Bone sarcomas linked to radiotherapy and chemotherapy in children

Osteosarcoma in Pediatric and Adult Populations: Are Adults Just Big Kids?

Malignant bone tumors are commonly classified as pediatric or adolescent malignancies, and clinical trials for these diseases have generally focused on these populations. Of primary bone cancers, osteosarcoma is among the most common. Osteosarcoma has a bimodal age distribution, with the first peak occurring in patients from 10 to 14 years old, and the second peak occurring in patients older than 65, with about 25% of cases occurring in adults between 20 and 59 years old. Notably, adult osteosarcoma patients have worse outcomes than their pediatric counterparts. It remains unclear whether age itself is a poor prognostic factor, or if inherent differences in tumor biology exist between age groups. Despite these unknowns, current treatment strategies for adults are largely extrapolated from pediatric studies since the majority of clinical trials for osteosarcoma treatments are based on younger patient populations. In light of the different prognoses observed in pediatric and adult osteosarcoma, we summarize the current understanding of the molecular etiology of osteosarcoma and how it may differ between age groups, hypothesizing why adult patients have worse outcomes compared to children.

Eugenol: In Vitro and In Ovo Assessment to Explore Cytotoxic Effects on Osteosarcoma and Oropharyngeal Cancer Cells

Cancer is a significant health problem worldwide; consequently, new therapeutic alternatives are being investigated, including those found in the vegetable kingdom. Eugenol (Eug) has attracted attention for its therapeutic properties, especially in stomatology. The purpose of this study was to investigate the cytotoxicity of Eug, in vitro, on osteosarcoma (SAOS-2) and oropharyngeal squamous cancer (Detroit-562) cells, as well as its potential irritant effect in ovo at the level of the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM). The data obtained following a 72 h Eug treatment highlighted the reduction in cell viability up to 41% in SAOS-2 cells and up to 37% in Detroit-562 cells, respectively. The apoptotic-like effect of Eug was indicated by the changes in cell morphology and nuclear aspect; the increase in caspase-3/7, -8 and -9 activity; the elevated expression of Bax and Bad genes; and the increase in luminescence signal (indicating phosphatidylserine externalization) that preceded the increase in fluorescence signal (indicating the compromise of membrane integrity). Regarding the vascular effects, slight signs of coagulation and vascular lysis were observed, with an irritation score of 1.69 for Eug 1 mM. Based on these results, the efficiency of Eug in cancer treatment is yet to be clarified.

Risk Factors for Primary Bone Cancer After Childhood Cancer: A PanCare Childhood and Adolescent Cancer Survivor Care and Follow-Up Studies Nested Case-Control Study

PURPOSE

Radiation to the bone and exposure to alkylating agents increases the risk of bone cancer among survivors of childhood cancer, but there is uncertainty regarding the risks of bone tissue radiation doses below 10 Gy and the dose-response relationship for specific types of chemotherapy.

METHODS

Twelve European countries contributed 228 cases and 228 matched controls to a nested case-control study within a cohort of 69,460 5-year survivors of childhood cancer. Odds ratios (ORs) of developing bone cancer for different levels of cumulative radiation exposure and cumulative doses of specific types of chemotherapy were calculated. Excess ORs were calculated to investigate the shape and extent of any dose-response relationship.

RESULTS

The OR associated with bone tissue exposed to 1-4 Gy was 4.8-fold (95% CI, 1.2 to 19.6) and to 5-9 Gy was 9.6-fold (95% CI, 2.4 to 37.4) compared with unexposed bone tissue. The OR increased linearly with increasing dose of radiation (Ptrend < .001) up to 78-fold (95% CI, 9.2 to 669.9) for doses of ≥40 Gy. For cumulative alkylating agent doses of 10,000-19,999 and ≥20,000 mg/m2, the radiation-adjusted ORs were 7.1 (95% CI, 2.2 to 22.8) and 8.3 (95% CI, 2.8 to 24.4), respectively, with independent contributions from each of procarbazine, ifosfamide, and cyclophosphamide. Other cytotoxics were not associated with bone cancer.

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge, we demonstrate-for the first time-that the risk of bone cancer is increased 5- to 10-fold after exposure of bone tissue to cumulative radiation doses of 1-9 Gy. Alkylating agents exceeding 10,000 mg/m2 increase the risk 7- to 8-fold, particularly following procarbazine, ifosfamide, and cyclophosphamide. These substantially elevated risks should be used to develop/update clinical follow-up guidelines and survivorship care plans.

Osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma is the most common primary malignant tumour of the bone. Osteosarcoma incidence is bimodal, peaking at 18 and 60 years of age, and is slightly more common in males. The key pathophysiological mechanism involves several possible genetic drivers of disease linked to bone formation, causing malignant progression and metastasis. While there have been significant improvements in the outcome of patients with localized disease, with event-free survival outcomes exceeding 60%, in patients with metastatic disease, event-free survival outcomes remain poor at less than 30%. The suspicion of osteosarcoma based on radiographs still requires pathological evaluation of a bone biopsy specimen for definitive diagnosis and CT imaging of the chest should be performed to identify lung nodules. So far, population-based screening and surveillance strategies have not been implemented due to the rarity of osteosarcoma and the lack of reliable markers. Current screening focuses only on groups at high risk such as patients with genetic cancer predisposition syndromes. Management of osteosarcoma requires a multidisciplinary team of paediatric and medical oncologists, orthopaedic and general surgeons, pathologists, radiologists and specialist nurses. Survivors of osteosarcoma require specialized medical follow-up, as curative treatment consisting of chemotherapy and surgery has long-term adverse effects, which also affect the quality of life of patients. The development of osteosarcoma model systems and related research as well as the evaluation of new treatment approaches are ongoing to improve disease outcomes, especially for patients with metastases.

Secondary Malignancies after Ewing Sarcoma-Epidemiological and Clinical Analysis of an International Trial Registry

Ewing sarcoma (EwS) represents highly aggressive bone and soft tissue tumors that require intensive treatment by multi-chemotherapy, surgery and/or radiotherapy. While therapeutic regimens have increased survival rates, EwS survivors face long-term sequelae that include secondary malignant neoplasms (SMNs). Consequently, more knowledge about EwS patients who develop SMNs is needed to identify high-risk patients and adjust follow-up strategies. We retrospectively analyzed data from 4518 EwS patients treated in five consecutive EwS trials from the Cooperative Ewing Sarcoma Study (CESS) group. Ninety-six patients developed SMNs after primary EwS, including 53 (55.2%) with solid tumors. The latency period between EwS and the first SMN was significantly longer for the development of solid SMNs (median: 8.4 years) than for hematologic SMNs (median: 2.4 years) (p < 0.001). The cumulative incidence (CI) of SMNs in general increased over time from 0.04 at 10 years to 0.14 at 30 years; notably, the specific CI for hematologic SMNs remained stable over the different decades, whereas for solid SMNs it gradually increased over time and was higher for metastatic patients than in localized EwS patients (20 years: 0.14 vs. 0.06; p < 0.01). The clinical characteristics of primary EwS did not differ between patients with or without SMNs. All EwS patients received multi-chemotherapy with adjuvant radiotherapy in 77 of 96 (80.2%) patients, and the use of radiation doses ≥ 60 Gy correlated with the occurrence of SMNs. The survival rate after SMNs was 0.49, with a significantly better outcome for solid SMNs compared with hematologic SMNs (3 years: 0.70 vs. 0.24, respectively; p < 0.001). The occurrence of SMNs after EwS remains a rare event but requires a structured follow-up system because it is associated with high morbidity and mortality.

Towards the Search for Potential Biomarkers in Osteosarcoma: State-of-the-Art and Translational Expectations

Osteosarcoma represents a rare cause of cancer in the general population, accounting for <1% of malignant neoplasms globally. Nonetheless, it represents the main cause of malignant bone neoplasm in children, adolescents and young adults under 20 years of age. It also presents another peak of incidence in people over 50 years of age and is associated with rheumatic diseases. Numerous environmental risk factors, such as bone diseases, genetics and a history of previous neoplasms, have been widely described in the literature, which allows monitoring a certain group of patients. Diagnosis requires numerous imaging tests that make it possible to stratify both the local involvement of the disease and its distant spread, which ominously determines the prognosis. Thanks to various clinical trials, the usefulness of different chemotherapy regimens, radiotherapy and surgical techniques with radical intent has now been demonstrated; these represent improvements in both prognosis and therapeutic approaches. Osteosarcoma patients should be evaluated in reference centres by multidisciplinary committees with extensive experience in proper management. Although numerous genetic and rheumatological diseases and risk factors have been described, the use of serological, genetic or other biomarkers has been limited in clinical practice compared to other neoplasms. This limits both the initial follow-up of these patients and screening in populations at risk. In addition, we cannot forget that the diagnosis is mainly based on the direct biopsy of the lesion and imaging tests, which illustrates the need to study new diagnostic alternatives. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to review the natural history of the disease and describe the main biomarkers, explaining their clinical uses, prognosis and limitations.

The risk of cancer following high, and very high, doses of ionising radiation

It is established that moderate-to-high doses of ionising radiation increase the risk of subsequent cancer in the exposed individual, but the question arises as to the risk of cancer from higher doses, such as those delivered during radiotherapy, accidents, or deliberate acts of malice. In general, the cumulative dose received during a course of radiation treatment is sufficiently high that it would kill a person if delivered as a single dose to the whole body, but therapeutic doses are carefully fractionated and high/very high doses are generally limited to a small tissue volume under controlled conditions. The very high cumulative doses delivered as fractions during radiation treatment are designed to inactivate diseased cells, but inevitably some healthy cells will also receive high/very high doses. How the doses (ranging from <1 Gy to tens of Gy) received by healthy tissues during radiotherapy affect the risk of second primary cancer is an increasingly important issue to address as more cancer patients survive the disease. Studies show that, except for a turndown for thyroid cancer, a linear dose-response for second primary solid cancers seems to exist over a cumulative gamma radiation dose range of tens of gray, but with a gradient of excess relative risk per Gy that varies with the type of second cancer, and which is notably shallower than that found in the Japanese atomic bomb survivors receiving a single moderate-to-high acute dose. The risk of second primary cancer consequent to high/very high doses of radiation is likely to be due to repopulation of heavily irradiated tissues by surviving stem cells, some of which will have been malignantly transformed by radiation exposure, although the exact mechanism is not known, and various models have been proposed. It is important to understand the mechanisms that lead to the raised risk of second primary cancers consequent to the receipt of high/very high doses, in particular so that the risks associated with novel radiation treatment regimens-for example, intensity modulated radiotherapy and volumetric modulated arc therapy that deliver high doses to the target volume while exposing relatively large volumes of healthy tissue to low/moderate doses, and treatments using protons or heavy ions rather than photons-may be properly assessed.

Effects of Radiation Therapy and Chemotherapy on the Musculoskeletal System

The effects of radiation and chemotherapy on the musculoskeletal (MSK) system are diverse, and interpretation may be challenging. The different lines of treatment have effects on diseased and normal marrow, and they may lead to complications that must be differentiated from recurrence or progression. This review analyzes the changes induced by radiotherapy and chemotherapy in the MSK system in the adult and pediatric population, and the expected associated imaging findings. Treatments are often combined, so the effects may blend. Awareness of the spectrum of changes, complications, and their imaging appearances is paramount for the correct diagnosis. The assessment of body composition during and after treatment allows potential interventions to implement long-term outcomes and personalize treatments. Imaging techniques such as computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging provide information on body composition that can be incorporated into clinical pathways. We also address future perspectives in posttreatment assessment.

Clinical and Molecular Insights of Radiation-Induced Breast Sarcomas: Is There Hope on the Horizon for Effective Treatment of This Aggressive Disease?

Radiation-induced breast sarcomas (RIBS) are rare entities representing <1% of all primary breast malignancies, limiting most reports to small retrospective case series. They constitute a heterogeneous group of neoplasms, with high-grade angiosarcoma being the most common subtype. Other sarcoma histotypes, such as undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma and leiomyosarcoma, can also be identified. Radiation-induced breast angiosarcoma (RIBA) has an incidence of approximately 0.1% after breast-conserving therapy and arises mainly from the dermis of the irradiated breast. MYC gene amplification is highly indicative of secondary breast angiosarcomas. Their clinical presentation often mimics benign port-radiation lesions, leading to a delay in diagnosis and a lost window of opportunity for cure. Surgery with negative margins is the mainstay of treatment of localized RIBS. In the case of angiosarcoma, technical difficulties, including multifocality, infiltrative margins, and difficulty in assessing tumor margins, render surgical treatment quite challenging. A limited number of studies showed that adjuvant radiation therapy reduces local recurrences; therefore, it is proposed by many groups for large, high-grade tumors. Chemotherapy has been evaluated retrospectively in a small subset of patients, with some evidence supporting its use in angiosarcoma patients. Approximately half of patients with RIBA will show local recurrence. In the advanced setting, different therapeutic options are discussed in the review, including chemotherapy, antiangiogenic therapy, and immunotherapy, whereas the need for further research on molecular therapeutic targets is pointed out.

Brachytherapy in children, adolescents, and young adults: An underutilized modality in the United States?

BACKGROUND

Brachytherapy (BT) delivers highly conformal radiation and spares surrounding tissues, which may limit late effects in pediatric, adolescent, and young adult (AYA) patients. We aimed to characterize trends in BT use for this population in the United States, focusing on patients with rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS).

METHODS

The National Cancer Database was queried to identify patients ≤ 21 who were treated for solid tumor malignancies in the United States from 2004 to 2016. We obtained disease, treatment, and outcome data for patients treated with BT, in particular for RMS.

RESULTS

99 506 pediatric and AYA patients met study inclusion. Of these, 22 586 (23%) received radiation therapy (external beam radiation therapy [EBRT] and/or BT) and 240 (0.2%) received BT. Among patients treated with BT, 139 (58%) underwent surgery and 58 (24%) received EBRT. A total of 3836 patients were treated for RMS during this period. Of these, 2531 (66%) received any radiation and 37 (1%) received BT (EBRT + BT in 3, BT in 34). Of patients treated with BT for RMS, 28 (76%) underwent surgery + BT. Survival data were available for 31 patients treated with BT for RMS. With a median follow-up of 63 months, overall survival was 100% for patients with RMS of a favorable site treated with BT.

CONCLUSIONS

BT is rarely used to treat pediatric and AYA patients in the United States. Patients treated with BT for RMS experienced favorable survival, suggesting that this approach may not compromise oncologic outcomes and warrants further study as a therapeutic option in pediatric and AYA patients, specifically in RMS.

Comparing efficacy and side effects of two systemic chemotherapy regimens for eye-preserving therapy in children with retinoblastoma

BACKGROUND

Eye-preserving therapy in retinoblastoma comprises systemic chemotherapy, but studies analyzing the efficacy of different chemotherapy regimens are scarce.

METHODS

The efficacy and side effects of two different eye-preserving chemotherapy regimens containing either vincristine, etoposide, and carboplatin (VEC) or cyclophosphamide, vincristine, etoposide, and carboplatin (CyVEC) were compared in a prospective non-interventional observational study including children diagnosed with retinoblastoma between 2013 and 2019 in Germany and Austria. Event-free eye survival (EFES) and overall eye survival (OES) of all 164 eyes treated with both regimens and risk factors were investigated.

RESULTS

The EFES after VEC (2-year EFES 72.3%) was higher than after CyVEC (2-year EFES 50.4%) (p_logrank  < .001). The OES did not differ significantly between the two treatment groups (p_logrank  = .77; 2-year OES VEC: 82.1% vs. CyVEC: 84.8%). Advanced International Classification of Retinoblastoma (ICRB) group was prognostic for a lower EFES (p_logrank  < .0001; 2-year EFES ICRB A/B/C 71.3% vs. ICRB D/E 43.0%) and OES (p_logrank  < .0001; 2-year OES ICRB A/B/C 93.1% vs. ICRB D/E 61.5%). The multivariate analysis showed that age at diagnosis older than 12 months and ICRB A/B/C were associated with better EFES. No second malignancies or ototoxicities were reported after a follow-up of median 3.1 years after diagnosis of retinoblastoma (range 0.1-6.9 years).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite omitting cyclophosphamide, the EFES was higher after VEC chemotherapy that contains higher doses of carboplatin compared to CyVEC. The major risk factor for enucleation was advanced ICRB tumor grouping. Randomized clinical trials on efficacy and side effects of eye-preserving chemotherapy are required to tailor treatment protocols for retinoblastoma patients.

Osteosarcoma from the unknown to the use of exosomes as a versatile and dynamic therapeutic approach

The most common primary malignant tumor of bone in children is osteosarcoma (OS). Nowadays, the prognosis and the introduction of chemotherapy in OS have improved survival rates of patients. Nevertheless, the results are still unsatisfactory, especially, in patients with recurrent disease or metastatic. OS chemotherapy has two main challenges related to treatment toxicity and multiple drug resistance. In this way, nanotechnology has developed nanosystems capable of releasing the drug directly at the OS cells and decreasing the drug's toxicity. Exosomes (Exo), a cell-derived nano-sized and a phospholipid vehicle, have been recognized as important drug delivery systems in several cancers. They are involved in a variety of biological processes and are an important mediator of long-distance intercellular communication. Exo can reduce inflammation and show low toxicity in healthy cells. Furthermore, the incorporation of specific proteins or peptides on the Exo surface improves their targeting capability in several clinical applications. Due to their unique structure and relevant characteristics, Exo is a promising nanocarrier for OS treatment. This review intends to describe the properties that turn Exo into an efficient, as well as safe nanovesicle for drug delivery and treatment of OS.

Antitumor Effect of Sclerostin against Osteosarcoma

Simple Summary

Osteosarcoma is highly variable and heterogeneous, which is one of the reasons for its resistance to treatment. Because osteosarcoma is defined by abnormal bone formation, we hypothesize its suppression could lead to effective treatment for all types of osteosarcomas. Sclerostin is secreted by osteocytes and inhibits the canonical pathway by binding to LRP5/6, thereby suppressing bone formation. The resulting suppression of bone formation leads to bone loss and osteoporosis. Here, we investigated the antitumor effect of sclerostin against osteosarcoma and found that sclerostin suppressed the proliferative capacity and migratory ability of osteosarcoma cells.

Abstract

Various risk factors and causative genes of osteosarcoma have been reported in the literature; however, its etiology remains largely unknown. Bone formation is a shared phenomenon in all types of osteosarcomas, and sclerostin is an extracellular soluble factor secreted by osteocytes that prevents bone formation by inhibiting the Wnt signaling pathway. We aimed to investigate the antitumor effect of sclerostin against osteosarcoma. Osteosarcoma model mice were prepared by transplantation into the dorsal region of C3H/He and BALB/c-nu/nu mice using osteosarcoma cell lines LM8 (murine) and 143B (human), respectively. Cell proliferations were evaluated by using alamarBlue and scratch assays. The migratory ability of the cells was evaluated using a migration assay. Sclerostin was injected intraperitoneally for 7 days to examine the suppression of tumor size and extension of survival. The administration of sclerostin to osteosarcoma cells significantly inhibited the growth and migratory ability of osteosarcoma cells. Kaplan–Meier curves and survival data demonstrated that sclerostin significantly inhibited tumor growth and improved survival. Sclerostin suppressed the proliferative capacity and migratory ability of osteosarcoma cells. Osteosarcoma model mice inhibited tumor growth and prolonged survival periods by the administration of sclerostin. The effect of existing anticancer drugs such as doxorubicin should be investigated for future clinical applications.

Imaging of Complications of Chemoradiation

Chemoradiation for head and neck cancer is associated with a variety of early and late complications. Toxicities may affect the aero-digestive tract (mucositis, salivary gland injury), regional osseous and cartilaginous structures (osteoradionecrosis (ORN) and chondronecrosis), vasculature (progressive radiation vasculopathy and carotid blow out syndromes), and neural structures (optic neuritis, myelitis, and brain injury). These may be difficult to distinguish from tumor recurrence on imaging, and may necessitate the use of advanced MRI and molecular imaging techniques to reach the correct diagnosis. Secondary radiation-induced malignancies include thyroid cancer and a variety of sarcomas that may manifest several years after treatment. Checkpoint inhibitors can cause a variety of adverse immune events, including autoimmune hypophysitis and encephalitis.

Identification of Genetic Predispositions Related to Ionizing Radiation in Primary Human Skin Fibroblasts From Survivors of Childhood and Second Primary Cancer as Well as Cancer-Free Controls: Protocol for the Nested Case-Control Study KiKme

BACKGROUND

Therapy for a first primary neoplasm (FPN) in childhood with high doses of ionizing radiation is an established risk factor for second primary neoplasms (SPN). An association between exposure to low doses and childhood cancer is also suggested; however, results are inconsistent. As only subgroups of children with FPNs develop SPNs, an interaction between radiation, genetic, and other risk factors is presumed to influence cancer development.

OBJECTIVE

Therefore, the population-based, nested case-control study KiKme aims to identify differences in genetic predisposition and radiation response between childhood cancer survivors with and without SPNs as well as cancer-free controls.

METHODS

We conducted a population-based, nested case-control study KiKme. Besides questionnaire information, skin biopsies and saliva samples are available. By measuring individual reactions to different exposures to radiation (eg, 0.05 and 2 Gray) in normal somatic cells of the same person, our design enables us to create several exposure scenarios for the same person simultaneously and measure several different molecular markers (eg, DNA, messenger RNA, long noncoding RNA, copy number variation).

RESULTS

Since 2013, 101 of 247 invited SPN patients, 340 of 1729 invited FPN patients, and 150 of 246 invited cancer-free controls were recruited and matched by age and sex. Childhood cancer patients were additionally matched by tumor morphology, year of diagnosis, and age at diagnosis. Participants reported on lifestyle, socioeconomical, and anthropometric factors, as well as on medical radiation history, health, and family history of diseases (n=556). Primary human fibroblasts from skin biopsies of the participants were cultivated (n=499) and cryopreserved (n=3886). DNA was extracted from fibroblasts (n=488) and saliva (n=510).

CONCLUSIONS

This molecular-epidemiological study is the first to combine observational epidemiological research with standardized experimental components in primary human skin fibroblasts to identify genetic predispositions related to ionizing radiation in childhood and SPNs. In the future, fibroblasts of the participants will be used for standardized irradiation experiments, which will inform analysis of the case-control study and vice versa. Differences between participants will be identified using several molecular markers. With its innovative combination of experimental and observational components, this new study will provide valuable data to forward research on radiation-related risk factors in childhood cancer and SPNs.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/32395.

Total body irradiation as part of conditioning regimens in childhood leukemia-long-term outcome, toxicity, and secondary malignancies

Background

Total body irradiation (TBI) is an established part of conditioning regimens prior to stem cell transplantation in childhood leukemia but is associated with long-term toxicity. We retrospectively analyzed survival, long-term toxicity, and secondary malignancies in a pooled cohort of pediatric patients (pts.) treated with the same TBI regimen.

Methods

Analyzed were 109 pts. treated between September 1996 and November 2015. Conditioning treatment according to EBMT guidelines and the ALL SCTped 2012 FORUM trial consisted of chemotherapy (CT) and TBI with 2 Gy b.i.d. on 3 consecutive days to a total dose of 12 Gy. Median follow-up was 97.9 months (2–228 months).

Results

Overall survival (OS) in our cohort at 2, 5, and 10 years was 86.1, 75.5, and 63.0%, respectively. Median survival was not reached. Long-term toxicity developed in 47 pts. After chronically abnormal liver and kidney parameters in 31 and 7 pts., respectively, growth retardation was the most frequent finding as seen in 13 pts. Secondary malignancies were rare (n = 3).

Conclusion

TBI-containing conditioning regimens in pediatric stem cell transplantation (SCT) are highly effective. Efforts to replace TBI- with CT-containing regimens have only been successful in subgroups of pts. Although we could show long-term toxicity in 43% of pts., overall survival was 63% at 10 years. Still, long-term effects such as growth retardation can permanently impact the pts.’ quality of life and functioning. Along with new substances, efforts should be undertaken to optimize TBI techniques and accompany the treatment by systematic follow-up programs beyond 5 years to improve detection of rare events.

Childhood Cancer: Occurrence, Treatment and Risk of Second Primary Malignancies

Cancer represents the leading cause of disease-related death and treatment-associated morbidity in children with an increasing trend in recent decades worldwide. Nevertheless, the 5-year survival of childhood cancer patients has been raised impressively to more than 80% during the past decades, primarily attributed to improved diagnostic technologies and multiagent cytotoxic regimens. This strong benefit of more efficient tumor control and prolonged survival is compromised by an increased risk of adverse and fatal late sequelae. Long-term survivors of pediatric tumors are at the utmost risk for non-carcinogenic late effects such as cardiomyopathies, neurotoxicity, or pneumopathies, as well as the development of secondary primary malignancies as the most detrimental consequence of genotoxic chemo- and radiotherapy. Promising approaches to reducing the risk of adverse late effects in childhood cancer survivors include high precision irradiation techniques like proton radiotherapy or non-genotoxic targeted therapies and immune-based treatments. However, to date, these therapies are rarely used to treat pediatric cancer patients and survival rates, as well as incidences of late effects, have changed little over the past two decades in this population. Here we provide an overview of the epidemiology and etiology of childhood cancers, current developments for their treatment, and therapy-related adverse late health consequences with a special focus on second primary malignancies.

Impact of lifetime attributable risk of radiation-induced secondary cancer in proton craniospinal irradiation with vertebral-body-sparing for young pediatric patients with medulloblastoma

We used the method proposed by Schneider et al. Theor Biol Med Model 2011;8:27, to clarify how the radiation-induced secondary cancer incidence rate changes in patients after proton craniospinal irradiation (CSI) without and with vertebral-body-sparing (VBS). Eight patients aged 3-15 years who underwent proton CSI were enrolled in the study. For each case, two types of plan without and with VBS in the target were compared. The prescribed doses were assumed to be 23.4 Gy relative biological effectiveness (RBE) and 36 Gy (RBE). Using the dose-volume histograms of the two plans, the lifetime attributable risk (LAR) was calculated by both methods for each patient based on the dose data calculated using an XiO-M treatment planning system. Eight organs were analyzed as follows: lung, colon, stomach, small intestine, liver, bladder, thyroid and bone. When the prescribed dose used was 23.4 Gy (RBE), the average LAR differences and the average number needed to treat (NNT) between proton CSI without and with VBS were 4.04 and 24.8, respectively, whereas the average LAR difference and the average NNT were larger at 8.65 and 11.6, respectively, when the prescribed dose of 36 Gy (RBE) was used. The LAR for radiation-induced secondary cancer was significantly lower in proton CSI with VBS than without VBS in pediatric patients, especially for the colon, lung, stomach and thyroid. The results of this study could serve as reference data when considering how much of vertebral bodies should be included when performing proton CSI according to age in clinical settings.

Current Status of Management and Outcome for Patients with Ewing Sarcoma

Ewing sarcoma is the second most common bone sarcoma in children after osteosarcoma. It is a very aggressive malignancy for which systemic treatment has greatly improved outcome for patients with localized disease, who now see survival rates of over 70%. However, for the quarter of patients presenting with metastatic disease, survival is still dismal with less than 30% of patients surviving past 5 years. Patients with disease relapse, local or distant, face an even poorer prognosis with an event-free 5-year survival rate of only 10%. Unfortunately, Ewing sarcoma patients have not yet seen the benefit of recent years' technical achievements such as next-generation sequencing, which have enabled researchers to study biological systems at a level never seen before. In spite of large multinational studies, treatment of Ewing sarcoma relies entirely on chemotherapeutic agents that have been largely unchanged for decades. As many promising modern therapies, including monoclonal antibodies, small molecules, and immunotherapy, have been disappointing to date, there is no clear candidate as to which drug should be investigated in the next large-scale clinical trial. However, the mechanisms driving tumor development in Ewing sarcoma are slowly unfolding. New entities of Ewing-like tumors, with fusion transcripts that are related to the oncogenic EWSR1-FLI1 fusion seen in the majority of Ewing tumors, are being mapped. These tumors, although sharing much of the same morphologic features as classic Ewing sarcoma, behave differently and may require a different treatment. There are also controversies regarding local treatment of Ewing sarcoma. The radiosensitive nature of the disease and the tendency for Ewing sarcoma to arise in the axial skeleton make local treatment very challenging. Surgical treatment and radiotherapy have their pros and cons, which may give rise to different treatment strategies in different centers around the world. This review article discusses some of these controversies and reproduces the highlights from recent publications with regard to diagnostics, systemic treatment, and surgical treatment of Ewing sarcoma.

Subsequent Malignant Neoplasms in Retinoblastoma Survivors

Retinoblastoma (Rb) is a pediatric malignant eye tumor. Subsequent malignant neoplasms (SMNs) and trilateral Rb (TRb) are the leading cause of death in heritable Rb patients in developed countries. The high rate of SMNs in heritable Rb patients is attributed to the presence of a mutation in the RB1 tumor suppressor gene. In addition, Rb therapy choices also influence SMN incidence in this patient group. The incidence rates and age of occurrence for the most frequent SMNs and TRb will be discussed. In addition, the impact of genetic predisposition and Rb treatments on the development of SMNs will be evaluated. Furthermore, screening and other prevention methods will be reviewed.

Incidence of radiation induced sarcoma attributable to radiotherapy in adults: A retrospective cohort study in the SEER cancer registries across 17 primary tumor sites

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have noted the incidence of radiation-induced sarcomas (RIS) but have not investigated the relative risk (RR) of developing RIS based on primary tumor organ disease site. By examining data from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database, we hypothesized that breast cancer would have a higher incidence of RIS compared to seventeen other primary cancer sites.

METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort study that examined patients from SEER registries between 1973 and 2013. We included patients aged 18 years or older who were diagnosed with cancer and those diagnosed with a cancer who subsequently developed a sarcoma. We excluded patients with missing information on initial radiotherapy treatment or stage. RIS was defined as those who developed a secondary sarcoma near the site of their original malignancy and after a 24-month latency period.

RESULTS

Our patients had a mean age of 60 years and follow up time of 9.2 years. Breast cancer comprised the majority with 693,701(36.8%) patients of which 161 (0.02%) had a secondary sarcoma. Of the 359 patients with secondary sarcomas, 242 (67.4%) had RIS. Breast cancer had the highest number of RIS patients at 126 compared to all combined non-breast cancer sites at 116. The RR of RIS in breast cancer versus 19 other primary cancer sites was 1.21 (CI: 1.01-1.45, p < 0.03, adjusted for age at primary diagnosis, gender, and latency).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrated that breast cancer has a higher risk of developing RIS compared to other solid cancers.

Sarcomas of the sellar region: a systematic review

PURPOSE AND METHODS

Sarcomas of the sellar region are uncommon and unexpected tumors. Here, we review the cases reported in literature via a systematic search.

RESULTS

Ninety-four patients, 58.5% male with mean age of 39.2 ± 17.2 years were included. Fifty-seven (62%) had soft tissue sarcomas (STS) and 35 (38%) bone sarcomas (BS). Sarcoma was a primary tumor in 66%, developed after radiotherapy in 31.9% and 7.4% were metastatic. Median time between radiotherapy and sarcoma development was 10.5 (11) years. Main presentation symptoms were visual disorders (87.9%), headache (61.5%) and III cranial nerve palsy (24.1%). After surgery, sarcoma persisted or recurred in 82.3% and overall mortality reported was 44.6% with 6.5 (14) months of median survival. Tumor appeared earlier in BS compared to STS (34.4 ± 15.1 vs. 42.6 ± 17.6 years), p = 0.034 and complete tumor resection was achieved more often (41.3% vs. 4.4%), p =  < 0.001. Condrosarcoma and rhabdomyosarcoma were more frequent subtypes among primary tumors while fibrosarcoma was among post-radiation sarcomas. Tumor size was larger in radiation associated sarcomas (mean maximum diameter 46.3 ± 9.3 vs. 29.1 ± 8.0 mm, p = 0.004) and persistency/recurrence was similar in both groups (70.1 vs. 73.3%, p = 0.259).

CONCLUSION

Sarcomas appear as mass effect symptoms in the middle aged population, mainly as primary tumors, but one third is associated with radiotherapy. Surgery is commonly not curative, mortality rate is high and death ensues shortly after diagnosis.

A predictive model for chemotherapy-related diminished ovarian reserve in reproductive-age women

OBJECTIVE

To develop and internally validate a clinical predictive tool to assess the likelihood that a young cancer patient will experience diminished ovarian reserve (DOR) after chemotherapy.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING

University hospitals.

PATIENT(S)

Postpubertal adolescent and young adult women with a new diagnosis of cancer requiring chemotherapy.

INTERVENTION

None.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Diminished ovarian reserve after completion of and recovery from chemotherapy, defined as serum antimüllerian hormone (AMH) <1 ng/mL at 8-24 months after completion of chemotherapy.

RESULT(S)

A multivariable logistic regression model which includes age, cancer type, exposure to an alkylating agent, and baseline AMH value accurately predicts the diagnosis of DOR after chemotherapy with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.89.

CONCLUSION(S)

Pretreatment information on age, cancer type, use of an alkylating agent, and baseline AMH levels make up a clinically useful predictive tool to identify which women are most at risk for DOR caused by chemotherapy.

Subsequent Primary Neoplasms: Risks, Risk Factors, Surveillance, and Future Research

The authors' objective is to provide a brief update on recent advances in knowledge relating to subsequent primary neoplasms developing in survivors of childhood cancer. This includes a summary of established large-scale cohorts, risks reported, and contrasts with results from recently established large-scale cohorts of survivors of adolescent and young adult cancer. Recent evidence is summarized concerning the role of radiotherapy and chemotherapy for childhood cancer and survivor genomics in determining the risk of subsequent primary neoplasms. Progress with surveillance, screening, and clinical follow-up guidelines is addressed. Finally, priorities for future research are outlined.

Will Next-Generation Immunotherapy Overcome the Intrinsic Diversity and Low Immunogenicity of Sarcomas to Improve Clinical Benefit?

Sarcomas are a rare type of a heterogeneous group of tumours arising from mesenchymal cells that form connective tissues. Surgery is the most common treatment for these tumours, but additional neoadjuvant or adjuvant chemotherapy or radiation therapies may be necessary. Unfortunately, a significant proportion of patients treated with conventional therapies will develop metastatic disease that is resistant to therapies. Currently, there is an urgent need to develop more effective and durable therapies for the treatment of sarcomas. In recent years immunotherapies have revolutionised the treatment of a variety of cancers by restoring patient anti-tumour immune responses or through the adoptive infusion of immune effectors able to kill and eliminate malignant cells. The clinicopathologic and genetic heterogeneity of sarcomas, together with the generally low burden of somatic mutations potentially generating neoantigens, are currently limited to broad application of immunotherapy for patients with sarcomas. Nevertheless, a better understanding of the microenvironmental factors hampering the efficacy of immunotherapy and the identification of new and suitable therapeutic targets may help to overcome current limitations. Moreover, the recent advances in the development of immunotherapies based on the direct exploitation or targeting of T cells and/or NK cells may offer new opportunities to improve the treatment of sarcomas, particularly those showing recurrence or resistance to standard of care treatments.

Assessment of Secondary Sarcomas Among Patients With Cancer of the Abdomen or Pelvis Who Received Combinations of Surgery, Radiation, and Chemotherapy vs Surgery Alone

IMPORTANCE

The association of radiation and chemotherapy with the development of secondary sarcoma is known, but the contemporary risk has not been well characterized for patients with cancers of the abdomen and pelvis.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the risk of secondary sarcoma among patients treated with combinations of surgery, radiation, or chemotherapy with patients treated with surgery alone and the general population.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This population-based cohort study included 173 580 patients in Ontario, Canada, with nonmetastatic cancer of the prostate, bladder, colon, rectum or anus, cervix, uterus, or testis. Patients were enrolled from January 1, 2002, to January 31, 2017. Data analysis was conducted from March 1, 2019, to January 31, 2020.

EXPOSURES

Treatment combinations of radiation, chemotherapy, and surgery.

MAIN OUTCOME AND MEASURES

Diagnosis of sarcoma based on histologic codes from the Ontario Cancer Registry. Time to sarcoma was compared using a cause-specific proportional hazard model.

RESULTS

Of 173 580 patients, most were men (125 080 [72.1%]), and the largest group was aged between 60 and 69 years (58 346 [33.6%]). Most patients had genitourinary cancer (86 235 [51.4%]) or colorectal cancer (69 241 [39.9%]). Overall, 64 301 (37.1%) received surgery alone, 51 220 (29.5%) received radiation alone, 15 624 (9.0%) were treated with radiation and chemotherapy, 15 252 (8.8%) received radiation with surgery, and 11 822 (6.8%) received all 3 treatments. A total of 332 patients (0.2%) had sarcomas develop during a median (interquartile range) follow-up of 5.7 (2.2-8.9) years. The incidence of sarcoma was 0.3% among those who underwent radiation alone (138 of 51 220) and radiation with chemotherapy (40 of 15 624), 0.2% among those who received radiation and surgery (36 of 15 252) and all 3 modalities (25 of 11 822), and 0.1% among those who received surgery with chemotherapy (13 of 14 861) and surgery alone (80 of 64 801). Compared with a reference group of patients who had surgery alone, the greatest risk of sarcoma was found among patients who underwent a combination of radiation and chemotherapy (cause-specific relative hazard [csRH], 4.07; 95% CI, 2.75-6.01; P < .001), followed by patients who had radiation alone (csRH, 2.35; 95% CI, 1.77-3.12; P < .001), radiation with surgery (csRH, 2.33; 95% CI, 1.57-3.46; P < .001), and all 3 modalities (csRH, 2.27; 95% CI, 1.44-3.58; P < .001). In the general population, 7987 events occurred during 46 554 803 person-years (17.2 events per 100 000 person-years). The standardized incidence ratio for sarcoma among patients treated with radiation compared with the general population was 2.41 (95% CI, 1.57-3.69; 41.3 events per 100 000 person-years). The annual number of cases of sarcoma increased from 2009 (15 per 100 000 persons) to 2016 (32 per 100 000 persons), but the annual rate did not change during the study period.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this cohort study, patients treated with radiation or chemotherapy for abdominopelvic cancers had an increased rate of sarcoma. Although the absolute rate is low, patients and physicians should be aware of this increased risk of developing sarcoma.

A Case-Control Study of Fluoridation and Osteosarcoma

Public health policy decisions in the United States have resulted in 62.4% of the population having access to fluoridated water. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between community water fluoridation and osteosarcoma. A secondary data analysis was performed with data collected from 2 separate but linked studies. Patients for phase 1 and phase 2 were selected from US hospitals via a matched case-control study design. For both phases, cases included patients diagnosed with osteosarcoma, and controls were patients diagnosed with other bone tumors or nonneoplastic conditions. In phase 1, cases (n = 209) and controls (n = 440) were patients of record in the participating orthopedic departments from 1989 to 1993. In phase 2, cases (n = 108) and controls (n = 296) were incident patients who were identified and treated by orthopedic physicians from 1994 to 2000. This analysis included all patients who met eligibility criteria on whom we had complete data on covariates, exposures, and outcome. Conditional logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% CIs for the association of community water fluoridation with osteosarcoma. A modestly significant interaction existed between fluoridation living status and bottled water use (P = 0.047). The adjusted OR for osteosarcoma and ever having lived in a fluoridated area for nonbottled water drinkers was 0.51 (95% CI, 0.31 to 0.84; P = 0.008). In the same comparison, the adjusted OR for bottled water drinkers was 1.86 (95% CI, 0.54 to 6.41; P = 0.326). Findings from this study demonstrated that community water fluoridation is not associated with an increased risk for osteosarcoma.

Investigation of multiple primary cancers in patients with bone and soft tissue primary malignancies: A retrospective, institution-based study

In the aging society in Japan, the occurrence of multiple primary cancers has recently increased due to an increase in life expectancy and increased development in cancer diagnostic technology and improvement in treatment outcomes. However, few reports have focused on multiple primary cancers in patients with bone and soft tissue tumors. The present study aimed to analyze the clinical characteristics of patients with multiple malignancies of the bone and soft tissue. Between April 2008 and April 2017, among 973 patients treated at the Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Osaka City University Hospital, those with multiple primary cancers involving bone and soft tissue were identified. The number of cases with multiple cancers in the present study was 30/973 (3.08%), including 21 males and 9 females. The median age at diagnosis of patients with bone and soft tissue sarcoma was 73.5 years (range, 7-83 years). There were 22 patients with double cancers, and 5, 2 and 1 patients with triple, quadruple and quintuple cancers, respectively. Colorectal cancer was the most common primary cancer (n=9). In total, 28.6% of patients had simultaneous cancer, while 71.4% of patients had heterochronous cancer. The overall 5-year survival for all patients was 75.6%. The prognosis of patients with double cancer of bone and soft tissue sarcoma was not necessarily poor. However, it is necessary to pay attention to the possibility of secondary malignancy. Therefore, it is essential to be careful and well organized when selecting treatment modalities and to adopt a logistical approach for the care of patients with ongoing multiple malignancies.

Radiation-Induced Sarcoma After Heterotopic Ossification Prophylaxis: A Case Report

CASE

Heterotopic ossification (HO) is a pathological formation of bone in nonosseous tissue and is a common complication of orthopaedic procedures. Radiotherapy is often used to prevent HO despite the small risk of secondary malignancy. Here, we report a case of a patient who developed a periprosthetic, radiation-induced sarcoma after delivery of a single fraction of 7 Gy for HO prophylaxis. This sarcoma was found to lie entirely within the treatment field and occurred within 5 years of radiation.

CONCLUSION

Appropriate counseling regarding radiation-induced sarcoma formation should be provided to patients considering radiotherapy for this HO prophylaxis.

Sarcoma as Second Cancer in a Childhood Cancer Survivor: Case Report, Large Population Analysis and Literature Review

The majority of pediatric patients are cured of their primary cancer with current advanced developments in pediatric cancer therapy. However, survivors often experience long-term complications from therapies for primary cancer. The delayed mortality rate has been decreasing with the effort to reduce the therapeutic exposure of patients with pediatric cancers. Our study investigates the incidence of sarcoma as second cancer in pediatric cancer survivors. We present a 9-year-old male who survived embryonal hepatoblastoma diagnosed at 22 months of age. At 4.5 years of age, he presented with a non-metastatic primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET) of the left submandibular area. He has no evidence of recurrence of either cancer for 51 months after finishing all chemotherapy and radiotherapy. We used the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database to identify the current rate of second sarcomas in pediatric cancer survivors. Our literature review and large population analysis emphasize the impact of sarcoma as a second malignancy and provide help to physicians caring for pediatric cancer survivors.

The impact of antecedent primary malignancy in soft tissue sarcoma patients

BACKGROUND

It is unclear whether antecedent primary malignancies (APMs) have any negative impact on the prognosis of soft tissue sarcoma (STS). We retrospectively reviewed STS patients with APMs (STS-APM) and compared their survival to those of STS only (STS-O).

METHODS

Twenty-one cases of STS-APM from 2008 to 2017 in our institution were analyzed. One hundred and seventy cases of STS-O at the same period were compared as a control group. Overall survival was estimated using Kaplan-Meier survival curves and prognostic factors were analyzed using logistic regression analyses and contingency table analyses.

RESULTS

As the final status of STS-APM patients, 12 patients were in disease-free survival, 5 were alive with disease, 3 have died of disease, and 1 has died of another disease. There was no case that died of APM. The 5-year overall survival rates were 88% in STS-APM and 78% in STS-O, showing no statistical significant ( p = 0.65). The 5-year overall survival rates in each stage of STS-APM and STS-O were 100/100% in stage I, 100/85% in stage II, 86/72% in stage III, and the 3-year overall survival rates were 67/51% in stage IV, with no statistical significance. With regard to prognostic factor, histological grade of STS was the only significant factor. Although antecedent radiotherapy tended to show a high odds ratio, the association was not statistically significant. Antecedent chemotherapy did not show any estimated prognostic risk.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggested that APM in STS patient would not be a negative prognostic factor.

Impact of different treatment techniques for pediatric Ewing sarcoma of the chest wall: IMRT, 3DCPT, and IMPT with/without beam aperture

Purpose

To evaluate the dosimetric differences between photon intensity‐modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) plans, 3D conformal proton therapy (3DCPT), and intensity‐modulated proton therapy (IMPT) plans and to investigate the dosimetric impact of different beam spot size and beam apertures in IMPT for pediatric Ewing sarcoma of the chest wall.

Methods and Materials

Six proton pediatric patients with Ewing sarcoma in the upper, middle, and lower thoracic spine regions as well as upper lumbar spine region were treated with 3DCPT and retrospectively planned with photon IMRT and IMPT nozzles of different beam spot sizes with/without beam apertures. The plan dose distributions were compared both on target conformity and homogeneity, and on organs‐at‐risk (OARs) sparing using QUANTEC metrics of the lung, heart, liver, and kidney. The total integral doses of healthy tissue of all plans were also evaluated.

Results

Target conformity and homogeneity indices are generally better for the IMPT plans with beam aperture. Doses to the lung, heart, and liver for all patients are substantially lower with the 3DPT and IMPT plans than those of IMRT plans. In the IMPT plans with large spot without beam aperture, some OAR doses are higher than those of 3DCPT plans. The integral dose of each photon IMRT plan ranged from 2 to 4.3 times of proton plans.

Conclusion

Compared to IMRT, proton therapy delivers significant lower dose to almost all OARs and much lower healthy tissue integral dose. Compared to 3DCPT, IMPT with small beam spot size or using beam aperture has better dose conformity to the target.

Craniofacial second primary tumors in patients with germline retinoblastoma previously treated with external beam radiotherapy: A retrospective institutional analysis

BACKGROUND

The long-term survival of germline retinoblastoma patients is decreased due to the risk of second primary tumors (SPTs) that occur years after the diagnosis of retinoblastoma. This risk is related to genetic predisposition and other factors, such as the treatment of retinoblastoma by external beam radiotherapy (EBRT).

PROCEDURE

We studied the incidence, risk factors, and prognosis of specific craniofacial SPTs developed within the margins of radiation field in a cohort of 209 patients with germline retinoblastoma treated with EBRT at our institution between 1977 and 2010. Clinical characteristics, survival, incidence, and histology of craniofacial SPTs were recorded.

RESULTS

Fifty-three of the 209 patients developed 60 distinct craniofacial SPTs in irradiated field with a median time from EBRT of 16.9 years (4-35) and a median follow-up of 24.8 years (5.3-40). Osteosarcoma (33.3%) and undifferentiated sarcoma (23.3%) were the more prevalent histological entities. Benign tumors (16.7%) also occurred. The cumulative incidence of craniofacial SPTs reached 32.6% at 35 years after EBRT, and the median survival after diagnosis was five years. In our series, irradiation under 12 months of age, bilateral EBRT, or previous treatment of retinoblastoma with chemotherapy did not significantly increase the risk of craniofacial SPTs.

CONCLUSIONS

This work presents a strong argument to avoid EBRT in the management of retinoblastoma and emphasizes the high risk and poor prognosis of specific craniofacial SPTs. This study also points to the question of the need and benefits of special programs for early detection of craniofacial SPTs in survivors of irradiated germline retinoblastoma.

Subsequent primary neoplasms among bone sarcoma survivors; increased risks remain after 30 years of follow-up and in the latest treatment era, a nationwide population-based study

BACKGROUND

The long-term risks and time trends of subsequent primary neoplasms (SPNs) among Ewing (ES) and osteosarcoma (OS) survivors are not fully understood.

METHODS

We performed a nationwide study of all ES and OS patients identified in the Swedish Cancer Registry from 1958 to 2015 with up to 58 years of follow-up. The risk of SPN was compared with that of the general population using standardised incidence ratios (SIRs) and absolute excess risks (AERs).

RESULTS

One hundred and fifteen SPNs were diagnosed among 1779 patients with ES or OS, yielding an overall SIR of 2.3 (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.9-2.7). The risk remained significantly increased in the latest treatment era (SIR_2000-2015 2.0; 95% CI, 1.1-3.5). The highest absolute excess risks (AER) was due to breast cancer (AER 15.2/10,000 person-years; 95% CI, 5.0-29.8) followed by female genital malignancies (AER 9.5/10,000 person-years; 95% CI, 2.4-21.5). The excess breast cancer risk among ES survivors was noted also after 30 years of follow-up with 127 extra breast cancers/10,000 person-years (95% CI, 6.6-419).

CONCLUSIONS

Breast- and female genital malignancies contribute most to the excess risk of SPN among ES and OS survivors. Importantly, excess risks did not decline over calendar time or long-term follow-up.

Risk of second primary cancer in oral squamous cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

The incidence and survival of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) patients have increased in recent years. Understanding their long-term survival aspects is essential for optimal treatment and follow-up planning. Almost one in five cancers diagnosed occurs nowadays in individuals with a previous diagnosis of cancer.

METHODS

Patients diagnosed with primary OSCC during 1953-2015 were retrieved from the Finnish Cancer Registry. Both standardized incidence ratios (SIR) and excess absolute risk (EAR) per 1000 person-years at risk (PYR) of second primary cancer (SPC) were calculated relative to the general population.

RESULTS

Among 6602 first primary OSCC patients there were 640 (10%) SPCs. The SIR for SPCs was 1.85 (95% CI: 1.71-1.99, P < .001) corresponding to an EAR of 8.78 (95% CI: 7.29-10.26).

CONCLUSIONS

Health care professionals should be aware of the second primary cancer risk after management of primary OSCC and patients need to be counseled about this phenomenon.

Pediatric Osteosarcoma of Extremities: A 15-year Experience From a Tertiary Care Cancer Center in Upper Egypt

AIM

To assess the outcome and determine predictors of survival in pediatric patients with osteosarcoma of the extremities treated with a unified chemotherapy protocol at a single institution over a 15-year period.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed a retrospective analysis of medical records of 48 pediatric patients with histologically verified osteosarcoma of the extremities diagnosed at South Egypt Cancer Institute and received treatment between January 2001 and December 2015.

RESULTS

With a median follow-up of 61 months for the entire cohort, estimates of overall survival (OS) for 3- and 5-year were 50.9% and 42.1%, respectively. While the estimates of OS for 3- and 5-year in the nonmetastatic group were 79% and 65.2%, respectively. In the multivariable analysis, both metastatic disease at diagnosis and poor response to chemotherapy retained their statistical significance as independent predictors for event-free survival. Whereas for OS, a metastatic disease at diagnosis remained as the lone predictor of a dismal outcome, while a poor response to chemotherapy became marginally associated with an inferior outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

In Upper Egypt, whereas slightly less than two thirds of children with localized osteosarcoma of extremities survives their disease, metastasis at presentation remains the key predictor of dismal survival outcomes.

Risk of Second Primary Bone and Soft-Tissue Sarcomas Among Young Adulthood Cancer Survivors

Excess sarcoma risks after childhood cancer are well established, but risks among young adulthood cancer survivors are poorly understood. Using US population-based cancer registry data, we compared bone and soft-tissue sarcoma risk vs the general population among 186 351 individuals who were diagnosed with nonsarcoma first primary malignancies at ages 20-39 years from 1975 to 2014 (follow-up through 2015) and survived at least 1 year. Bone sarcomas were rare (n = 50), but risk was statistically significantly elevated overall (2.9-fold) and greater than fivefold after Hodgkin lymphoma, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and central nervous system tumors. Soft-tissue sarcomas were more common (n = 284) and risks were statistically significantly elevated approximately twofold overall and after melanoma and carcinomas of the breast, thyroid, and testis, and greater than fourfold after Hodgkin lymphoma and central nervous system tumors. Risks varied markedly by subtype, with the highest risks (greater than fourfold) for osteosarcoma and the soft-tissue subtypes of rhabdomyosarcoma and blood vessel and nerve sheath sarcomas. These data demonstrate elevated risk for sarcoma after a range of young adulthood cancers.

Surgical Management of Giant Cell Tumor Involving the Lateral Skull Base

The aim of the study is to discuss the current management options for intra- and extra-cranial communication giant cell tumor of the lateral skull base and perform a review of the literature. A total of 6 patients with giant cell tumor of the lateral skull base were retrospectively enrolled in the study. The principal complaints, imaging manifestations, surgical resection and reconstruction of intra- and extra-cranial communication defects for the diseases were discussed. There were 2 males and 4 females. The most of principal complaints were discomfort or pain in the temporomandibular joint in 5 cases (83.3%). Imaging examination showed invasion of the temporal bone alone in 3 cases (50.0%) and both temporal bone and sphenoid bone involvement in 3 cases (50.0%). C-shaped preauricular infratemporal fossa approach was used for tumour removal and gross total resection was done in all 6 cases. The pedicled temporal muscle fascial flap was used to reconstruct the intra- and extra-cranial communication defect of the lateral skull base. The conclusion is that giant cell tumor is a benign tumor but is also locally aggressive. Gross total resection is the most commonly recommended treatment choice for giant cell tumor of the skull and can achieve good treatment outcomes. The temporalis muscle flap is a good alternative choice for reconstruction of the defect.

CD20-negative primary middle ear diffuse large B-cell lymphoma coexpressing MYC and BCL-2 secondary to acute lymphoblastic leukemia: A case report

RATIONALE

Second diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) after treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is uncommon. To our knowledge, primary middle ear DLBCL which presents CD20-negative and coexpression of MYC and BCL-2 has not been reported yet.

PATIENT CONCERNS

A 20-year-old Chinese man complained fever and weakness for 2 months. Subsequently bone marrow morphology and flow cytometry immunophenotype suggested ALL. Administrated with 9 cycles of multiagent combined chemotherapy, he felt right ear progressive hearing loss, otalgia, aural fullness. Otoendoscopic examination revealed a pitchy mass obstructing the right external auditory canal. Then the mass resection was performed for biopsy and immunohistochemistry examination.

DIAGNOSIS

The mass was diagnosed as DLBCL which was negative for CD20 and double expression of MYC and BCL-2.

INTERVENTIONS

Chemotherapy.

OUTCOMES

The patient eventually gave up and died of severe infection.

LESSONS

Although intensive chemotherapy has markedly improved the survival of ALL, more and more secondary cancers have been reported. In addition, primary middle ear lymphoma is much rare; hence, it is easy to be misdiagnosed. Furthermore, DLBCL with negative CD20 and double expression of MYC and BCL-2 is aggressive, which is characterized by chemotherapy resistance and inferior survival rates. We discuss this case aiming at raising awareness of tumors secondary to ALL and exploring the appropriate treatment options for the rare DLBCL.

Secondary osteosarcoma in patients previously treated for childhood cancer: Three case reports

The prognosis of childhood cancers has improved markedly, and the proportion of long-term survivors has increased in recent years. However, with the increase in the number of long-term survivors, the development of latent treatment-related adverse effects, such as secondary malignancies, has generated new problems. Secondary cancer is defined as a histologically distinct malignancy that develops at least 2 months after the completion of treatment for primary cancer. Genetic factors and acquired conditions associated with treatment modalities are possible causes of secondary malignancy development. Genetic factors include the presence of Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) and retinoblastoma. In terms of acquired factors, radiation and chemotherapy have been reported to be the most strongly associated with secondary malignancy development. The use of alkylating agents and topoisomerase II inhibitors for the treatment of childhood cancer increases the subsequent risk of secondary tumors. We herein investigated three cases of secondary osteosarcoma several years after treatment for primary cancer. In the three patients, the familial history did not appear to fit the clinical diagnostic criteria of LFS or retinoblastoma. The patients had not received previous radiation therapy to the anatomical site of the secondary cancer. However, high dosages of alkylating agents and topoisomerase II inhibitors had been administered for the treatment of primary cancer. The exact link between chemotherapy and secondary cancer remains elusive, but the possibility of an association should be considered. Following the development of multidisciplinary therapies, long-term follow-up and monitoring of latent adverse effects may be necessary for childhood cancer survivors.

Post-radiation sarcoma: A study by the Eastern Asian Musculoskeletal Oncology Group

The oncologic risk of ionizing radiation is widely known. Sarcomas developing after radiotherapy have been reported, and they are a growing problem because rapid advancements in cancer management and screening have increased the number of long-term survivors. Although many patients have undergone radiation treatment in Asian countries, scarce reports on post-radiation sarcomas (PRSs) have been published. We investigated the feature and prognostic factors of PRSs in an Asian population. The Eastern Asian Musculoskeletal Oncology Group participated in this project. Cases obtained from 10 centers were retrospectively reviewed. Patients with genetic malignancy predisposition syndrome, or who had more than one type of malignancy before the development of secondary sarcoma were excluded. Forty-two high-grade sarcomas among a total of 43 PRSs were analyzed. There were 29 females and 13 males, with a median age of 58.5 years; 23 patients had bone tumors and 19 had soft tissue tumors. The most common primary lesion was breast cancer. The median latency period was 192 months. There were no differences in radiation dose, latency time, and survival rates between bone and soft tissue PRSs. The most common site and diagnosis were the pelvic area and osteosarcoma and malignant fibrous histiocytoma for bone and soft tissue PRSs. The median follow-up period was 25.5 months. Five-year metastasis-free and overall survival rates were 14.5% and 16.6%, and 39.1% and 49.6% for bone and soft tissue PRSs. Survival differences depending on initial metastasis and surgery were significant in soft tissue sarcomas. Although this study failed to find ethnic differences, it is the largest review on PRS in an Asian population. As early recognition through long-term surveillance is a key to optimal management, clinicians should take efforts to understand the real status of PRS.

Secondary bone/soft tissue sarcoma in childhood cancer survivors: a nationwide hospital-based case-series study in Japan

Background

Secondary cancer is the most life-threatening late effect of childhood cancer. We investigated the clinical features of secondary bone/soft tissue sarcoma among childhood cancer survivors (CCSs).

Methods

We conducted a retrospective case-series study of 10 069 CCSs newly diagnosed with cancer between 1980 and 2009 across 15 Japanese hospitals. Twenty-one cases of pathologically diagnosed secondary bone/soft tissue sarcoma were selected, and the respective clinical courses were determined using additional questionnaires.

Results

The primary cancers included retinoblastoma (n = 7), acute lymphoblastic leukemia (n = 5), lymphoma (n = 5), osteosarcoma (n = 1), rhabdomyosarcoma (n = 1), brain tumor (n = 1) and Langerhans cell histiocytosis (n = 1). The median age at the primary cancer diagnosis was 2.9 years, and the male-to-female ratio was 16:5. The histological classifications of the secondary sarcoma included osteosarcoma (n = 10), malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor (n = 4), rhabdomyosarcoma (n = 3), Ewing's sarcoma (n = 3) and primitive neuroectodermal tumor (n = 1). The median latency period to the secondary sarcoma was 10.2 years. Significant risk factors for secondary sarcoma in the multivariate Cox regression model included a history of retinoblastoma as the primary cancer (hazard ratio [HR], 20.9; 95% confidence interval [CI], 5.70-76.5) and autologous stem cell transplantation (SCT) (HR, 2.56; 95% CI, 1.08-6.03). Seventeen CCSs with secondary sarcoma underwent radiation, and nine, hematopoietic SCT. Twelve CCSs with secondary sarcoma achieved disease-free survival, while CCSs with hematological cancer or relapsed primary cancer who developed secondary sarcoma had the worst prognoses.

Conclusion

The prognoses of CCSs with secondary sarcoma may depend on the primary cancer or prior relapse of primary cancer.

Radiogenomic Predictors of Adverse Effects following Charged Particle Therapy

Radiogenomics is the study of genomic factors that are associated with response to radiation therapy. In recent years, progress has been made toward identifying genetic risk factors linked with late radiation-induced adverse effects. These advances have been underpinned by the establishment of an international Radiogenomics Consortium with collaborative studies that expand cohort sizes to increase statistical power and efforts to improve methodologic approaches for radiogenomic research. Published studies have predominantly reported the results of research involving patients treated with photons using external beam radiation therapy. These studies demonstrate our ability to pool international cohorts to identify common single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with risk for developing normal tissue toxicities. Progress has also been achieved toward the discovery of genetic variants associated with radiation therapy-related subsequent malignancies. With the increasing use of charged particle therapy (CPT), there is a need to establish cohorts for patients treated with these advanced technology forms of radiation therapy and to create biorepositories with linked clinical data. While some genetic variants are likely to impact toxicity and second malignancy risks for both photons and charged particles, it is plausible that others may be specific to the radiation modality due to differences in their biological effects, including the complexity of DNA damage produced. In recognition that the formation of patient cohorts treated with CPT for radiogenomic studies is a high priority, efforts are underway to establish collaborations involving institutions treating cancer patients with protons and/or carbon ions as well as consortia, including the Proton Collaborative Group, the Particle Therapy Cooperative Group, and the Pediatric Proton Consortium Registry. These important radiogenomic CPT initiatives need to be expanded internationally to build on experience gained from the Radiogenomics Consortium and epidemiologists investigating normal tissue toxicities and second cancer risk.

Review of risk factors of secondary cancers among cancer survivors

Improvements in cancer survival have made the long-term risks from treatments more important, in particular among the children, adolescents and young adults who are more at risk particularly due to a longer life expectancy and a higher sensitivity to treatments. Subsequent malignancies in cancer survivors now constitute 15 to 20% of all cancer diagnoses in the cancer registries. Lots of studies are published to determine risk factors, with some controversial findings. Just data from large cohorts with detailed information on individual treatments and verification of what is called "secondary cancers" can add some knowledge, because their main difficulty is that the number of events for most second cancer sites are low, which impact the statistical results. In this review of the literature, we distinguish second and secondary cancers and discuss the factors contributing to this increased risk of secondary cancers. The article concludes with a summary of current surveillance and screening recommendations.

Risk, Risk Factors, and Surveillance of Subsequent Malignant Neoplasms in Survivors of Childhood Cancer: A Review

Subsequent malignant neoplasms (SMNs) in childhood cancer survivors cause substantial morbidity and mortality. This review summarizes recent literature on SMN epidemiology, risk factors, surveillance, and interventions. Survivors of childhood cancer experience long-term increased SMN risk compared with the general population, with a greater than twofold increased solid tumor risk extending beyond age 40 years. There is a dose-dependent increased risk for solid tumors after radiotherapy, with the highest risks for tumors occurring in or near the treatment field (eg, greater than fivefold increased risk for breast, brain, thyroid, skin, bone, and soft tissue malignancies). Alkylating and anthracycline chemotherapies increase the risk for development of several solid malignancies in addition to acute leukemia/myelodysplasia, and these risks may be modified by other patient characteristics, such as age at exposure and, potentially, inherited genetic susceptibility. Strategies for identifying survivors at risk and initiating long-term surveillance have improved and interventions are underway to improve knowledge about late-treatment effects among survivors and caregivers. Better understanding of treatment-related risk factors and genetic susceptibility holds promise for refining surveillance strategies and, ultimately, upfront cancer therapies.