Reversible cardiac dysfunction associated with interferon alfa therapy in AIDS patients with Kaposi's sarcoma

SARS-CoV-2 Portrayed against HIV: Contrary Viral Strategies in Similar Disguise

SARS-CoV-2 and HIV are zoonotic viruses that rapidly reached pandemic scale, causing global losses and fear. The COVID-19 and AIDS pandemics ignited massive efforts worldwide to develop antiviral strategies and characterize viral architectures, biological and immunological properties, and clinical outcomes. Although both viruses have a comparable appearance as enveloped viruses with positive-stranded RNA and envelope spikes mediating cellular entry, the entry process, downstream biological and immunological pathways, clinical outcomes, and disease courses are strikingly different. This review provides a systemic comparison of both viruses' structural and functional characteristics, delineating their distinct strategies for efficient spread.

Pathogenic Role of Type I Interferons in HIV-Induced Immune Impairments in Humanized Mice

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Recent findings on the critical pathogenic role of type 1 interferons (IFN-I) in HIV-1 persistence in humanized mice suggest that inhibiting IFN-I signaling transiently will reverse HIV-induced inflammatory diseases and rescue anti-HIV immunity to control HIV-1 reservoirs.

RECENT FINDINGS

In both humanized mice and in monkeys, IFN-I signaling is functionally defined to play an important role in suppressing early HIV-1 and SIV infection. During persistent infection in humanized mice, however, IFN-I signaling is revealed to induce T cell depletion and impairment. Interestingly, in HIV-infected mice with effective combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), blocking IFN-I signaling reverses HIV-induced inflammation, rescues anti-HIV T cells, and reduces HIV-1 reservoirs. These findings functionally define the role of IFN-I in HIV-1 reservoir persistence and suggest that blocking IFN-I signaling will provide a novel therapeutic strategy to (i) reverse inflammation-associated diseases in HIV patients under cART, (ii) rescue host anti-HIV immunity, and (iii) reduce or control HIV-1 reservoirs.

Cardiovascular mortality among chronic myeloid leukemia patients in the pre-tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) and TKI eras: a surveillance, epidemiology and end results (SEER) analysis

Despite remarkable efficacy, there is an emerging concern regarding TKI-associated cardiovascular toxicity in CML. Long term follow-up studies on association between TKI therapy and cardiovascular outcome have been limited. CML patients were accessed from the SEER 18 database from 1992 to 2011. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) specific mortality was calculated comparing the pre-TKI era to the TKI era using the Fine-Gray competing risk model. Overall, the TKI era was associated with a reduced cardiovascular mortality compared with the pre-TKI era (HR = 0.72; 95%CI, 0.59-0.89). Our results argue for continued aggressive screening, identification and management of cardiovascular risk factors among all CML patients, especially the elderly, and further investigation into specific mechanisms, factors and predictors of risks in TKI-treated CML.

Drugs That May Cause or Exacerbate Heart Failure: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

Heart failure is a common, costly, and debilitating syndrome that is associated with a highly complex drug regimen, a large number of comorbidities, and a large and often disparate number of healthcare providers. All of these factors conspire to increase the risk of heart failure exacerbation by direct myocardial toxicity, drug-drug interactions, or both. This scientific statement is designed to serve as a comprehensive and accessible source of drugs that may cause or exacerbate heart failure to assist healthcare providers in improving the quality of care for these patients.

The Interferons in Clinical Practice

In the last decade, recombinant DNA technologies have allowed the production of highly purified interferons in virtually unlimited amounts. Therefore it has become possible to evaluate the usefulness of interferon therapy in several different diseases. Nowadays interferons have a well defined role in the therapy of infectious and malignant diseases. As these natural modifiers of biological responses are widely available to the specialist and to the general practitioner as well, in the present paper we review the main biochemical properties and the molecular mechanisms underlying the heterogeneous activities of the interferons. Furthermore, on the basis of already published therapeutical trials, we indicate the infectious and neoplastic diseases in which therapy with interferon has been effective and outline the most frequent toxic or side effects of this therapy.

The diagnosis and management of cardiovascular disease in cancer patients

Cardiovascular disease is commonly found in cancer patients. The co-existence of heart disease and cancer in a patient often complicates treatment, because therapy for one disease may negatively affect the outcome of the other disease. In addition, guidelines for the treatment of cardiovascular disease are often based on studies, which exclude patients who have cancer. In this review we will discuss the diagnosis and management of cardiovascular disease in cancer patients. We will focus on cancer-related causes of cardiovascular disease and special treatment options for cardiovascular disease in cancer patients. The cardiac complications of cancer therapy will be discussed according to common syndromes: left ventricular dysfunction, myocardial ischemia, blood pressure changes, thromboembolism, bradyarrhythmias, and prolonged QT interval.

Treatment of hepatitis C virus infection

Acute and chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection remains a serious health problem worldwide, however, there has been advancement in the treatment of HCV infection due to standard treatment using pegylated interferon and ribavirin. The literature indicates that therapy for HCV is becoming more individualized. In addition to considering genotype and viral RNA levels before treatment, achievement of an early virologic response (EVR) and a rapid virologic response (RVR) is now possible during therapy. Moreover, problem patients, such as non-responders, relapsers, HIV or HBV co-infected patients, patients with liver cirrhosis, and pre- or post-liver transplantation patients are an increasing fraction of the patients requiring treatment. This article reviews the literature regarding standard treatments and problem patients with acute and chronic HCV infection. It also includes discussion on contraindications and side effects of treatment with interferon and ribavirin, as well as new drug development.

Cardiac and cardiovascular toxicity of nonanthracycline anticancer drugs

Anthracyclines are a well-known cause of cardiotoxicity, but a number of other drugs used to treat cancer can also result in cardiac and cardiovascular adverse effects. Cardiotoxicity can result in the alteration of cardiac rhythm, changes in blood pressure and ischemia, and can also alter the ability of the heart to contract and/or relax. The clinical spectrum of these toxicities can range from subclinical abnormalities to catastrophic life-threatening, and sometimes fatal, sequelae. These events may occur acutely or may only become apparent months or years following completion of oncological treatment. Ischemia and rhythm abnormalities are treated symptomatically in most cases. Knowledge of these toxicities can aid clinicians to choose the optimal and least toxic regimen suitable for an individual patient.

Heart failure induced by non-cardiac drugs

Although heart failure is predominantly caused by cardiovascular conditions such as hypertension, coronary heart disease and valvular heart disease, it can also be an adverse reaction induced by drug therapy. In addition, some drugs have the propensity to adversely affect haemodynamic mechanisms in patients with an already existing heart condition. In this article, non-cardiac drugs known to be associated with the development or worsening of heart failure are reviewed. Moreover, drugs that may adversely affect the heart as a pump without causing symptoms or signs of heart failure are also included. The drugs discussed include anticancer agents such as anthracyclines, mitoxantrone, cyclophosphamide, fluorouracil, capecitabine and trastuzumab; immunomodulating drugs such as interferon-alpha-2, interleukin-2, infliximab and etanercept; antidiabetic drugs such as rosiglitazone, pioglitazone and troglitazone; antimigraine drugs such as ergotamine and methysergide; appetite suppressants such as fenfulramine, dexfenfluramine and phentermine; tricyclic antidepressants; antipsychotic drugs such as clozapine; antiparkinsonian drugs such as pergolide and cabergoline; glucocorticoids; and antifungal drugs such as itraconazole and amphotericin B. NSAIDs, including selective cyclo-oxygenase (COX)-2 inhibitors, are included as a result of their ability to cause heart disease, particularly in patients with an already existing cardiorenal dysfunction. Two drug groups are of particular concern. Anthracyclines and their derivatives may cause cardiomyopathy in a disturbingly high number of exposed individuals, who may develop symptoms of insidious onset several years after drug therapy. The risk seems to encompass all exposed individuals, but data suggest that children are particularly vulnerable. Thus, a high degree of awareness towards this particular problem is warranted in cancer survivors subjected to anthracycline-based chemotherapy. A second group of problematic drugs are the NSAIDs, including the selective COX-2 inhibitors. These drugs may cause renal dysfunction and elevated blood pressure, which in turn may precipitate heart failure in vulnerable individuals. Although NSAID-related cardiotoxicity is relatively rare and most commonly seen in elderly individuals with concomitant disease, the widespread long-term use of these drugs in risk groups is potentially hazardous. Pending comprehensive safety analyses, the use of NSAIDs in high-risk patients should be discouraged. In addition, there is an urgent need to resolve the safety issues related to the use of COX-2 inhibitors. As numerous drugs from various drug classes may precipitate or worsen heart failure, a detailed history of drug exposure in patients with signs or symptoms of heart failure is mandatory.

Fatal cardiomyopathy associated with pegylated interferon/ribavirin in a patient with chronic hepatitis C

We report the case of a 45-year-old man with HCV treated with pegylated interferon-alpha/ribavirin, in whom fatal cardiomyopathy occurred. Cardiomyopathy is a rare complication of high dose of standard interferon but has never been reported with pegylated interferon. The relationship between pegylated interferon-alpha/ribavirin and the development of cardiomyopathy is highly probable for the following reasons: (1) a cardiologist consultation with specific investigations had been performed before treatment excluding a pre-existing cardiomyopathy; (2) symptoms of advanced dilated cardiomyopathy appeared immediately after the end of treatment; (3) other causes of cardiomyopathy have been ruled out. In all except one of the 21 reported cases with standard interferon, cardiomyopathy was reversible. In our patient, fatal cardiomyopathy occurred with a usual dose of pegylated interferon-alpha. Clinicians should be aware of this potential complication when evaluating the ratio benefit/risk of treatment in patients with chronic hepatitis C infection.

Cardiotoxicity of cancer therapy

Because cancer is a leading cause of mortality in the United States, the number of therapeutic modalities available for the treatment of neoplastic processes has increased. This has resulted in a large number of patients being exposed to a wide variety of cancer therapy. Historically, it has been well recognized that antineoplastic agents may have adverse effects on multiple organs and normal tissues. The most commonly associated toxicities occur in tissues composed of rapidly dividing cells and may spontaneously reverse with minimal long-term toxicity. However, the myocardium consists of cells that have limited regenerative capability, which may render the heart susceptible to permanent or transient adverse effects from chemotherapeutic agents. Such toxicity encompasses a heterogeneous group of disorders, ranging from relatively benign arrhythmias to potentially lethal conditions such as myocardial ischemia/infarction and cardiomyopathy. In some instances, the pathogenesis of these toxic effects has been elucidated, whereas in others the precise etiology remains unknown. We review herein the various syndromes of cardiac toxicity that are reported to be associated with antineoplastic agents and discuss their putative mechanisms and treatment.

Treatment of hepatitis C

The combination of pegylated interferon alpha and ribavirin has improved treatment success rates in patients with hepatitis C with sustained response rates of just over 50% overall and more than 70% for those with genotypes 2 and 3. This article reviews the use of combination therapy, contraindications, factors influencing response and describes approaches to specific patient groups.

Reversible cardiomyopathy caused by administration of interferon α

BACKGROUND

A 56-year-old man with normal cardiac function received treatment with interferon alpha-2b for malignant melanoma. Eight months after the initiation of therapy he developed fatigue and dyspnea on exertion. Two months later, he was admitted to hospital with ORTHOPNEA, worsening dyspnea and cough. Physical examination findings were consistent with congestive heart failure. Laboratory studies were notable for hypothyroidism. Echocardiography revealed severe, global left-ventricular dysfunction.

INVESTIGATIONS

Echocardiogram, electrocardiogram, serum chemistries, coronary angiography, right-heart and left-heart catheterization and endomyocardial biopsy.

DIAGNOSIS

Interferon alpha-2b-induced cardiomyopathy.

MANAGEMENT

Intravenous dobutamine and dopamine for cardiogenic shock and discontinuation of interferon alpha-2b.

Insuffisances cardiaques d’origine médicamenteuse (en dehors des anthracyclines)

The principal drugs implicated in or disclosing cardiac insufficiency are drawn from a review of the literature and observations by the French national pharmacovigilance database, from 1984 to April 2003. Several pharmacological classes are identified: in addition to antimitotic drugs, such as anthracyclines, many drugs are implicated in cardiac insufficiency, e.g. immunomodulators, anti-inflammatory drugs (including coxibs), antiarrhythmic drugs, anaesthetic drugs, antipsychotic drugs, and antidiabetic drugs (including glitazones). It is usual to classify these drugs according to three categories: (i) drugs likely to cause cardiac insufficiency de novo (such as cyclophosphamide, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, interferons, interleukin-2 etc.); (ii) drugs likely to worsen preexisting cardiac insufficiency (such as antiarrhythmics, beta-blockers, calcium antagonists, nonsteroidal and steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, sympathomimetic drugs etc.); and (iii) drugs only occasionally causing cardiac insufficiency. This review shows that this classification is, in fact, artificial. If cardiac toxicity is a constant concern when using antimitotic drugs or some immunomodulator drugs, it is advisable to exercise caution in the use of many other drugs when treating patients with cardiac insufficiency, even if the clinical situation is well controlled. In particular, drug-drug interactions and patient medical history must be taken into account.

Pathogenesis of HIV-associated heart disease

As longevity increases in HIV-infected individuals after the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy regimens, long-term effects such as cardiovascular disease and, more specifically, symptomatic heart failure are emerging as leading health issues. In the present review article, we discuss HIV-associated cardiovascular disease, focusing on etiopathogenetic mechanisms that may play a role in diagnosis, management, and therapy of HIV-associated heart failure in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era.

A case of reversible dilated cardiomyopathy after alpha-interferon therapy in a patient with renal cell carcinoma

A 47-year-old man with renal cell carcinoma underwent nephrectomy, and postoperative chemotherapy was performed with recombinant alpha-interferon. Five years later, he experienced dyspnea during physical exertion. An echocardiogram revealed dilatation and systolic dysfunction of the left ventricle, and thallium-201 myocardial scintigraphy showed diffuse heterogeneous perfusion. We diagnosed congestive heart failure because of cardiomyopathy induced by alpha-interferon therapy. Withdrawal of interferon therapy and the combination of an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, diuretics, and digitalis improved left ventricular systolic function. Furthermore, myocardial scintigraphy using [123I] beta-methyl-p-iodophenylpentadecanoic acid (123I-BMIPP) or [123 I]metaiodobenzylguanidine (123I-MIBG) revealed normal perfusion after the improvement of congestive heart failure. This is a rare case of interferon-induced cardiomyopathy that resulted in normal myocardial images in 123I-BMIPP and 123I-MIBG scintigrams after withdrawal of interferon therapy.

Arrhythmogenic and inotropic effects of interferon investigated in perfused and in vivo rat hearts: influences of cardiac hypertrophy and isoproterenol

Although the arrhythmogenic effects of interferon (IF) have been reported in clinical practice, the experimental data are limited. Therefore, these effects were investigated in in vivo and Langendorff-perfusion studies using 3 different groups of rats (ie, control, aorta-banded, and deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA)-salt hypertension groups) in the presence or absence of isoproterenol. In the perfusion study, human recombinant IF-alpha (< or =15,000 U/ml) alone induced irreversible atrioventricular blockade in all groups, whereas this agent (< or =1,500 U/ml) caused negative inotropism and ventricular tachyarrhythmias (arrhythmic score greater in the order of DOCA-salt>aorta-banded = control group) in the preparations pretreated with isoproterenol (10(-9) mol/L). In an in vivo study, IF-alpha (6x10(6) U/kg) resulted in ventricular tachyarrhythmias only in the presence of isoproterenol (10 mg/kg), as in the perfusion study (arrhythmic score; DOCA-salt>aorta-banded>control). In conclusion, the arrhythmogenesis of IF-alpha is potentiated in pathophysiological conditions such as cardiac hypertrophy or elevated sympathetic activity.

Pathogenesis of HIV-associated cardiomyopathy

Reviews and studies published before the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) regimens have tracked the incidence and course of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in relation to cardiac illness in both children and adults. HAART regimens have significantly modified the course of HIV disease, with longer survival rates and improvement of life quality in HIV+ subjects expected. However, early data raised concerns about HAART's being associated with an increase in both peripheral and coronary arterial diseases. A variety of potential etiologies have been postulated in HIV-related heart disease, including myocardial infection with HIV itself, opportunistic infections, viral infections, autoimmune response to viral infection, drug-related cardiotoxicity, nutritional deficiencies, and prolonged immunosuppression. In this review article we discuss HIV-associated cardiovascular complications, focusing on pathogenetic mechanisms that may play a role in diagnosis, management, and therapy of these complications.

Drugs and cardiotoxicity in HIV and AIDS

The advent of potent antiretroviral drugs in recent years has had an impressive impact on mortality and disease progression in HIV-infected patients, so that issues related to long-term effects of drugs are of growing importance. Hyperlipidemia, hyperglycemia, and lipodystrophy are increasingly described adverse effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), in particular when protease inhibitors are used. Hyperlipidemia is strikingly associated with the use of most available protease inhibitors, with an estimated prevalence of up to 50%. Because of the short observation period and the small number of cardiovascular events, epidemiological evidence for an increased risk of coronary heart disease in HIV-infected patients treated with HAART is not adequate at present; however, it is likely that shortly more data will accumulate to quantify this risk. Before starting HAART and during treatment it is reasonable to evaluate all patients for traditional coronary risk factors, including lipid profile. Among the drugs that are currently used in HIV+ patients, antibacterials, antifungals, psychotropic drugs and anti-histamines have been associated with QT prolongation or torsade de pointe, a life-threatening ventricular arrhythmia. Among the risk factors that may precipitate an asymptomatic electrocardiographic abnormality into a dangerous arrhythmia is the concomitant use of drugs that share the CYP3A metabolic pathway. Since most protease inhibitors are potent inhibitors of CYP3A, clinicians should be aware of this potentially dangerous effect of HAART. Anthracyclines are potent cytotoxic antibiotics that have been widely used for the treatment of HIV-related neoplasms. Their cardiotoxicity is well known, ranging from benign and reversible arrhythmias to progressive severe cardiomyopathy. The increased survival and quality of life of HIV+ patients emphasize the importance of a high awareness of adverse drug-related cardiac effects.

Cardiomyopathy in AIDS: a pathophysiological perspective

This report addresses issues of pathogenesis, pathophysiology, and epidemiology of an increasingly prevalent cardiomyopathy in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). As patient survival increases with more effective antiretroviral therapy, cardiomyopathy in AIDS will become more apparent. The interactions of cellular and organism factors in AIDS and their relationships to the development of cardiomyopathy are reviewed herein. Amongst the factors addressed in this review are: (1) comorbid conditions found with AIDS, (2) the role of inflammatory heart disease and cytokines in the development of AIDS cardiomyopathy, (3) the pathogenetic role of vascular cells and myocardial cells in the development of cardiomyopathy, (4) the role of myocardial retroviral infection in AIDS, and (5) the impact of toxicity from antiretroviral therapy on the development of cardiomyopathy. Because it is possible that more than 1 of these factors is present in a given patient inflicted with AIDS, a multifactorial pathogenesis in AIDS cardiomyopathy must be considered.

Medical management of HIV disease in children

Significant advances have been made in the understanding of the pathophysiology of HIV infection since the beginning of the epidemic. This knowledge has translated into the development of new therapies for HIV and opportunistic infections, laboratory advances in monitoring viral and immune status, and a better understanding of factors affecting patient outcome. Concomitantly, significant progress has been made in the medical management of children with HIV infection in the past 5 years. The number of children reported with AIDS in the United States is decreasing, and efforts are shifting from caring for children with advanced immunosuppression and severe opportunistic infections to early HAART, maintenance of the immune system, and prevention of opportunistic infections. Primary care physicians are now more involved and informed in the care of HIV-infected patients. Although published data are limited, physicians who have been working with this population have observed a dramatic improvement in the quality of life and length of survival of these patients. Unfortunately, this progress is not shared by developing countries where resources are minimal and antiretroviral agents are commonly unavailable. Although efforts to develop a vaccine to prevent HIV infection are ongoing, progress has been slow. Education and awareness continue to be the most powerful weapons against HIV.

Treatment of primary Sjögren's syndrome with low-dose natural human interferon-alpha administered by the oral mucosal route: a phase II clinical trial. IFN Protocol Study Group

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the safety and efficacy of four dosages of natural human interferon-alpha (nHuIFN-alpha) delivered over a 12-week period orally in lozenges (150 IU and 450 IU, once [QD] or three times [TID] daily) compared to placebo in subjects with primary Sjögren's syndrome. This randomized, double-blinded clinical trial demonstrated that nHuIFN-alpha at a dose of 150 IU administered TID by oral lozenge significantly improved stimulated whole saliva output compared to placebo after 12 weeks of treatment. The 150 IU TID dose also was suggestive of benefit for 5 of 7 subjective measures of oral and ocular comfort. IFN lozenges demonstrated a good safety profile, with no serious adverse events found in any treatment group. There were no significant differences between the placebo and the four doses of IFN for adverse events by total number, organ system, severity, dropouts, and number judged to be related to treatment. In conclusion, these results demonstrated that the use of 150 IU IFN lozenges TID for 12 weeks in subjects with primary Sjögren's syndrome improved salivary output and decreased complaints of xerostomia without causing significant adverse medical events.

Drug-induced heart failure

Heart failure is a clinical syndrome that is predominantly caused by cardiovascular disorders such as coronary heart disease and hypertension. However, several classes of drugs may induce heart failure in patients without concurrent cardiovascular disease or may precipitate the occurrence of heart failure in patients with preexisting left ventricular impairment. We reviewed the literature on drug-induced heart failure, using the MEDLINE database and lateral references. Successively, we discuss the potential role in the occurrence of heart failure of cytostatics, immunomodulating drugs, antidepressants, calcium channel blocking agents, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antiarrhythmics, beta-adrenoceptor blocking agents, anesthetics and some miscellaneous agents. Drug-induced heart failure may play a role in only a minority of the patients presenting with heart failure. Nevertheless, drug-induced heart failure should be regarded as a potentially preventable cause of heart failure, although sometimes other priorities do not offer therapeutic alternatives (e.g., anthracycline-induced cardiomyopathy). The awareness of clinicians of potential adverse effects on cardiac performance by several classes of drugs, particularly in patients with preexisting ventricular dysfunction, may contribute to timely diagnosis and prevention of drug-induced heart failure.

Tolerance and antiviral effects of high-dose interferon-alpha B/D in patients with chronic hepatitis B

A novel recombinant interferon-alpha B/D hybrid was applied to assess tolerability, antiviral effect, and biological activity in chronic hepatitis B. The study was designed as an open nonrandomized trial. Treatment comprised a two-week run-in phase with 16 MU three times a week followed by 14 weeks with 64 MU three times a week (or 48 MU if toxicity occurred with 64 MU). Total follow-up was 36 weeks. Nineteen patients were included; three discontinued treatment during the run-in with 16 MU. Fourteen of 16 patients had 14 weeks of treatment with > or = 32 MU three times a week. Fourteen dose reductions were necessary in nine patients. The adverse experience profile was similar to other interferon-alphas. HBV-DNA decreased using all doses studied. HBV-DNA became undetectable in five patients, two of whom had HBeAg seroconversion. No HBsAg seroconversion was observed. It is concluded that interferon-alpha B/D is well tolerated in high doses. The anti-viral effect starts at at least 16 MU three times a week.

Cardiac manifestations of HIV/AIDS: a review of disease spectrum and clinical management

HIV and AIDS involve multiple organ systems. Lungs, brain, skin, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, and heart are the major organs targeted by the direct effects of HIV infection and the secondary opportunistic complications of AIDS. Although most other organ system involvement has been extensively described in numerous studies and reviews, cardiac abnormalities related to HIV infection have remained less well characterized, partially because their pathogenesis was less clear and their clinical significance was uncertain. Most studies that have described cardiac complications in AIDS patients were postmortem, although some clinical series have been reported. It is now clear that cardiac involvement in AIDS patients is relatively common. Although most such conditions are clinically quiescent, some may have devastating and fatal outcomes. Pericardial effusion and myocarditis are among the most commonly reported abnormalities. Cardiomyopathy, endocarditis, and coronary vasculopathy have also been reported. In this review, we discuss the most common cardiac abnormalities in HIV-infected patients, as well as their clinical significance, clinical presentation, and management.

T-cell and monocyte subsets, inflammatory molecules, rejection, and hemodynamics early after cardiac transplantation

BACKGROUND

In the early period after cardiac transplantation, differential diagnosis of graft failure due to rejection, infection, and other causes is important but difficult.

METHODS

In 22 consecutive patients undergoing heart transplantation, we prospectively determined levels of interleukin-6 as well as T-cell and monocyte subsets at eight points in time during biopsy and right heart catheterization and within 12 hr of echocardiography during the first 3 months after transplantation.

RESULTS

Worse hemodynamic parameters, as characterized by dichotomization according to median values (pulmonary capillary wedge pressure >10 mmHg, mean pulmonary arterial pressure > 18 mmHg, pulmonary vascular resistance > 115 dyn x sec x cm(-5), right atrial pressure > 5 mmHg, cardiac index <3 L/min/m2, early mitral deceleration time < 135 msec, and isovolumic relaxation time <80 msec), were associated with higher levels of interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, polymorphonuclear cells, CD71+/CD14+ monocytes, and IgM levels and, in contrast, with lower levels of immunocompetence markers such as CD3+ T cells, CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, CD3+/CD25+ T cells, CD4+/ CD45RO+ T cells, NK cells, and lower biopsy scores.

CONCLUSION

Early after cardiac transplantation, elevated levels of inflammatory cells and soluble inflammatory molecules and lower levels of immunocompetence markers are associated with impaired allograft function in the absence of cellular rejection.

[Heart pathology of extracardiac origin (I). Cardiac involvement in AIDS]

A great variety of cardiac disorders have been reported in HIV-infected patients: pericarditis, myocarditis, cardiomyopathies, endocarditis, cardiac involvement through malignancies, pulmonary hypertension, arrhythmias and thromboembolic disease. In general, these disorders are asymptomatic and often diagnosed in echocardiographic studies or autopsies. Pericardial involvement is the most common disorder. Pericardial effusions are asymptomatic and non-specific in a great proportion, but in some instances opportunistic infections or malignancies may lead to cardiac tamponade and are associated with an increased risk of mortality. The etiopathogenesis of myocarditis and cardiomyopathies is uncertain. There is controversy about the role of HIV as the primary etiologic agent. Opportunistic infections, cardiotoxic substances, nutritional deficiencies and autoimmune reactions have also been implicated as etiologic agents of myocardial damage. Short-term prognosis worsens as clinical manifestations of heart failure appear. Valvular involvement usually presents as marantic or infectious endocarditis, the latter most frequently in IVDU. This article reviews the main cardiovascular manifestations in AIDS.

Thrombotic microangiopathy associated with alpha-interferon therapy for chronic myelocytic leukemia

A 31-year-old man diagnosed as having chronic myelocytic leukemia (CML) developed renal insufficiency with nephrotic-range proteinuria during alpha-interferon (IFN) therapy for CML. A renal biopsy specimen showed remarkable thrombotic microangiopathic lesions resembling those of hemolytic-uremic syndrome. The patient had papules on both lower legs, and a cutaneous biopsy showed similar microangiopathic lesions in dermal and subcutaneous vessels. Although discontinuation of IFN and initiation of prednisolone therapy resulted in resolution of proteinuria, renal insufficiency persisted. These findings suggest that long-term IFN therapy can induce late-onset thrombotic microangiopathy in systemic microvessels.

Interferon-alpha does not cause significant cardiac dysfunction in patients with chronic active hepatitis

The cardiac adverse effects of interferon (INF) treatment have been reported recently in various clinical trials of INF. In this study, the cardiac effects of recombinant INF-alpha treatment were evaluated prospectively in a group of patients with chronic active viral hepatitis (CAH). Sixteen patients with CAH type B, 14 patients with CAH type C and one patients with CAH type D were included in this study, and 4.5, 3 and 9 MU of recombinant INF-alpha-2a was administrated three times a week to these patients, respectively. The durations of treatment were 6 months for CAH type B and C, and 12 months for type D. The cardiac status of all patients was evaluated and monitored with a detailed medical history, physical examination, electrocardiography (ECG), telecardiography, echocardiography and heart rate variability tests at the beginning of the study and at the first and sixth months of INF therapy and also 6 months after ceasing the therapy. The clinical evaluation of patients before the treatment revealed that three had hypertension, one had a past medical history of myocardial infarction, one had a prosthetic mitral valve replacement and another had left hemiblock in her ECG record. No significant changes and adverse effects were detected in clinical examination and cardiovascular tests of all patients, either in pre-existing cardiovascular diseases, during therapy and after stopping the treatment. The cardiac adverse effects of INF reported in previous studies are questionable and we conclude that it can be used safely in CAH patients. Therefore, it should be kept in mind that fever and tachycardia may occur during the first and second weeks of INF therapy and patients with high risk for cardiac disease should be monitored closely in this period of treatment.

Depression of the inotropic action of isoprenaline by nitric oxide synthase induction in rat isolated hearts

The mechanisms involved in myocardial dysfunction during septic shock are not well understood. We have investigated the effects of endotoxin and the role of nitric oxide (NO) in the beta-adrenoceptor responsiveness of rat isolated, ejecting hearts perfused at 60 mmHg of head pressure. In vivo pretreatment with endotoxin (4 mg/kg, i.p., 3 h before heart isolation) significantly attenuated the inotropic response (increase in left ventricular developed pressure, LVP) to isoprenaline (0.15 microgram) after 30 min equilibration and after a further 90 min of perfusion. The peak rate of LVP development (dP/dtmax) in response to isoprenaline was reduced by endotoxin pretreatment, as was the increase of coronary flow. The depression of ventricular contraction was prevented by pretreatment with dexamethasone (1 mg/kg, i.p., 30 min before endotoxin), and was also restored by perfusion with NG-nitro-L-arginine (L-NA, 10 microM) for 60 min, but not by NG-nitro-D-arginine (D-NA, 10 microM). Mercaptoethylguanidine (MEG, 30 microM), a selective inhibitor of the inducible NO synthase (isoform 2), also reversed the depression of the isoprenaline response caused by endotoxin pretreatment. However, treatment with endotoxin, dexamethasone, L-NA, D-NA or MEG had minimal effects on the baseline parameters of LVP, dP/dtmax and coronary flow, which all tended to decline over the 2 h perfusion period. Western blot analysis using an antibody to NO synthase (isoform 2, but not to isoform 3) revealed the induction of a protein corresponding to NO synthase 2 in the endotoxin-treated hearts but not in control hearts or those treated with dexamethasone or MEG. In summary, these results indicate the endotoxin depresses myocardial contractile function and reduces inotropic responsiveness to beta-adrenoceptor activation. The effect of endotoxin on the inotropic response is mediated, at least in part, by products of an endogenous NO synthase that is suppressed by dexamethasone and a specific inhibitor of NO synthase (isoform 2).

Cardiac involvement in HIV infection

Cardiac involvement in HIV infection was previously believed to be an unusual manifestation of the disease, but is now being described with increasing frequency. It may be a well-characterized cardiac disease occurring coincidentally in an AIDS patient, a complication of AIDS or its treatment, or possibly a direct result of HIV infection of the heart. In this article, the authors describe the emerging patterns of heart and vascular diseases in HIV-infected patients, pathogenic mechanisms, and implications for treatment.

Impact of left ventricular dysfunction on cytokines, hemodynamics, and outcome in bypass grafting

BACKGROUND

Although patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction undergoing cardiac operation experience a higher rate of perioperative complications, the contribution of proinflammatory cytokines released during extracorporeal circulation is not well defined.

METHODS

We compared arterial and mixed venous levels of interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, soluble interleukin-2 receptor, and interleukin-2 at 10 points in time (24 hours before until 48 hours after extracorporeal circulation) in 21 patients with an ejection fraction of less than 0.45 (study group) to 15 patients with an ejection fraction of more than 0.55 (control group) undergoing elective coronary artery bypass grafting. The study and control group differed with regard to left ventricular ejection fraction (0.37 +/- 0.05 versus 0.66 +/- 0.11, p < 0.05) and reperfusion time (35 +/- 42 minutes versus 18 +/- 4 minutes, p = 0.07), but not age, sex, vessel involvement, number of grafts performed, cross-clamp time, extracorporeal circulation time, core temperature, and duration of ventilation.

RESULTS

Six patients in the study group required mechanical support and 1 died. There were no complications in the control group. In the study group, there were higher preoperative interleukin-2 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels and a higher maximum cytokine response to extracorporeal circulation for interleukin-2, soluble interleukin-2 receptor, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (all p < 0.05). Interleukin-6 correlated with duration of extracorporeal circulation, dose of norepinephrine and epinephrine support, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, mean pulmonary arterial pressure, right atrial pressure, heart rate, cardiac index, and inversely with systemic vascular resistance. Interleukin-6 was highest in patients with complications. Arterial and venous cytokine levels correlated closely.

CONCLUSIONS

Preoperative left ventricular dysfunction is associated with a higher degree of proinflammatory cytokine release during elective coronary artery bypass grafting. This response is associated with impaired hemodynamics and a higher incidence of perioperative complications.

Long-term follow up of patients with dilated heart muscle disease treated with human leucocytic interferon alpha or thymic hormones initial results

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether giving interferon-alpha or thymomodulin in addition to conventional treatment improves cardiac function in patients with idiopathic myocarditis and idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy.

DESIGN

Single-centre, randomised, open label, parallel group comparison of conventional treatment plus interferon-alpha, conventional treatment plus thymomodulin, and conventional treatment alone.

PATIENTS

38 patients aged 19-54 years (23 men) with biopsy-proven myocarditis or dilated cardiomyopathy. 12 were treated with conventional treatment alone, 13 were treated with interferon-alpha and conventional treatment, and 13 with thymomodulin and conventional treatment.

SETTING

Tertiary cardiac referral centre.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Clinical evaluation, echocardiography, and Holter monitoring at baseline, 6 months, and 1 and 2 years. Radionuclide ventriculography at rest and during exercise after 2 years. Endomyocardial biopsy at baseline and after a year if the initial diagnosis was myocarditis.

RESULTS

Left ventricular ejection fraction was improved in 21 (81%) of 26 patients after interferon-alpha or thymomodulin administration and in 8 (66%) of 12 conventionally treated patients (P < 0.05) at 2 year follow up. The maximum exercise time was significantly longer at 2-year follow up in patients treated with immunomodulators (mean (SEM) 5.1 (0.6) minutes for interferon-alpha and 5.0 (0.4) minutes for thymomodulin) than in conventionally treated patients (3.3 (0.4) minutes). Left ventricular ejection fraction during exercise (assessed by radionuclide ventriculography) improved in 9 of 12 patients treated with interferon-alpha, 10 of 12 patients treated with thymomodulin, and 3 of 9 conventionally treated patients at 2 year follow up. The electrocardiogram was normal in 21 (88%) of 24 patients after interferon-alpha or thymomodulin treatment and 2 (22%) of 9 conventionally treated patients. At 2 year follow up, 19 (73%) of 26 patients treated with immunomodulators and 4 (25%) of 12 conventionally treated patients had improved their functional class.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that treatment of idiopathic myocarditis and/or idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy with interferon-alpha or thymomodulin induces an earlier and significantly superior clinical improvement than conventional treatment alone.

Recombinant Interferons beta and gamma have a higher antiviral activity than interferon-alpha in coxsackievirus B3-infected carrier state cultures of human myocardial fibroblasts

We compared the antiviral activities of three recombinant human interferons (IFN-alph2a, IFN-beta, and IFN-gamma) in cultured human myocardial fibroblasts to select a candidate for trial in heart disease induced by cardiotropic enterovirus, e.g., coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3). Cells were exposed to CVB3, and after 7 days, when a persistent infection had developed, IFN was added. Virus yields were measured on alternate days for the next 7 or 16 days, and IFN activity was assessed as the percentage reduction in yield. IFN-gamma and IFN-beta were both highly active and reduced virus yields by 2 log (EC(99)) at concentrations of 23.4 IU/ml (SD = 8.6) and 10.1 IU/ml (SD = 3.2), respectively; with 250 IU/ml of either IFN, no infectious virus was formed. Unexpectedly, IFN-alpha2a (EC(99)> 1250 IU/ml) was at least 120 times less active than IFN-beta; after use for 8 days or more, the minor effects it produced were no longer related to the concentration applied. Despite the pharmacokinetic advantages of IFN-alpha2a, our data suggest that IFN-beta should in preference be evaluated in the clinic.

Genetic expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in human atrial myocardium

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) in human cardiac tissues.

DESIGN

We attempted to determine the genetic expression and localization of eNOS in normal human atrial tissue.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In normal human right atrial tissues from five donors during cardiac transplantation, eNOS expression and localization were assessed by using Northern blot analysis, in situ hybridization, and immunohistochemical staining.

RESULTS

Northern blot analysis and in situ hybridization demonstrated that eNOS messenger RNA is present in cardiomyocytes. Positive immunohistochemical staining was observed in the cytoplasm of cardiomyocytes.

CONCLUSION

These studies show for the first time the genetic expression and distribution of eNOS in human atrial myocardium and suggest that the eNOS mediated paracrine and autocrine pathway may participate in the control of myocardial function in humans.

Induction of nitric oxide synthase in the human cardiac allograft is associated with contractile dysfunction of the left ventricle

BACKGROUND

The mechanisms underlying cardiac contractile dysfunction after transplantation remain poorly defined. Previous work has revealed that inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) is expressed in the rat heterotopic cardiac allograft during rejection; resultant overproduction of nitric oxide (NO) might cause cardiac contractile dysfunction via the negative inotropic and cytotoxic actions of NO. In this investigation, we tested the hypothesis that induction of iNOS may occur and be associated with cardiac allograft contractile dysfunction in humans.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We prospectively studied 16 patients in the first year after cardiac transplantation at the time of serial surveillance endomyocardial biopsy. Clinical data, the results of biopsy histology, and echocardiographic and Doppler evaluation of left ventricular systolic and diastolic function were recorded. Total RNA was extracted from biopsy specimens, and mRNA for beta-actin, detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using human specific primers, was used as a constitutive gene control; iNOS mRNA was similarly detected by RT-PCR using human specific primers. iNOS protein was detected in biopsy frozen sections by immunofluorescence. Myocardial cGMP was measured by radioimmunoassay, and serum nitrogen oxide levels (NOx = NO2 + NO3) were measured by chemiluminescence. iNOS mRNA was detected in allograft myocardium at some point in each patient and in 59 of 123 biopsies (48%) overall. In individual patients, iNOS mRNA expression was episodic and time dependent; the frequency of expression was highest during the first 180 days after transplant (P = .0006). iNOS protein associated with iNOS mRNA was detected by immunofluorescence in cardiac myocytes. iNOS mRNA expression was not related to the ISHLT histological grade of rejection or to serum levels of NOx but was associated with increased levels of myocardial cGMP (P = .01) and with both systolic (P = .024) and diastolic (P = .006) left ventricular contractile dysfunction measured by echocardiography and Doppler.

CONCLUSIONS

These data support a relation between iNOS mRNA expression and contractile dysfunction in the human cardiac allograft.