. Sci Rep 2016; 6:27260. [PMID: 27251783 PMCID: PMC4890117 DOI: 10.1038/srep27260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
We aimed to evaluate the effect of chronic hypergravity in a mouse model of allergic asthma and rhinitis. Forty BALB/c mice were divided as: group A (n = 10, control) sensitized and challenged with saline, group B (n = 10, asthma) challenged by intraperitoneal and intranasal ovalbumin (OVA) to induce allergic asthma and rhinitis, and groups C (n = 10, asthma/rotatory control) and D (n = 10, asthma/hypergravity) exposed to 4 weeks of rotation with normogravity (1G) or hypergravity (5G) during induction of asthma/rhinitis. Group D showed significantly decreased eosinophils, neutrophils, and lymphocytes in their BAL fluid compared with groups B and C (p < 0.05). In real-time polymerase chain reaction using lung homogenate, the expression of IL-1β was significantly upregulated (p < 0.001) and IL-4 and IL-10 significantly downregulated (p < 0.05) in group D. Infiltration of inflammatory cells into lung parenchyma and turbinate, and the thickness of respiratory epithelium was significantly reduced in group D (p < 0.05). The expression of Bcl-2 and heme oxygenase-1 were significantly downregulated, Bax and extracellular dismutase significantly upregulated in Group D. Therefore, chronic hypergravity could have a hormetic effect for allergic asthma and rhinitis via regulation of genes involved in antioxidative and proapoptotic pathways. It is possible that we could use hypergravity machinery for treating allergic respiratory disorders.
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Li H, Smalligan DA, Xie N, Javer A, Zhang Y, Hanley G, Yin D. β-arrestin 2-mediated immune suppression induced by chronic stress. Neuroimmunomodulation 2011; 18:142-9. [PMID: 21228603 PMCID: PMC3031150 DOI: 10.1159/000322868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2010] [Accepted: 11/12/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Stress, either physical or psychological, can modulate immune function. However, the mechanisms associated with stress-induced immune suppression remain to be elucidated. β-Arrestin 2 serves as adaptor, scaffold, and/or signal transducer. The role of β-arrestin 2 in stress-induced immune suppression is not known yet. METHODS/RESULTS Here, we demonstrate that β-arrestin 2 deficiency in mice increases the sensitivity to the chronic stress-induced reduction in the number of splenocytes. Interestingly, the stress-induced suppression of T helper-type (Th) 1 cytokines and the increased production of Th2 cytokines were greatly enhanced in β-arrestin 2-deficient mice compared with wild-type mice. Moreover, inhibition of PI3K in β-arrestin 2-deficient mice exerts an additive effect on the stress-induced reduction in the number of splenocytes. CONCLUSION Our study demonstrates that a deficiency in β-arrestin 2 augments stress-induced immune suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Li
- Department of Internal Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tenn., USA
| | - Dean Andrew Smalligan
- Department of Internal Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tenn., USA
| | - Nanchang Xie
- Department of Internal Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tenn., USA
| | - Avani Javer
- Department of Internal Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tenn., USA
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of Internal Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tenn., USA
| | - Gregory Hanley
- Division of Laboratory Animal Resources, James Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tenn., USA
| | - Deling Yin
- Department of Internal Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tenn., USA
- *Deling Yin, MD, PhD; Hui Li, MD, PhD, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN 37614 (USA), Tel. +1 423 439 8826, Fax +1 423 439 6387, E-Mail ;
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Abstract
Many serious adverse physiological changes occur during spaceflight. In the search for underlying mechanisms and possible new countermeasures, many experimental tools and methods have been developed to study microgravity caused physiological changes, ranging from in vitro bioreactor studies to spaceflight investigations. Recently, genomic and proteomic approaches have gained a lot of attention; after major scientific breakthroughs in the fields of genomics and proteomics, they are now widely accepted and used to understand biological processes. Understanding gene and/or protein expression is the key to unfolding the mechanisms behind microgravity-induced problems and, ultimately, finding effective countermeasures to spaceflight-induced alterations. Significant progress has been made in identifying the genes/proteins responsible for these changes. Although many of these genes and/or proteins were observed to be either upregulated or downregulated, however, no large-scale genomics and proteomics studies have been published so far. This review aims at summarizing the current status of microgravity-related genomics and proteomics studies and stimulating large-scale proteomics and genomics research activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather L Nichols
- Clemson-Medical University of South Carolina Bioengineering Program, Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA
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Chopra V, Fadl AA, Sha J, Chopra S, Galindo CL, Chopra AK. Alterations in the virulence potential of enteric pathogens and bacterial-host cell interactions under simulated microgravity conditions. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2006; 69:1345-70. [PMID: 16760141 DOI: 10.1080/15287390500361792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Host immune mechanisms were proposed to decline under microgravity conditions during spaceflights, which might result in severe infections in astronauts. Therefore, it was important to investigate the effects of microgravity on infecting organisms and their interaction with host cells. Data showed that simulated microgravity (SMG) conditions markedly increased production of the enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) heat-labile enterotoxin, which induced fluid secretory responses in a mouse model. SMG also enhanced production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in murine macrophages infected with enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC). In a similar fashion, simulated microgravity conditions augmented the invasive potential of Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium and enhanced production of tumor necrosis-factor alpha in S. typhimurium-infected epithelial cells. Furthermore, coculturing of macrophages and S. typhimurium in a simulated microgravity environment resulted in activation of stress-associated mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 4. Using the antiorthostatic tail suspension mouse model, which simulates some aspects of microgravity, oral inoculation of S. typhimurium markedly reduced the 50% lethal dose compared to mice infected under normal gravitational conditions. Microarray analysis revealed simulated microgravity-induced alterations in the expression of 22 genes in S. typhimurium, and protein expression profiles were altered in both EPEC and S. typhimurium, based on two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. These studies indicated alterations in the virulence potential of bacteria and in host responses to these pathogens under simulated microgravity conditions, which may represent an important environmental signal. Such studies are essential for better understanding bacterial-host cell interactions, particularly in the context of spaceflights and space habitations of long duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Chopra
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-1070, USA
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15
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Yin D, Zhang Y, Stuart C, Miao J, Zhang Y, Li C, Zeng X, Hanley G, Moorman J, Yao Z, Woodruff M. Chronic restraint stress modulates expression of genes in murine spleen. J Neuroimmunol 2006; 177:11-7. [PMID: 16814870 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2006.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2006] [Revised: 05/08/2006] [Accepted: 05/08/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Psychological and physical stress can alter the immune system in both humans and animals. We have reported that mice subjected to chronic 12-h daily physical restraint for 2 days showed dramatic apoptosis in splenocytes. To identify genes that contribute to the splenocyte apoptosis, we compare gene expression in the spleens of restrained and unstressed mice using oligo microarrays consisting of 226 genes. We report here that mice subjected to chronic 12-h daily physical restraint for 2 days exhibited significantly altered expression of 50 of 226 genes. These genes included pro-apoptotic genes. We selected 5 genes of interest and confirmed the microarray results by real-time PCR. In this study, we identify a potentially important component of pro-apoptotic activity in restraint stress and suggest a possible target for anti-apoptotic therapy to protect splenocytes against stress-induced apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deling Yin
- Department of Internal Medicine, James Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, P. O. Box 70622, Johnson City, TN 37614, United States.
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16
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Aponte VM, Finch DS, Klaus DM. Considerations for non-invasive in-flight monitoring of astronaut immune status with potential use of MEMS and NEMS devices. Life Sci 2006; 79:1317-33. [PMID: 16757003 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2006.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2006] [Revised: 03/25/2006] [Accepted: 04/04/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The dynamics of how astronauts' immune systems respond to space flight have been studied extensively, but the complex process has not to date been thoroughly characterized, nor have the underlying principles of what causes the immune system to change in microgravity been fully determined. Statistically significant results regarding overall immunological effects in space have not yet been established due to the relatively limited amount of experimental data available, and are further complicated by the findings not showing systematically reproducible trends. Collecting in vivo data during flight without affecting the system being measured would increase understanding of the immune response process. The aims of this paper are to briefly review the current knowledge regarding how the immune system is altered in space flight; to present a group of candidate biomarkers that could be useful for in-flight monitoring and give an overview of the current methods used to measure these markers; and finally, to further establish the need and usefulness of incorporating real-time analytical techniques for in-flight assessment of astronaut health, emphasizing the potential application of MEMS/NEMS devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- V M Aponte
- Aerospace Engineering Sciences, 429 UCB, University of Colorado, Boulder, 80309, USA.
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17
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Graebe A, Schuck EL, Lensing P, Putcha L, Derendorf H. Physiological, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic changes in space. J Clin Pharmacol 2005; 44:837-53. [PMID: 15286087 DOI: 10.1177/0091270004267193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Medications have been taken since the first Mercury flight in 1967 and, since then, have been used for several indications such as space motion sickness, sleeplessness, headache, nausea, vomiting, back pain, and congestion. As the duration of space missions get longer, it is even more likely that astronauts will encounter some of the acute illnesses that are frequently seen on Earth. Microgravity environment induces several physiological changes in the human body. These changes include cardiovascular degeneration, bone decalcification, decreased plasma volume, blood flow, lymphocyte and eosinophil levels, altered hormonal and electrolyte levels, muscle atrophy, decreased blood cell mass, increased immunoglobulin A and M levels, and a decrease in the amount of microsomal P-450 and the activity of some of its dependent enzymes. These changes may be expected to have severe implications on the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of drug substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annemarie Graebe
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Administration, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, State University of New Jersey, USA
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18
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Wade CE. Responses across the Gravity Continuum: Hypergravity to Microgravity. EXPERIMENTATION WITH ANIMAL MODELS IN SPACE 2005; 10:225-45. [PMID: 16101110 DOI: 10.1016/s1569-2574(05)10009-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In response to hypergravity, it appears that the larger the animal, the greater the response, if present. Therefore, the response of a rat exceeds that of a mouse in the same hypergravity environment. When investigated in the microgravity environment of space flight, this appears to hold true. The lack of definitive data obtained in space for either species makes the extrapolation of the continuum to levels below Earth-gravity problematic. However, in systems where responses are detected for both space flight and acceleration by centrifugation, a gravitational continuum is present supporting the "principle of continuity". For those and similar systems, it appears that the use of hypergravity could be used to predict responses to space flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles E Wade
- Life Sciences Division, NASA - Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA
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Pecaut MJ, Miller GM, Nelson GA, Gridley DS. Hypergravity-induced immunomodulation in a rodent model: hematological and lymphocyte function analyses. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2004; 97:29-38. [PMID: 14978009 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01304.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The major purpose of this study was to quantify hypergravity-induced changes in erythrocyte and thrombocyte characteristics, spontaneous and mitogen-induced lymphoblastogenesis, and capacity of splenocytes to secrete immunoregulatory cytokines. C57BL/6 mice were subjected to chronic 1, 2, and 3 G; subsets were euthanized after 1, 4, 7, 10, and 21 days of centrifugation. Erythrocyte counts, hematocrit, and hemoglobin were significantly reduced by day 21 in both centrifuged groups. Hemoglobin concentration and volume per red blood cell were generally low, but an early, transient spike above normal was noted in thrombocyte counts in the 3-G group. Fluctuations above and below normal in blood and spleen cell spontaneous blastogenesis were dependent on the length of centrifugation time and not on the level of gravity. Depression in splenocyte responses to phytohemagglutinin and lipopolysaccharide due to gravity were noted when the data were expressed as stimulation indexes. Cytokine production by spleen cells was primarily affected during the first week of centrifugation: IL-2, IL-4, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha increased, whereas interferon-gamma decreased. These findings, although not identical to those reported for spaceflight, indicate that altered gravity can influence both hematological and functional variables that may translate into serious health consequences during extended missions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Pecaut
- Department of Radiation Medicina, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA.
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20
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Belay T, Aviles H, Vance M, Fountain K, Sonnenfeld G. Catecholamines and in vitro growth of pathogenic bacteria: enhancement of growth varies greatly among bacterial species. Life Sci 2003; 73:1527-35. [PMID: 12865092 DOI: 10.1016/s0024-3205(03)00472-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of catecholamines on in vitro growth of a range of bacterial species, including anaerobes. Bacteria tested included: Porphyromonas gingivalis, Bacteriodes fragilis, Shigella boydii, Shigella sonnie, Enterobacter Sp, and Salmonella choleraesuis. The results of the current study indicated that supplementation of bacterial cultures in minimal medium with norepinephrine or epinephrine did not result in increased growth of bacteria. Positive controls involving treatment of Escherichia coli with catecholamines did result in increased growth of that bacterial species. The results of the present study extend previous observations that showed differential capability of catecholamines to enhance bacterial growth in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tesfaye Belay
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, 720 Westview Drive, SW, Atlanta, GA 30310, USA
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21
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Pecaut MJ, Nelson GA, Peters LL, Kostenuik PJ, Bateman TA, Morony S, Stodieck LS, Lacey DL, Simske SJ, Gridley DS. Genetic models in applied physiology: selected contribution: effects of spaceflight on immunity in the C57BL/6 mouse. I. Immune population distributions. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2003; 94:2085-94. [PMID: 12514166 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01052.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
There are several aspects of the spaceflight environment that may lead to changes in immunity: mission-related psychological stress, radiation, and changes in gravity. On December 5, 2001, the space shuttle Endeavor launched for a 12-day mission to examine these effects on C57BL/6 mice for the first time. On their return, assays were performed on the spleen, blood, and bone marrow. In response to flight, there were no significant differences in the general circulating leukocyte proportions. In contrast, there was an increase in splenic lymphocyte percentages, with a corresponding decrease in granulocytes. There was an overall shift in splenic lymphocytes away from T cells toward B cells, and a decrease in the CD4-to-CD8 ratios due to a decrease in T helpers. In contrast, there were proportional increases in bone marrow T cells, with decreases in B cells. Although the blast percentage and count were decreased in flight mice, the CD34(+) population was increased. The data were more consistent with a shift in bone marrow populations rather than a response to changes in the periphery. Many of the results are similar to those using other models. Clearly, spaceflight can influence immune parameters ranging from hematopoiesis to mature leukocyte mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Pecaut
- Department of Radiation Medicine, Radiobiology Program, Division of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Loma Linda University and Medical Center, Loma Linda, California 92354, USA.
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22
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Abstract
Space flight and models that created conditions similar to those that occur during space flight have been shown to affect a variety of immunological responses. These have primarily been cell-mediated immune responses including leukocyte proliferation, cytokine production, and leukocyte subset distribution. The mechanisms and biomedical consequences of these changes remain to be established. Among the possible causes of space flight-induced alterations in immune responses are exposure to microgravity, exposure to stress, exposure to radiation, and many more as yet undetermined causes. This review chronicles the known effects of space flight on the immune system and explores the possible role of stress in contributing to these changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald Sonnenfeld
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, 720 Westview Drive, S.W., Atlanta, GA 30310-1495, USA.
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Mills PJ, Perez CJ, Adler KA, Ziegler MG. The effects of spaceflight on adrenergic receptors and agonists and cell adhesion molecule expression. J Neuroimmunol 2002; 132:173-9. [PMID: 12417448 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(02)00313-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Twenty-two astronauts who flew aboard 10 different US Space Shuttle flights were studied 10 days before launch, on landing day, and 2-4 days post-landing. After landing, plasma levels of norepinephrine (p<0.01) were elevated. Lymphocyte beta(2)-adrenergic receptors were desensitized 2-4 days post-landing (p<0.02). The density of CD62L on lymphocytes was unchanged but the densities of CD11a (p<0.01) and CD54 (p<0.001) were down-regulated. CD11a density was also down-regulated on monocytes (p<0.01). Neutrophils showed an up-regulation of CD11a (p<0.01) and a down-regulation of CD54 (p<0.01). CD11a density on neutrophils remained up-regulated (p<0.01) and CD54 density remained down-regulated (p<0.01) at 2-4 days post-landing. Circulating levels of soluble ICAM-1 (CD54) and soluble E-selectin (CD62E) were decreased after landing (p's<0.05). The data suggest that spaceflight leads to an environment that would support reduced leukocyte-endothelial adhesion. Sympathetic activation may contribute to this phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Mills
- Department of Psychiatry and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92103, USA.
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Abstract
It is very likely that the human immune system will be altered in astronauts exposed to the conditions of long-term space flight: isolation, containment, microgravity, radiation, microbial contamination, sleep disruption, and insufficient nutrition. In human and animal subjects flown in space, there is evidence of immune compromise, reactivation of latent virus infection, and possible development of a premalignant or malignant condition. Moreover, in ground-based space flight model investigations, there is evidence of immune compromise and reactivation of latent virus infection. All of these observations in space flight itself or in ground-based models of space flight have a strong resonance in a wealth of human pathologic conditions involving the immune system where reactivated virus infections and cancer appear as natural consequences. The clinical conditions of Epstein-Barr-driven lymphomas in transplant patients and Kaposi's sarcoma in patients with autoimmune deficiency virus come easily to mind in trying to identify these conditions. With these thoughts in mind, it is highly appropriate, indeed imperative, that careful investigations of human immunity, infection, and cancer be made by space flight researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald Sonnenfeld
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30310, USA.
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25
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Abstract
Supplementation of minimal medium inoculated with bacterial cultures with norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, or isoproterenol resulted in marked increases in growth compared to controls. Norepinephrine and dopamine had the greatest enhancing effects on growth of cultures of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae, while epinephrine and isoproterenol also enhanced growth to a lesser extent. The growth of Escherichia coli in the presence of norepinephrine was greater than growth in the presence of the three other neurochemicals used in the study. Growth of Staphylococcus aureus was also enhanced in the presence of norepinephrine, but not to the same degree as was the growth of gram negative bacteria. Addition of culture supernatants from E. coli cultures that had been grown in the presence of norepinephrine was able to enhance the growth of K. pneumoniae. Addition of the culture supernatant fluid culture from E. coli cultures that had been grown in the presence of norepinephrine did not enhance growth of P. aeruginosa or S. aureus. Culture supernatant fluids from bacteria other than E. coli grown in the presence of norepinephrine were not able to enhance the growth of any bacteria tested. The results suggest that catecholamines can enhance growth of pathogenic bacteria, which may contribute to development of pathogenesis; however, there is no uniform effect of catecholamines on bacterial growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tesfaye Belay
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry, and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, 720 Westview Drive, S.W., Atlanta, GA 30310, USA
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Mills PJ, Meck JV, Waters WW, D'Aunno D, Ziegler MG. Peripheral leukocyte subpopulations and catecholamine levels in astronauts as a function of mission duration. Psychosom Med 2001; 63:886-90. [PMID: 11719626 DOI: 10.1097/00006842-200111000-00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to determine the effects of spaceflight duration on immune cells and their relationship to catecholamine levels. METHODS Eleven astronauts who flew aboard five different US Space Shuttle flights ranging in duration from 4 to 16 days were studied before launch and after landing. RESULTS Consistent with prior studies, spaceflight was associated with a significant increase in the number of circulating white blood cells (p <.01), including neutrophils (p <.01), monocytes (p <.05), CD3+CD4+ T-helper cells (p <.05), and CD19+ B cells (p <.01). In contrast, the number of CD3-CD16+56+ natural killer cells was decreased (p <.01). Plasma norepinephrine levels were increased at landing (p <.01) and were significantly correlated with the number of white blood cells (p <.01), neutrophils (p <.01), monocytes (p <.01), and B cells (p <.01). Astronauts who were in space for approximately 1 week showed a significantly larger increase on landing in plasma norepinephrine (p =.02) and epinephrine (p =.03) levels, as well as number of circulating CD3+CD4+ T-helper cells (p <.05) and CD3+CD8+ T-cytotoxic cells (p <.05) as compared with astronauts in space for approximately 2 weeks. CONCLUSIONS The data suggest that the stress of spaceflight and landing may lead to a sympathetic nervous system-mediated redistribution of circulating leukocytes, an effect potentially attenuated after longer missions.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Mills
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92103-0804, USA.
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Maillet A, Beaufrere B, Di Nardo P, Elia M, Pichard C. Weightlessness as an accelerated model of nutritional disturbances. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2001; 4:301-6. [PMID: 11458025 DOI: 10.1097/00075197-200107000-00010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Food intake and eating patterns, body functions and composition are significantly altered by short-duration space flight. Prolonged missions lasting weeks or months further aggravate these changes, and are responsible for acute or chronic physical impairments at return to ground conditions. Current projects of missions to Mars, resulting in 2 years of microgravity conditions, stress the critical need for the development of optimal nutritional programs and physical countermeasures to prevent body mass and function alterations. This review outlines ground models of microgravity simulation, summarizes the major effects of weightlessness on body composition, protein metabolism, hormonal pattern, and muscle function, and addresses contradictory findings related to the oxidative stress secondary to space flight. Potential countermeasures, such as nutrient intake and physical conditioning, as well as areas of interest for future research both in ground and space medicine, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Maillet
- Biotechnology Topical Team about Nutrition of the European Space Agency, Clinique Spatiale, MEDES, CHU Rangueil, Toulouse Cedex 4, France
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28
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Hughes JH, Long JP. Simulated microgravity impairs respiratory burst activity in human promyelocytic cells. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2001; 37:209-15. [PMID: 11409685 DOI: 10.1007/bf02577531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The concept of microgravity (free-fall) influencing cellular functions in nonadherent cells has not been a part of mainstream scientific thought. Utilizing rotating wall vessels (RWVs) to generate simulated microgravity conditions, we found that respiratory burst activity was significantly altered in nonadherent promyelocytic (HL-60) cells. Specifically, HL-60 cells in simulated microgravity for 6, 19, 42, 47, and 49 d had 3.8-fold fewer cells that were able to participate in respiratory burst activity than cells from 1 x g cultures (P = 0.0011, N = 5). The quantity of respiratory burst products from the cells in simulated microgravity was also significantly reduced. The fold increase over controls in mean fluorescence intensities for oxidative products from cells in microgravity was 1.1+/-0.1 versus 1.8+/-0.3 for cells at 1 x g (P = 0.013, N = 4). Furthermore, the kinetic response for phorbol ester-stimulated burst activity was affected by simulated microgravity. These results demonstrate that simulated microgravity alters an innate cellular function (burst activity). If respiratory burst activity is impaired by true microgravity, then recovery from infections during spaceflight could be delayed. Finally, RWVs provide an excellent model for investigating the mechanisms associated with microgravity-induced changes in nonadherent cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Hughes
- Department of Molecular Virology, The Ohio State University, Columbus 43210, USA.
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Abstract
Human lymphocytes flown on the Space Shuttle respond poorly to mitogen stimulation and populations of the lymphoblastoid T cell line, Jurkat, manifest growth arrest, increase in apoptosis and time- and microgravity-dependent increases in the soluble form of the cell death factor, Fas/APO-1 (sFas). The potential role of apoptosis in population dynamics of space-flown lymphocytes has not been investigated previously. We flew Jurkat cells on Space Transportation System (STS)-80 and STS-95 to determine whether apoptosis and the apparent microgravity-related release of sFas are characteristic of lymphocytes in microgravity. The effects of spaceflight and ground-based tests simulating spaceflight experimental conditions, including high cell density and low serum concentration, were assessed. Immunofluorescence microscopy showed increased cell associated Fas in flown cells. Results of STS-80 and STS-95 confirmed increase in apoptosis during spaceflight and the release of sFas as a repeatable, time-dependent and microgravity-related response. Ground-based tests showed that holding cells at 1.5 million/ml in medium containing 2% serum before launch did not increase sFas. Reports of increased Fas in cells of the elderly and the increases in spaceflown cells suggest possible similarities between aging and spaceflight effects on lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Cubano
- Department of Biological Sciences and Microgravity Biotechnology Laboratory, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Wilson Hall Room 360, Huntsville, AL 35899, USA
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