In vivo imaging of juxtaglomerular neuron turnover in the mouse olfactory bulb

Neurogenesis dynamics in the olfactory bulb: deciphering circuitry organization, function, and adaptive plasticity

Adult neurogenesis persists after birth in the subventricular zone, with new neurons migrating to the granule cell layer and glomerular layers of the olfactory bulb, where they integrate into existing circuitry as inhibitory interneurons. The generation of these new neurons in the olfactory bulb supports both structural and functional plasticity, aiding in circuit remodeling triggered by memory and learning processes. However, the presence of these neurons, coupled with the cellular diversity within the olfactory bulb, presents an ongoing challenge in understanding its network organization and function. Moreover, the continuous integration of new neurons in the olfactory bulb plays a pivotal role in regulating olfactory information processing. This adaptive process responds to changes in epithelial composition and contributes to the formation of olfactory memories by modulating cellular connectivity within the olfactory bulb and interacting intricately with higher-order brain regions. The role of adult neurogenesis in olfactory bulb functions remains a topic of debate. Nevertheless, the functionality of the olfactory bulb is intricately linked to the organization of granule cells around mitral and tufted cells. This organizational pattern significantly impacts output, network behavior, and synaptic plasticity, which are crucial for olfactory perception and memory. Additionally, this organization is further shaped by axon terminals originating from cortical and subcortical regions. Despite the crucial role of olfactory bulb in brain functions and behaviors related to olfaction, these complex and highly interconnected processes have not been comprehensively studied as a whole. Therefore, this manuscript aims to discuss our current understanding and explore how neural plasticity and olfactory neurogenesis contribute to enhancing the adaptability of the olfactory system. These mechanisms are thought to support olfactory learning and memory, potentially through increased complexity and restructuring of neural network structures, as well as the addition of new granule granule cells that aid in olfactory adaptation. Additionally, the manuscript underscores the importance of employing precise methodologies to elucidate the specific roles of adult neurogenesis amidst conflicting data and varying experimental paradigms. Understanding these processes is essential for gaining insights into the complexities of olfactory function and behavior.

Ganglioside GD3 regulates neural stem cell quiescence and controls postnatal neurogenesis

The postnatal neural stem cell (NSC) pool hosts quiescent and activated radial glia-like NSCs contributing to neurogenesis throughout adulthood. However, the underlying regulatory mechanism during the transition from quiescent NSCs to activated NSCs in the postnatal NSC niche is not fully understood. Lipid metabolism and lipid composition play important roles in regulating NSC fate determination. Biological lipid membranes define the individual cellular shape and help maintain cellular organization and are highly heterogeneous in structure and there exist diverse microdomains (also known as lipid rafts), which are enriched with sugar molecules, such as glycosphingolipids. An often overlooked but key aspect is that the functional activities of proteins and genes are highly dependent on their molecular environments. We previously reported that ganglioside GD3 is the predominant species in NSCs and that the reduced postnatal NSC pools are observed in global GD3-synthase knockout (GD3S-KO) mouse brains. The specific roles of GD3 in determining the stage and cell-lineage determination of NSCs remain unclear, since global GD3S-KO mice cannot distinguish if GD3 regulates postnatal neurogenesis or developmental impacts. Here, we show that inducible GD3 deletion in postnatal radial glia-like NSCs promotes NSC activation, resulting in the loss of the long-term maintenance of the adult NSC pools. The reduced neurogenesis in the subventricular zone (SVZ) and the dentate gyrus (DG) of GD3S-conditional-knockout mice led to the impaired olfactory and memory functions. Thus, our results provide convincing evidence that postnatal GD3 maintains the quiescent state of radial glia-like NSCs in the adult NSC niche.

Chromatin accessibility dynamics of neurogenic niche cells reveal defects in neural stem cell adhesion and migration during aging

The regenerative potential of brain stem cell niches deteriorates during aging. Yet the mechanisms underlying this decline are largely unknown. Here we characterize genome-wide chromatin accessibility of neurogenic niche cells in vivo during aging. Interestingly, chromatin accessibility at adhesion and migration genes decreases with age in quiescent neural stem cells (NSCs) but increases with age in activated (proliferative) NSCs. Quiescent and activated NSCs exhibit opposing adhesion behaviors during aging: quiescent NSCs become less adhesive, whereas activated NSCs become more adhesive. Old activated NSCs also show decreased migration in vitro and diminished mobilization out of the niche for neurogenesis in vivo. Using tension sensors, we find that aging increases force-producing adhesions in activated NSCs. Inhibiting the cytoskeletal-regulating kinase ROCK reduces these adhesions, restores migration in old activated NSCs in vitro, and boosts neurogenesis in vivo. These results have implications for restoring the migratory potential of NSCs and for improving neurogenesis in the aged brain.

Ganglioside GD3 regulates neural stem cell quiescence and controls postnatal neurogenesis

The postnatal neural stem cell (NSC) pool hosts quiescent and activated radial glia-like NSCs contributing to neurogenesis throughout adulthood. However, the underlying regulatory mechanism during the transition from quiescent NSCs to activated NSCs in the postnatal NSC niche is not fully understood. Lipid metabolism and lipid composition play important roles in regulating NSC fate determination. Biological lipid membranes define the individual cellular shape and help maintain cellular organization and are highly heterogenous in structure and there exist diverse microdomains (also known as lipid rafts), which are enriched with sugar molecules, such as glycosphingolipids. An often overlooked but key aspect is that the functional activities of proteins and genes are highly dependent upon their molecular environments. We previously reported that ganglioside GD3 is the predominant species in NSCs and that the reduced postnatal NSC pools are observed in global GD3-synthase knockout (GD3S-KO) mouse brains. The specific roles of GD3 in determining the stage and cell-lineage determination of NSCs remain unclear, since global GD3S-KO mice cannot distinguish if GD3 regulates postnatal neurogenesis or developmental impacts. Here we show that inducible GD3 deletion in postnatal radial glia-like NSCs promotes the NSC activation, resulting in the loss of the long-term maintenance of the adult NSC pools. The reduced neurogenesis in the subventricular zone (SVZ) and the dentate gyrus (DG) of GD3S-conditional-knockout mice led to impaired olfactory and memory functions. Thus, our results provide convincing evidence that postnatal GD3 maintains the quiescent state of radial glia-like NSCs in the adult NSC niche.

Characterization by Gene Expression Analysis of Two Groups of Dopaminergic Cells Isolated from the Mouse Olfactory Bulb

The olfactory bulb (OB) is one of two regions of the mammalian brain which undergo continuous neuronal replacement during adulthood. A significant fraction of the cells added in adulthood to the bulbar circuitry is constituted by dopaminergic (DA) neurons. We took advantage of a peculiar property of dopaminergic neurons in transgenic mice expressing eGFP under the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) promoter: while DA neurons located in the glomerular layer (GL) display full electrophysiological maturation, eGFP+ cells in the mitral layer (ML) show characteristics of immature cells. In addition, they also display a lower fluorescence intensity, possibly reflecting different degrees of maturation. To investigate whether this difference in maturation might be confirmed at the gene expression level, we used a fluorescence-activated cell sorting technique on enzymatically dissociated cells of the OB. The cells were divided into two groups based on their level of fluorescence, possibly corresponding to immature ML cells and fully mature DA neurons from the GL. Semiquantitative real-time PCR was performed to detect the level of expression of genes linked to the degree of maturation of DA neurons. We showed that indeed the cells expressing low eGFP fluorescence are immature neurons. Our method can be further used to explore the differences between these two groups of DA neurons.

Seed-induced Aβ deposition alters neuronal function and impairs olfaction in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) which ultimately forms plaques. These Aβ deposits can be induced in APP transgenic mouse models by prion-like seeding. It has been widely accepted that anosmia and hyposmia occur during the early stages of AD, even before cognitive deficits are present. In order to determine the impact of seed-induced Aβ deposits on olfaction, we performed intracerebral injections of seed-competent brain homogenate into the olfactory bulb of young pre-depositing APP transgenic mice. Remarkably, we observed a dramatic olfactory impairment in those mice. Furthermore, the number of newborn neurons as well as the activity of cells in the mitral cell layer was decreased. Notably, exposure to an enriched environment reduced Aβ seeding, vivified neurogenesis and most importantly reversed olfactory deficits. Based on our findings, we conclude that altered neuronal function as a result of induced Aβ pathology might contribute to olfactory dysfunction in AD.

Unraveling the Role of Dopaminergic and Calretinin Interneurons in the Olfactory Bulb

The perception and discriminating of odors are sensory activities that are an integral part of our daily life. The first brain region where odors are processed is the olfactory bulb (OB). Among the different cell populations that make up this brain area, interneurons play an essential role in this sensory activity. Moreover, probably because of their activity, they represent an exception compared to other parts of the brain, since OB interneurons are continuously generated in the postnatal and adult period. In this review, we will focus on periglomerular (PG) cells which are a class of interneurons found in the glomerular layer of the OB. These interneurons can be classified into distinct subtypes based on their neurochemical nature, based on the neurotransmitter and calcium-binding proteins expressed by these cells. Dopaminergic (DA) periglomerular cells and calretinin (CR) cells are among the newly generated interneurons and play an important role in the physiology of OB. In the OB, DA cells are involved in the processing of odors and the adaptation of the bulbar network to external conditions. The main role of DA cells in OB appears to be the inhibition of glutamate release from olfactory sensory fibers. Calretinin cells are probably the best morphologically characterized interneurons among PG cells in OB, but little is known about their function except for their inhibitory effect on noisy random excitatory signals arriving at the main neurons. In this review, we will mainly describe the electrophysiological properties related to the excitability profiles of DA and CR cells, with a particular view on the differences that characterize DA mature interneurons from cells in different stages of adult neurogenesis.

Overcoming Expressional Drop-outs in Lineage Reconstruction from Single-Cell RNA-Sequencing Data

Single-cell lineage tracing provides crucial insights into the fates of individual cells. Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) is commonly applied in modern biomedical research, but genetics-based lineage tracing for scRNA-seq data is still unexplored. Variant calling from scRNA-seq data uniquely suffers from "expressional drop-outs," including low expression and allelic bias in gene expression, which presents significant obstacles for lineage reconstruction. We introduce SClineager, which infers accurate evolutionary lineages from scRNA-seq data by borrowing information from related cells to overcome expressional drop-outs. We systematically validate SClineager and show that genetics-based lineage tracing is applicable for single-cell-sequencing studies of both tumor and non-tumor tissues using SClineager. Overall, our work provides a powerful tool that can be applied to scRNA-seq data to decipher the lineage histories of cells and that could address a missing opportunity to reveal valuable information from the large amounts of existing scRNA-seq data.

Long term intravital single cell tracking under multiphoton microscopy

Visualizing and tracking cells over time in a living organism has been a much-coveted dream before the invention of intravital microscopy. The opaque nature of tissue was a major hurdle that was remedied by the multiphoton microscopy. With the advancement of optical imaging and fluorescent labeling tools, intravital high resolution imaging has become increasingly accessible over the past few years. Long-term intravital tracking of single cells (LIST) under multiphoton microscopy provides a unique opportunity to gain insight into the longitudinal changes in the morphology, migration, or function of cells or subcellular structures. It is particularly suitable for studying slow-evolving cellular and molecular events during normal development or disease progression, without losing the opportunity of catching fast events such as calcium signals. Here, we review the application of LIST under 2-photon microscopy in various fields of neurobiology and discuss challenges and new directions in labeling and imaging methods for LIST. Overall, this review provides an overview of current applications of LIST in mammals, which is an emerging field that will contribute to a better understanding of essential molecular and cellular events in health and disease.

Aging and Rejuvenation of Neural Stem Cells and Their Niches

Aging has a profound and devastating effect on the brain. Old age is accompanied by declining cognitive function and enhanced risk of brain diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative disorders. A key question is whether cells with regenerative potential contribute to brain health and even brain "rejuvenation." This review discusses mechanisms that regulate neural stem cells (NSCs) during aging, focusing on the effect of metabolism, genetic regulation, and the surrounding niche. We also explore emerging rejuvenating strategies for old NSCs. Finally, we consider how new technologies may help harness NSCs' potential to restore healthy brain function during physiological and pathological aging.

Neuronal integration in the adult mouse olfactory bulb is a non-selective addition process

Adult neurogenesis in the olfactory bulb (OB) is considered as a competition in which neurons scramble during a critical selection period for integration and survival. Moreover, newborn neurons are thought to replace pre-existing ones that die. Despite indirect evidence supporting this model, systematic in vivo observations are still scarce. We used two-photon in vivo imaging to study neuronal integration and survival. We show that loss of new neurons in the OB after arrival at terminal positions occurs only at low levels. Moreover, long-term observations showed that no substantial cell death occurred at later stages. Neuronal death was induced by standard doses of thymidine analogs, but disappeared when low doses were used. Finally, we demonstrate that the OB grows throughout life. This shows that neuronal selection during OB-neurogenesis does not occur after neurons reached stable positions. Moreover, this suggests that OB neurogenesis does not represent neuronal turnover but lifelong neuronal addition.

An increase in neural stem cells and olfactory bulb adult neurogenesis improves discrimination of highly similar odorants

Adult neurogenesis is involved in cognitive performance but studies that manipulated this process to improve brain function are scarce. Here, we characterized a genetic mouse model in which neural stem cells (NSC) of the subventricular zone (SVZ) were temporarily expanded by conditional expression of the cell cycle regulators Cdk4/cyclinD1, thus increasing neurogenesis. We found that supernumerary neurons matured and integrated in the olfactory bulb similarly to physiologically generated newborn neurons displaying a correct expression of molecular markers, morphology and electrophysiological activity. Olfactory performance upon increased neurogenesis was unchanged when mice were tested on relatively easy tasks using distinct odor stimuli. In contrast, intriguingly, increasing neurogenesis improved the discrimination ability of mice when challenged with a difficult task using mixtures of highly similar odorants. Together, our study provides a mammalian model to control the expansion of somatic stem cells that can in principle be applied to any tissue for basic research and models of therapy. By applying this to NSC of the SVZ, we highlighted the importance of adult neurogenesis to specifically improve performance in a challenging olfactory task.

Heterogeneous distribution of doublecortin-expressing cells surrounding the rostral migratory stream in the juvenile mouse

In the postnatal mammalian brain, neural stem cells of the ventricular-subventricular zone continue to generate doublecortin (Dcx)-expressing immature neurons. Throughout life, these immature neurons migrate to the olfactory bulb through the rostral migratory stream (RMS). In this study, we investigated the distribution of these putative immature neurons using enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) expression in the area surrounding the RMS of the juvenile Dcx-EGFP mice. Through the combined use of an optical clearing reagent (a 2,2'-thiodiethanol solution) and two-photon microscopy, we visualized three-dimensionally the EGFP-positive cells in the entire RMS and its surroundings. The resulting wide-field and high-definition images along with computational image processing methods developed in this study were used to comprehensively determine the position of the EGFP-positive cells. Our findings revealed that the EGFP-positive cells were heterogeneously distributed in the area surrounding the RMS. In addition, the orientation patterns of the leading process of these cells, which displayed the morphology of migrating immature neurons, differed depending on their location. These novel results provide highly precise morphological information for immature neurons and suggest that a portion of immature neurons may be detached from the RMS and migrate in various directions.

Redirection of neuroblast migration from the rostral migratory stream into a lesion in the prefrontal cortex of adult rats

Clinical treatment of structural brain damage today is largely limited to symptomatic approaches and the avoidance of secondary injury. However, neuronal precursor cells are constantly produced within specified regions of the mammalian brain throughout life. Here we evaluate the potential of the known chemoattractive properties of the glycoprotein laminin on neuroblasts to relocate the cells into damaged brain areas. Injection of a thin laminin tract, leading from the rostral migratory stream to an excitotoxic lesion within the medial prefrontal cortex of rats, enabled neuroblasts to migrate away from their physiological route towards the olfactory bulb into the lesion site. Once they reached the damaged tissue, they migrated further in a non-uniform orientation within the lesion. Furthermore, our data indicate that the process of diverted migration is still active 6 weeks after the treatment and that at least some of the neuroblasts are capable of maturing into adult neurons.

Dopaminergic Neurones in the Main Olfactory Bulb: An Overview from an Electrophysiological Perspective

The olfactory bulb (OB), the first center processing olfactory information, is characterized by a vigorous life-long activity-dependent plasticity responsible for a variety of odor-evoked behavioral responses. It hosts the more numerous group of dopaminergic (DA) neurones in the central nervous system, cells strategically positioned at the entry of the bulbar circuitry, directly in contact with the olfactory nerve terminals, which play a key role in odor processing and in the adaptation of the bulbar network to external conditions. Here, we focus mainly on the electrophysiological properties of DA interneurones, reviewing findings concerning their excitability profiles in adulthood and in different phases of adult neurogenesis. We also discuss dynamic changes of the DA interneurones related to environmental stimuli and their possible functional implications.

Reduced miR-512 and the Elevated Expression of Its Targets cFLIP and MCL1 Localize to Neurons With Hyperphosphorylated Tau Protein in Alzheimer Disease

The cause for the neurofibrillary tangles and plaques in Alzheimer disease likely relates to an abnormal accumulation of their key components, which include β-amyloid and hyperphosphorylated tau protein. We segregated Alzheimer brain sections from people with end-stage disease into those with abundant hyperphosphorylated tau protein and those without and compared each to normal brains for global microRNA patterns. A significant reduced expression of several microRNAs, including miR-512, was evident in the Alzheimer brain sections with abundant hyperphosphorylated tau. Immunohistochemistry documented that 2 known targets of microRNA-512, cFLIP and MCL1, were significantly over expressed and each colocalized to neurons with the abnormal tau protein. Analysis for apoptosis including activated caspase-3, increased caspase-4 and caspase-8, apoptosis initiating factor, APAF-1 activity, and the TUNEL assay was negative in the areas where neurons showed hyperphosphorylated tau. MCM2 expression, a marker of neuroprogenitor cells, was significantly reduced in the Alzheimer sections that contained the hyperphosphorylated tau. These results suggest that a basic defect in Alzheimer disease may be the reduced microRNA-driven increased expression of proteins that may alter the apoptotic/antiapoptotic balance of neurons. This, in turn, could lead to the accumulation of key Alzheimer proteins such as hyperphosphorylated tau that ultimately prevent normal neuronal function and lead to disease symptomatology.

Persistent Structural Plasticity Optimizes Sensory Information Processing in the Olfactory Bulb

In the mammalian brain, the anatomical structure of neural circuits changes little during adulthood. As a result, adult learning and memory are thought to result from specific changes in synaptic strength. A possible exception is the olfactory bulb (OB), where activity guides interneuron turnover throughout adulthood. These adult-born granule cell (GC) interneurons form new GABAergic synapses that have little synaptic strength plasticity. In the face of persistent neuronal and synaptic turnover, how does the OB balance flexibility, as is required for adapting to changing sensory environments, with perceptual stability? Here we show that high dendritic spine turnover is a universal feature of GCs, regardless of their developmental origin and age. We find matching dynamics among postsynaptic sites on the principal neurons receiving the new synaptic inputs. We further demonstrate in silico that this coordinated structural plasticity is consistent with stable, yet flexible, decorrelated sensory representations. Together, our study reveals that persistent, coordinated synaptic structural plasticity between interneurons and principal neurons is a major mode of functional plasticity in the OB.

Live Imaging of Adult Neural Stem Cells in Rodents

The generation of cells of the neural lineage within the brain is not restricted to early development. New neurons, oligodendrocytes, and astrocytes are produced in the adult brain throughout the entire murine life. However, despite the extensive research performed in the field of adult neurogenesis during the past years, fundamental questions regarding the cell biology of adult neural stem cells (aNSCs) remain to be uncovered. For instance, it is crucial to elucidate whether a single aNSC is capable of differentiating into all three different macroglial cell types in vivo or these distinct progenies constitute entirely separate lineages. Similarly, the cell cycle length, the time and mode of division (symmetric vs. asymmetric) that these cells undergo within their lineage progression are interesting questions under current investigation. In this sense, live imaging constitutes a valuable ally in the search of reliable answers to the previous questions. In spite of the current limitations of technology new approaches are being developed and outstanding amount of knowledge is being piled up providing interesting insights in the behavior of aNSCs. Here, we will review the state of the art of live imaging as well as the alternative models that currently offer new answers to critical questions.

Construction of functional neuronal circuitry in the olfactory bulb

Recent studies using molecular genetics, electrophysiology, in vivo imaging, and behavioral analyses have elucidated detailed connectivity and function of the mammalian olfactory circuits. The olfactory bulb is the first relay station of olfactory perception in the brain, but it is more than a simple relay: olfactory information is dynamically tuned by local olfactory bulb circuits and converted to spatiotemporal neural code for higher-order information processing. Because the olfactory bulb processes ∼1000 discrete input channels from different odorant receptors, it serves as a good model to study neuronal wiring specificity, from both functional and developmental aspects. This review summarizes our current understanding of the olfactory bulb circuitry from functional standpoint and discusses important future studies with particular focus on its development and plasticity.

Identification of a microRNA regulator for axon guidance in the olfactory bulb of adult mice

Semaphorin3A (sema3a), mainly localized in the olfactory neuron layer and periglomerular layer, is essential for the normal arrangement of axons in the olfactory bulb both in embryonic and adult mice functioning through its dynamic spatiotemporal expression. The regulators that can modulate the expression of sema3a by direct interaction, however, are unknown. In order to find the regulators of sema3a in the olfactory bulb, we focused on microRNAs, well-known post-transcriptional regulators. We found that axon guidance is the main molecular and biological process ongoing in the steady-state olfactory bulb of the adult mouse by screening the abundant microRNAs and exploring their functions in the olfactory bulb via our customized microRNA arrays, Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes annotation. Furthermore, we traced the expression of three candidate regulators (miR-30c, miR-200b, and miR-429) and sema3a by the quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry. The results showed that only miR-30c expression corresponded inversely with sema3a. Finally, miR-30c was verified to be a specific regulator of sema3a by dual luciferase reporter assay in vitro. Taken together, our results suggested that miR-30c is a potential regulator in axon-guidance by suppressing the expression of sema3a, which will give new insights in elucidating the mechanism of architectonic and functional maintenance of the olfactory bulb.

Odor processing by adult-born neurons

The adult mammalian brain is continuously supplied with adult-born neurons in the olfactory bulb (OB) and hippocampus, where they are thought to be important for circuit coding and plasticity. However, direct evidence for the actual involvement of these neurons in neural processing is still lacking. We recorded the spiking activity of adult-born periglomerular neurons in the mouse OB in vivo using two-photon-targeted patch recordings. We show that odor responsiveness reaches a peak during neuronal development and then recedes at maturity. Sensory enrichment during development enhances the selectivity of adult-born neurons after maturation, without affecting neighboring resident neurons. Thus, in the OB circuit, adult-born neurons functionally integrate into the circuit, where they acquire distinct response profiles in an experience-dependent manner. The constant flow of these sensitive neurons into the circuit provides it with a mechanism of long-term plasticity, wherein new neurons mature to process odor information based on past demands.

Evaluation of proliferation of neural stem cells in vitro and in vivo

This unit describes two basic protocols for the detection of the proliferation of neural stem cells (NSC). The first one addresses cell proliferation in cultures, starting with primary cell cultures isolated from the mouse subventricular zone (SVZ), in which SVZ-derived NSC are kept in culture as neurospheres. By using this culture system, we are able to study different stages of adult neurogenesis, such as proliferation, differentiation, migration, and survival. Thus, in the first basic protocol, we describe two different techniques to evaluate cell proliferation based on EdU incorporation: (a) immunocytochemistry and (b) flow cytometry. EdU, a new thymidine analog, which is detected by a reproducible and sensitive method based on click chemistry, does not require DNA denaturation, as is the case with BrdU. Thus, co-labeling of EdU with other specific antibodies of extracellular or intracellular targets, as well as other DNA dyes, is possible. In the second basic protocol, we describe an in vivo assay to evaluate proliferation of NSC in the dentate gyrus of hippocampus of adult mice, by both BrdU and EdU detection. With this approach, it is also possible to study different stages of adult neurogenesis, by co-labeling thymidine analogs with other specific markers, such as doublecortin (DCX) or neuronal nuclei protein (NeuN).

Correlative two-photon and light sheet microscopy

Information processing inside the central nervous system takes place on multiple scales in both space and time. A single imaging technique can reveal only a small part of this complex machinery. To obtain a more comprehensive view of brain functionality, complementary approaches should be combined into a correlative framework. Here, we describe a method to integrate data from in vivo two-photon fluorescence imaging and ex vivo light sheet microscopy, taking advantage of blood vessels as reference chart. We show how the apical dendritic arbor of a single cortical pyramidal neuron imaged in living thy1-GFP-M mice can be found in the large-scale brain reconstruction obtained with light sheet microscopy. Starting from the apical portion, the whole pyramidal neuron can then be segmented. The correlative approach presented here allows contextualizing within a three-dimensional anatomic framework the neurons whose dynamics have been observed with high detail in vivo.

Long-term changes in the morphology and synaptic distributions of adult-born neurons

The adult mammalian olfactory bulb (OB) is continuously supplied with adult-born neurons. While some new neurons die shortly after arrival into the OB, others persist throughout the life of the animal. Here we followed the long-term morphological changes in adult-born periglomerular neurons and granule cells from the mouse OB well after they mature. We present a dataset of dendritic morphology and synaptic distributions from >100 adult-born neurons as imaged in vivo and reconstructed in 3D. The dataset currently includes a substantial range of neuronal ages (0.5-11 months old). Using this dataset, we show that the morphological steady-state which adult-born periglomerular neurons reach soon after maturation is not maintained in older neurons. Rather, total dendritic length decreases after 6 months of age. We find that this morphological decrease in "old" periglomerular neurons is regulated by the age of the animal, and is independent of neuronal age. This suggests that morphological development of adult-born neurons is regulated extrinsically. Our dendritic morphology dataset of 3D reconstructions is made available to the scientific community so it may serve as a useful resource for comparative morphological studies of the OB, and in particular of adult neurogenesis.

Sensory input regulates spatial and subtype-specific patterns of neuronal turnover in the adult olfactory bulb

Throughout life, new neurons are added and old ones eliminated in the adult mouse olfactory bulb. Previous studies suggested that olfactory experience controls the process by which new neurons are integrated into mature circuits. Here we report novel olfactory-experience-dependent mechanisms of neuronal turnover. Using two-photon laser-scanning microscopy and sensory manipulations in adult live mice, we found that the neuronal turnover was dynamically controlled by olfactory input in a neuronal subtype-specific manner. Olfactory input enhanced this turnover, which was characterized by the reiterated use of the same positions in the glomeruli by new neurons. Our results suggest that olfactory-experience-dependent modification of neuronal turnover confers structural plasticity and stability on the olfactory bulb.

Long-term imaging reveals dynamic changes in the neuronal composition of the glomerular layer

The mammalian olfactory bulb (OB) contains a rich and highly heterogeneous network of local interneurons (INs). These INs undergo continuous turnover in the adult OB in a process known as "adult neurogenesis." Although the overall magnitude of adult neurogenesis has been estimated, the detailed dynamics of the different subpopulations remains largely unknown. Here we present a novel preparation that enables long-term in vivo time-lapse imaging in the mouse OB through a chronic cranial window in a virtually unlimited number of sessions. Using this preparation, we followed the turnover of a specific neuronal population in the OB, the dopaminergic (DA) neurons, for as long as 9 months. By following the same population over long periods of time, we found clear addition and loss of DA neurons in the glomerular layer. Both cell addition and loss increased over time. The numbers of new DA cells were consistently and significantly higher than lost DA cells, suggesting a net increase in the size of this particular population with age. Over a 9 month period of adult life, the net addition of DA neurons reached ∼ 13%. Our data argue that the fine composition of the bulbar IN network changes throughout adulthood rather than simply being replenished.

Genetic approaches to reveal the connectivity of adult-born neurons

Much has been learned about the environmental and molecular factors that influence the division, migration, and programmed cell death of adult-born neurons in the mammalian brain. However, detailed knowledge of the mechanisms that govern the formation and maintenance of functional circuit connectivity via adult neurogenesis remains elusive. Recent advances in genetic technologies now afford the ability to precisely target discrete brain tissues, neuronal subtypes, and even single neurons for vital reporter expression and controlled activity manipulations. Here, I review current viral tracing methods, heterologous receptor expression systems, and optogenetic technologies that hold promise toward elucidating the wiring diagrams and circuit properties of adult-born neurons.

Olfactory ensheathing glia express aquaporin 1

Olfactory ensheathing glia (OEG) are distinct from other glia in their developmental origin, presence in both the peripheral and central nervous systems, and highly restricted location. OEG are present only in the olfactory lamina propria, olfactory nerve, and the outer two layers of the olfactory bulb, where they envelop bundles of olfactory sensory neuron axons in a manner distinct from myelination. Because of their unique properties and their association with the continually generated olfactory sensory neurons, OEG have attracted interest for their potential capacity to support axonal regeneration, for example, after spinal cord injury. However, study of the properties and function of OEG has been hampered by a paucity of neurochemical markers with which to identify and distinguish them definitively from other types of glia. Here we provide evidence through anatomical colocalization studies that OEG express the water channel aquaporin 1 (AQP1), both in vivo and in vitro. We propose that AQP1 expression represents an important distinguishing characteristic of OEG, which may impart unique function to these glia.

About a snail, a toad, and rodents: animal models for adaptation research

Neural adaptation mechanisms have many similarities throughout the animal kingdom, enabling to study fundamentals of human adaptation in selected animal models with experimental approaches that are impossible to apply in man. This will be illustrated by reviewing research on three of such animal models, viz. (1) the egg-laying behavior of a snail, Lymnaea stagnalis: how one neuron type controls behavior, (2) adaptation to the ambient light condition by a toad, Xenopus laevis: how a neuroendocrine cell integrates complex external and neural inputs, and (3) stress, feeding, and depression in rodents: how a neuronal network co-ordinates different but related complex behaviors. Special attention is being paid to the actions of neurochemical messengers, such as neuropeptide Y, urocortin 1, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. While awaiting new technological developments to study the living human brain at the cellular and molecular levels, continuing progress in the insight in the functioning of human adaptation mechanisms may be expected from neuroendocrine research using invertebrate and vertebrate animal models.

Fluorescent labeling of newborn dentate granule cells in GAD67-GFP transgenic mice: a genetic tool for the study of adult neurogenesis

Neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus is an important form of structural plasticity in the brain. Here we report a line of BAC transgenic mice (GAD67-GFP mice) that selectively and transitorily express GFP in newborn dentate granule cells of the adult hippocampus. These GFP(+) cells show a high degree of colocalization with BrdU-labeled nuclei one week after BrdU injection and express the newborn neuron marker doublecortin and PSA-NCAM. Compared to mature dentate granule cells, these newborn neurons show immature morphological features: dendritic beading, fewer dendritic branches and spines. These GFP(+) newborn neurons also show immature electrophysiological properties: higher input resistance, more depolarized resting membrane potentials, small and non-typical action potentials. The bright labeling of newborn neurons with GFP makes it possible to visualize the details of dendrites, which reach the outer edge of the molecular layer, and their axon (mossy fiber) terminals, which project to the CA3 region where they form synaptic boutons. GFP expression covers the whole developmental stage of newborn neurons, beginning within the first week of cell division and disappearing as newborn neurons mature, about 4 weeks postmitotic. Thus, the GAD67-GFP transgenic mice provide a useful genetic tool for studying the development and regulation of newborn dentate granule cells.

VEGF is required for dendritogenesis of newly born olfactory bulb interneurons

The angiogenic factor vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF) has been shown to have a role in neurogenesis, but how it affects adult neurogenesis is not fully understood. To delineate a role for VEGF in successive stages of olfactory bulb (OB) neurogenesis, we used a conditional transgenic system to suppress VEGF signaling at the adult mouse sub-ventricular zone (SVZ), rostral migratory stream (RMS) and OB, which constitute the respective sites of birth, the migration route, and sites where newly born interneurons mature and integrate within the existing OB circuitry. Following the development of fluorescently tagged adult-born neurons, we show that sequestration of VEGF that is constitutively expressed by distinct types of resident OB neurons greatly impaired dendrite development in incoming SVZ-born neurons. This was evidenced by reduced dendritic spine density of granule cells and significantly shorter and less branched dendrites in periglomerular neurons. Notably, the vasculature and perfusion of the SVZ, RMS and OB were not adversely affected when VEGF suppression was delayed until after birth, thus uncoupling the effect of VEGF on dendritogenesis from its known role in vascular maintenance. Furthermore, a requirement for VEGF was specific to newly born neurons, as already established OB neurons were not damaged by VEGF inhibition. This study thus uncovered a surprising perfusion-independent role of VEGF in the adult brain, namely, an essential role in the maturation of adult-born neurons.

Circuit formation and maintenance--perspectives from the mammalian olfactory bulb

The rodent olfactory bulb (OB) is becoming a model system for studying how neuronal circuits develop and maintain. The OB has typical components of a sensory circuit such as ordered sensory inputs, diverse populations of interneurons, substantial neuromodulatory innervation, and projection neurons that transfer information to higher brain centers. Additionally, the OB is unique because its sensory afferents and a subset of its interneurons are continuously replaced throughout adulthood. Here, we review some recent findings on the development and maintenance of the mammalian OB circuitry. We review some of the known developmental strategies of the major OB components and discuss the ways in which the OB circuitry preserves stability in the face of ongoing changes.

Advances in light microscopy for neuroscience

Since the work of Golgi and Cajal, light microscopy has remained a key tool for neuroscientists to observe cellular properties. Ongoing advances have enabled new experimental capabilities using light to inspect the nervous system across multiple spatial scales, including ultrastructural scales finer than the optical diffraction limit. Other progress permits functional imaging at faster speeds, at greater depths in brain tissue, and over larger tissue volumes than previously possible. Portable, miniaturized fluorescence microscopes now allow brain imaging in freely behaving mice. Complementary progress on animal preparations has enabled imaging in head-restrained behaving animals, as well as time-lapse microscopy studies in the brains of live subjects. Mouse genetic approaches permit mosaic and inducible fluorescence-labeling strategies, whereas intrinsic contrast mechanisms allow in vivo imaging of animals and humans without use of exogenous markers. This review surveys such advances and highlights emerging capabilities of particular interest to neuroscientists.

Adult neurogenesis and the olfactory system

Though initially described in the early 1960s, it is only within the past decade that the concept of continuing adult neurogenesis has gained widespread acceptance. Neuroblasts from the subventricular zone (SVZ) migrate along the rostral migratory stream (RMS) into the olfactory bulb, where they differentiate into interneurons. Neuroblasts from the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampal formation show relatively little migratory behavior, and differentiate into dentate gyrus granule cells. In sharp contrast to embryonic and perinatal development, these newly differentiated neurons must integrate into a fully functional circuit, without disrupting ongoing performance. Here, after a brief historical overview and introduction to olfactory circuitry, we review recent advances in the biology of neural stem cells, mechanisms of migration in the RMS and olfactory bulb, differentiation and survival of new neurons, and finally mechanisms of synaptic integration. Our primary focus is on the olfactory system, but we also contrast the events occurring there with those in the hippocampal formation. Although both SVZ and SGZ neurogenesis are involved in some types of learning, their full functional significance remains unclear. Since both systems offer models of integration of new neuroblasts, there is immense interest in using neural stem cells to replace neurons lost in injury or disease. Though many questions remain unanswered, new insights appear daily about adult neurogenesis, regulatory mechanisms, and the fates of the progeny. We discuss here some of the central features of these advances, as well as speculate on future research directions.

An automated pipeline for dendrite spine detection and tracking of 3D optical microscopy neuron images of in vivo mouse models

The variations in dendritic branch morphology and spine density provide insightful information about the brain function and possible treatment to neurodegenerative disease, for example investigating structural plasticity during the course of Alzheimer's disease. Most automated image processing methods aiming at analyzing these problems are developed for in vitro data. However, in vivo neuron images provide real time information and direct observation of the dynamics of a disease process in a live animal model. This paper presents an automated approach for detecting spines and tracking spine evolution over time with in vivo image data in an animal model of Alzheimer's disease. We propose an automated pipeline starting with curvilinear structure detection to determine the medial axis of the dendritic backbone and spines connected to the backbone. We, then, propose the adaptive local binary fitting (aLBF) energy level set model to accurately locate the boundary of dendritic structures using the central line of curvilinear structure as initialization. To track the growth or loss of spines, we present a maximum likelihood based technique to find the graph homomorphism between two image graph structures at different time points. We employ dynamic programming to search for the optimum solution. The pipeline enables us to extract dynamically changing information from real time in vivo data. We validate our proposed approach by comparing with manual results generated by neurologists. In addition, we discuss the performance of 3D based segmentation and conclude that our method is more accurate in identifying weak spines. Experiments show that our approach can quickly and accurately detect and quantify spines of in vivo neuron images and is able to identify spine elimination and formation.

Adult neurogenesis and its alteration under pathological conditions

Even in the adult brain, neural stem cells in the dentate gyrus and subventricular zone continue to produce neuronal precursors, which migrate and differentiate into functional mature neurons. This physiological neurogenesis is thought to be involved in neuronal plasticity. Moreover, recent studies indicate that adult neurogenesis can change in response to various brain insults, including psychiatric diseases, stroke, and neurodegenerative disorders. Although increased neurogenesis in these pathological conditions could contribute to the restoration and regeneration of the damaged brain, an inadequate and/or excessive supply of new neurons, or suppressed neurogenesis, could contribute to their pathophysiology. To develop successful regenerative treatments for the injured brain, we need to understand more precisely and comprehensively the mechanisms regulating adult neurogenesis under both physiological and pathological conditions.

Noninvasive and quantitative monitoring of adult neuronal stem cell migration in mouse brain using bioluminescence imaging

It is now generally accepted that continuous neurogenesis occurs in the adult mammalian brain, including that of humans. Modulation of adult neurogenesis can provide therapeutic benefits for various brain disorders, including stroke and Parkinson's disease. The subventricular zone-olfactory bulb pathway is one of the preferred model systems by which to study neural stem cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation in adult rodent brain. Research on adult neurogenesis would greatly benefit from reliable methods for long-term noninvasive in vivo monitoring. We have used lentiviral vectors encoding firefly luciferase to stably mark endogenous neural stem cells in the mouse subventricular zone. We show that bioluminescence imaging (BLI) allows quantitative follow-up of the migration of adult neural stem cells into the olfactory bulb in time. Moreover, we propose a model to fit the kinetic data that allows estimation of migration and survival times of the neural stem cells using in vivo BLI. Long-term expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the subventricular zone attenuated neurogenesis, as detected by histology and BLI. In vivo monitoring of the impact of drugs or genes on adult neurogenesis is now within reach.

Functional maturation of the first synapse in olfaction: development and adult neurogenesis

The first synapse in olfaction undergoes considerable anatomical plasticity in both early postnatal development and adult neurogenesis, yet we know very little concerning its functional maturation at these times. Here, we used whole-cell recordings in olfactory bulb slices to describe olfactory nerve inputs to developing postnatal neurons and to maturing adult-born cells labeled with a GFP-encoding lentivirus. In both postnatal development and adult neurogenesis, the maturation of olfactory nerve synapses involved an increase in the relative contribution of AMPA over NMDA receptors, and a decrease in the contribution of NMDA receptors containing the NR2B subunit. These postsynaptic transformations, however, were not mirrored by presynaptic changes: in all cell groups, paired-pulse depression remained constant as olfactory nerve synapses matured. Although maturing cells may therefore offer, transiently, a functionally distinct connection for inputs from the nose, presynaptic function at the first olfactory connection remains remarkably constant in the face of considerable anatomical plasticity.

Dynamic features of postnatal subventricular zone cell motility: a two-photon time-lapse study

Neuroblasts migrate long distances in the postnatal subventricular zone (SVZ) and rostral migratory stream (RMS) to the olfactory bulbs. Many fundamental features of SVZ migration are still poorly understood, and we addressed several important questions using two-photon time-lapse microscopy of brain slices from postnatal and adult eGFP(+) transgenic mice. 1) Longitudinal arrays of neuroblasts, so-called chain migration, have never been dynamically visualized in situ. We found that neuroblasts expressing doublecortin-eGFP (Dcx-eGFP) and glutamic acid decarboxylase-eGFP (Gad-eGFP) remained within arrays, which maintained their shape for many hours, despite the fact that there was a wide variety of movement within arrays. 2) In the dorsal SVZ, neuroblasts migrated rostrocaudally as expected, but migration shifted to dorsoventral orientations throughout ventral regions of the lateral ventricle. 3) Whereas polarized bipolar morphology has been a gold standard for inferring migration in histologic sections, our data indicated that migratory morphology was not predictive of motility. 4) Is there local motility in addition to long distance migration? 5) How fast is SVZ migration? Unexpectedly, one-third of motile neuroblasts moved locally in complex exploratory patterns and at average speeds slower than long distance movement. 6) Finally, we tested, and disproved, the hypothesis that all motile cells in the SVZ express doublecortin, indicating that Dcx is not required for migration of all SVZ cell types. These data show that cell motility in the SVZ and RMS is far more complex then previously thought and involves multiple cell types, behaviors, speeds, and directions.

Distinct modes of neuron addition in adult mouse neurogenesis

Adult neurogenesis is restricted to two distinct areas of the mammalian brain: the olfactory bulb (OB) and the dentate gyrus (DG). Despite its spatial restriction, adult neurogenesis is of crucial importance for sensory processing and learning and memory. Although it has been shown that tens of thousands of new neurons arrive in the OB and DG every day with about half of them surviving after integration, the total contribution of adult neurogenesis to the pre-existing network remains mostly unknown. This is because of previous approaches labeling only a small proportion of adult-generated neurons. Here, we used genetic fate mapping to follow the majority of adult-generated neurons over long periods. Our data demonstrate two distinct modes of neuron addition to the pre-existing network. In the glomerular layer of the OB, there is a constant net addition of adult-generated neurons reaching a third of the total neuronal population within 9 months. In contrast, adult neurogenesis contributes to only a minor fraction of the entire neuronal network in the granular cell layer of the OB and the DG. Although the fraction of adult generated neurons can be further increased by an enriched environment, it still remains a minority of the neuronal network in the DG. Thus, neuron addition is distinct and tightly regulated in the neuronal networks that incorporate new neurons life long.

The role of noninvasive cellular imaging in developing cell-based therapies for neurodegenerative disorders

Stem and progenitor cells from various sources are currently recognized as entities with potential for the treatment of numerous neurodegenerative diseases. It has been observed in many animal models that transplantation of stem cells induces functional improvement. As a result of these findings, the first clinical cell transplantation trials were initiated, including those for Parkinson's disease and cerebral ischemia patients. However, in many patients, although modest improvements have been observed, these improvements were not sufficient to warrant invasive and possibly risky cell therapy. Thus, it is apparent that therapeutic success requires a better understanding of the mechanisms of action and the ability to control these mechanisms that underlie functional improvements, permitting amplification of the therapeutic effect. Considering the complexity of the nervous system, the task of repairing damaged or dysfunctional brain tissue with naïve cellular elements that require spatially and temporally accurate governance may seem daunting. However, the hope for faster and more inclusive progress in this field arises from recent developments in medical biotechnology that offers scientists increasingly sophisticated tools to study and control biological processes. One such technology with great potential for neurotransplantation is noninvasive cellular imaging. This tool allows real-time 'supervision' of grafted cells, as well as monitoring biodistribution and development. In this review, we highlight the current challenges in the field of cell-based therapy for neurodegenerative disorders and outline the role and capabilities of different cellular imaging techniques in addressing those issues.

Adult-generated neurons exhibit diverse developmental fates

In mammals, olfactory bulb (OB) interneurons, granule cells and periglomerular (PG) cells, are generated throughout adulthood. PG cells comprise a heterogeneous population in both morphology and molecular phenotypes. It is unknown whether adult genesis of PG cells occurs among all subtypes or is limited to a subpopulation. We show that within 2 weeks after retroviral labeling in the subventricular zone, two morphological populations of PG cells are found in the OB, one with large multi-glomerular dendritic arbors, and one with dendritic arbors limited to one or two glomeruli. On both types, immature dendritic spines are first evident at 4 weeks and mature, pedunculated spines by 6 weeks. To differentiate PG subpopulations we used expression of calcium binding proteins, GAD67 and tyrosine hydroxylase as markers. Among adult-born BrdU labeled cells, all molecular subtypes were represented, although GAD67 and tyrosine hydroxylase expressing cells were overrepresented proportional to their expression in the total PG cell population. During the time when spines are maturing, approximately half the PG cells are lost, in roughly equal proportions to their generation. Our data show the diverse developmental potential of SVZ neuroblasts and suggest that integration into synaptic circuits is necessary for survival.

Migration, fate and in vivo imaging of adult stem cells in the CNS

Adult stem cells have been intensively studied for their potential use in cell therapies for neurodegenerative diseases, ischemia and traumatic injuries. One of the most promising cell sources for autologous cell transplantation is bone marrow, containing a heterogenous cell population that can be roughly divided into hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). MSCs are multipotent progenitor cells that, in the case of severe tissue ischemia or damage, can be attracted to the lesion site, where they can secrete bioactive molecules, either naturally or through genetic engineering. They can also serve as vehicles for delivering therapeutic agents. Mobilized from the marrow, sorted or expanded in culture, MSCs can be delivered to the damaged site by direct or systemic application. In addition, MSCs can be labeled with superparamagnetic nanoparticles that allow in vivo cell imaging. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is thus a suitable method for in vivo cell tracking of transplanted cells in the host organism. This review will focus on cell labeling for MRI and the use of MSCs in experimental and clinical studies for the treatment of brain and spinal cord injuries.

Dendritic development and plasticity of adult-born neurons in the mouse olfactory bulb

The mammalian brain maintains few developmental niches where neurogenesis persists into adulthood. One niche is located in the olfactory system where the olfactory bulb continuously receives functional interneurons. In vivo two-photon microscopy of lentivirus-labeled newborn neurons was used to directly image their development and maintenance in the olfactory bulb. Time-lapse imaging of newborn neurons over several days showed that dendritic formation is highly dynamic with distinct differences between spiny neurons and non-spiny neurons. Once incorporated into the network, adult-born neurons maintain significant levels of structural dynamics. This structural plasticity is local, cumulative and sustained in neurons several months after their integration. Thus, I provide a new experimental system for directly studying the pool of regenerating neurons in the intact mammalian brain and suggest that regenerating neurons form a cellular substrate for continuous wiring plasticity in the olfactory bulb.

Genetic visualization of neurogenesis

Neurons are generated from stem or progenitor cells in discrete areas in the adult brain. The exact temporal and spatial distribution of adult neurogenesis has, however, been difficult to establish because of inherent limitations with the currently used techniques, and there are numerous controversies with regard to whether neurons are generated in specific regions or in response to insults. We describe here the generation of transgenic mice that express conditionally active Cre recombinase under the control of a nestin enhancer element. These mice allow the recombination of reporter alleles specifically in neural stem and progenitor cells and the visualization of their progeny in the adult brain. This offers a simple and efficient way to visualize live adult born neurons without the caveats of currently used techniques.