Transaldolase is essential for maintenance of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential and fertility of spermatozoa

Rab4A-directed endosome traffic shapes pro-inflammatory mitochondrial metabolism in T cells via mitophagy, CD98 expression, and kynurenine-sensitive mTOR activation

Activation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a key metabolic checkpoint of pro-inflammatory T-cell development that contributes to the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), however, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here, we identify a functional role for Rab4A-directed endosome traffic in CD98 receptor recycling, mTOR activation, and accumulation of mitochondria that connect metabolic pathways with immune cell lineage development and lupus pathogenesis. Based on integrated analyses of gene expression, receptor traffic, and stable isotope tracing of metabolic pathways, constitutively active Rab4AQ72L exerts cell type-specific control over metabolic networks, dominantly impacting CD98-dependent kynurenine production, mTOR activation, mitochondrial electron transport and flux through the tricarboxylic acid cycle and thus expands CD4+ and CD3+CD4-CD8- double-negative T cells over CD8+ T cells, enhancing B cell activation, plasma cell development, antinuclear and antiphospholipid autoantibody production, and glomerulonephritis in lupus-prone mice. Rab4A deletion in T cells and pharmacological mTOR blockade restrain CD98 expression, mitochondrial metabolism and lineage skewing and attenuate glomerulonephritis. This study identifies Rab4A-directed endosome traffic as a multilevel regulator of T cell lineage specification during lupus pathogenesis.

mTOR-dependent loss of PON1 secretion and antiphospholipid autoantibody production underlie autoimmunity-mediated cirrhosis in transaldolase deficiency

Transaldolase deficiency predisposes to chronic liver disease progressing from cirrhosis to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Transition from cirrhosis to hepatocarcinogenesis depends on mitochondrial oxidative stress, as controlled by cytosolic aldose metabolism through the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). Progression to HCC is critically dependent on NADPH depletion and polyol buildup by aldose reductase (AR), while this enzyme protects from carbon trapping in the PPP and growth restriction in TAL deficiency. Although AR inactivation blocked susceptibility to hepatocarcinogenesis, it enhanced growth restriction, carbon trapping in the non-oxidative branch of the PPP and failed to reverse the depletion of glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) and liver cirrhosis. Here, we show that inactivation of the TAL-AR axis results in metabolic stress characterized by reduced mitophagy, enhanced overall autophagy, activation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), diminished glycosylation and secretion of paraoxonase 1 (PON1), production of antiphospholipid autoantibodies (aPL), loss of CD161+ NK cells, and expansion of CD38+ Ito cells, which are responsive to treatment with rapamycin in vivo. The present study thus identifies glycosylation and secretion of PON1 and aPL production as mTOR-dependent regulatory checkpoints of autoimmunity underlying liver cirrhosis in TAL deficiency.

Quercetin Reprograms Immunometabolism of Macrophages via the SIRT1/PGC-1α Signaling Pathway to Ameliorate Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Oxidative Damage

The redox system is closely related to changes in cellular metabolism. Regulating immune cell metabolism and preventing abnormal activation by adding antioxidants may become an effective treatment for oxidative stress and inflammation-related diseases. Quercetin is a naturally sourced flavonoid with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. However, whether quercetin can inhibit LPS-induced oxidative stress in inflammatory macrophages by affecting immunometabolism has been rarely reported. Therefore, the present study combined cell biology and molecular biology methods to investigate the antioxidant effect and mechanism of quercetin in LPS-induced inflammatory macrophages at the RNA and protein levels. Firstly, quercetin was found to attenuate the effect of LPS on macrophage proliferation and reduce LPS-induced cell proliferation and pseudopodia formation by inhibiting cell differentiation, as measured by cell activity and proliferation. Subsequently, through the detection of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory factors and antioxidant enzyme activity, it was found that quercetin can improve the antioxidant enzyme activity of inflammatory macrophages and inhibit their ROS production and overexpression of inflammatory factors. In addition, the results of mitochondrial morphology and mitochondrial function assays showed that quercetin could upregulate the mitochondrial membrane potential, ATP production and ATP synthase content decrease induced by LPS, and reverse the mitochondrial morphology damage to a certain extent. Finally, Western blotting analysis demonstrated that quercetin significantly upregulated the protein expressions of SIRT1 and PGC-1α, that were inhibited by LPS. And the inhibitory effects of quercetin on LPS-induced ROS production in macrophages and the protective effects on mitochondrial morphology and membrane potential were significantly decreased by the addition of SIRT1 inhibitors. These results suggested that quercetin reprograms the mitochondria metabolism of macrophages through the SIRT1/PGC-1α signaling pathway, thereby exerting its effect of alleviating LPS-induced oxidative stress damage.

Reproductive Suppression Caused by Spermatogenic Arrest: Transcriptomic Evidence from a Non-Social Animal

Reproductive suppression is an adaptive strategy in animal reproduction. The mechanism of reproductive suppression has been studied in social animals, providing an essential basis for understanding the maintenance and development of population stability. However, little is known about it in solitary animals. The plateau zokor is a dominant, subterranean, solitary rodent in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. However, the mechanism of reproductive suppression in this animal is unknown. We perform morphological, hormonal, and transcriptomic assays on the testes of male plateau zokors in breeders, in non-breeders, and in the non-breeding season. We found that the testes of non-breeders are smaller in weight and have lower serum testosterone levels than those of breeders, and the mRNA expression levels of the anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) and its transcription factors are significantly higher in non-breeder testes. Genes related to spermatogenesis are significantly downregulated in both meiotic and post-meiotic stages in non-breeders. Genes related to the meiotic cell cycle, spermatogenesis, flagellated sperm motility, fertilization, and sperm capacitation are significantly downregulated in non-breeders. Our data suggest that high levels of AMH may lead to low levels of testosterone, resulting in delayed testicular development, and physiological reproductive suppression in plateau zokor. This study enriches our understanding of reproductive suppression in solitary mammals and provides a basis for the optimization of managing this species.

Cytosolic aldose metabolism contributes to progression from cirrhosis to hepatocarcinogenesis

Oxidative stress modulates carcinogenesis in the liver; however, direct evidence for metabolic control of oxidative stress during pathogenesis, particularly, of progression from cirrhosis to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), has been lacking. Deficiency of transaldolase (TAL), a rate-limiting enzyme of the non-oxidative branch of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), restricts growth and predisposes to cirrhosis and HCC in mice and humans. Here, we show that mitochondrial oxidative stress and progression from cirrhosis to HCC and acetaminophen-induced liver necrosis are critically dependent on NADPH depletion and polyol buildup by aldose reductase (AR), while this enzyme protects from carbon trapping in the PPP and growth restriction in TAL deficiency. Both TAL and AR are confined to the cytosol; however, their inactivation distorts mitochondrial redox homeostasis in opposite directions. The results suggest that AR acts as a rheostat of carbon recycling and NADPH output of the PPP with broad implications for disease progression from cirrhosis to HCC.

The Green Valley of Drosophila melanogaster Constitutive Heterochromatin: Protein-Coding Genes Involved in Cell Division Control

Constitutive heterochromatin represents a significant fraction of eukaryotic genomes (10% in Arabidopsis, 20% in humans, 30% in D. melanogaster, and up to 85% in certain nematodes) and shares similar genetic and molecular properties in animal and plant species. Studies conducted over the last few years on D. melanogaster and other organisms led to the discovery of several functions associated with constitutive heterochromatin. This made it possible to revise the concept that this ubiquitous genomic territory is incompatible with gene expression. The aim of this review is to focus the attention on a group of protein-coding genes resident in D. melanogaster constitutive of heterochromatin, which are implicated in different steps of cell division.

Comparative Proteomic Analyses of Poorly Motile Swamp Buffalo Spermatozoa Reveal Low Energy Metabolism and Deficiencies in Motility-Related Proteins

The acquisition of mammalian sperm motility is a main indicator of epididymal sperm maturation and helps ensure fertilization. Poor sperm motility will prevent sperm cells from reaching the fertilization site, resulting in fertilization failure. To investigate the proteomic profiling of normal and poorly motile buffalo spermatozoa, a strategy applying liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry combined with tandem mass targeting was used. As a result, 145 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified in poorly motile spermatozoa (fold change > 1.5), including 52 upregulated and 93 downregulated proteins. The upregulated DEPs were mainly involved in morphogenesis and regulation of cell differentiation. The downregulated DEPs were involved with transport, oxidation-reduction, sperm motility, regulation of cAMP metabolism and regulation of DNA methylation. The mRNA and protein levels of PRM1 and AKAP3 were lower in poorly motile spermatozoa, while the expressions of SDC2, TEKT3 and IDH1 were not correlated with motility, indicating that their protein changes were affected by transcription or translation. Such changes in the expression of these proteins suggest that the formation of poorly motile buffalo spermatozoa reflects a low efficiency of energy metabolism, decreases in sperm protamine proteins, deficiencies in motility-related proteins, and variations in tail structural proteins. Such proteins could be biomarkers of poorly motile spermatozoa. These results illustrate some of the molecular mechanisms associated with poorly motile spermatozoa and provide clues for finding molecular markers of these pathways.

The Pentose Phosphate Pathway in Cancer: Regulation and Therapeutic Opportunities

BACKGROUND

Tumorigenesis is associated with deregulation of nutritional requirements, intermediary metabolites production, and microenvironment interactions. Unlike their normal cell counterparts, tumor cells rely on aerobic glycolysis, through the Warburg effect.

SUMMARY

The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) is a major glucose metabolic shunt that is upregulated in cancer cells. The PPP comprises an oxidative and a nonoxidative phase and is essential for nucleotide synthesis of rapidly dividing cells. The PPP also generates nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, which is required for reductive metabolism and to counteract oxidative stress in tumor cells. This article reviews the regulation of the PPP and discusses inhibitors that target its main pathways. Key Message: Exploiting the metabolic vulnerability of the PPP offers potential novel therapeutic opportunities and improves patients' response to cancer therapy.

Hypergonadotrophic hypogonadism in a patient with transaldolase deficiency: novel mutation in the pentose phosphate pathway

BACKGROUND

Transaldolase (TALDO) deficiency (OMIM #606003) is a rare autosomal recessive multi-systemic disorder of carbohydrate metabolism. It has a vast phenotypic spectrum ranging from neonatal liver failure to slowly progressive liver cirrhosis and is characterized by intrauterine growth restriction, hepatosplenomegaly, bicytopenia, nephrolithiasis, and congenital heart disease.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We report a patient with a late-onset form of TALDO deficiency characterized by hypergonadotropic hypogonadism and slightly elevated levels of alpha-fetoprotein (AFP). A novel TALDO1 mutation was detected through the application of reverse genetics with the use of clinical exome sequencing (CES).

CONCLUSION

This report provides further evidence that reverse genetics is a useful approach in patients who do not manifest the hallmark features of known and recognizable syndromes. TALDO deficiency should be considered in the differential diagnosis of unexplained elevated AFP levels and hypergonadotropic hypogonadism with microlithiasis.

Nrf2 deficiency decreases NADPH from impaired IDH shuttle and pentose phosphate pathway in retinal pigmented epithelial cells to magnify oxidative stress-induced mitochondrial dysfunction

The nuclear factor‐erythroid 2‐related factor‐2 (Nrf2), a major antioxidant transcription factor, is decreased in several age‐related diseases including age‐related macular degeneration (AMD), the most common cause of blindness among the elderly in western society. Since Nrf2’s mito‐protective response is understudied, we investigated its antioxidant response on mitochondria. Control and Nrf2‐deficient retinal pigmented epithelial (RPE) cells were compared after treating with cigarette smoke extract (CSE). Mitochondrial antioxidant abundance and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were quantified. Mitochondrial function was assessed by TMRM assay, NADPH, electron transport chain activity, and Seahorse. Results were corroborated in Nrf2^−/− mice and relevance to AMD was provided by immunohistochemistry of human globes. CSE induced mitochondrial ROS to impair mitochondrial function. H₂O₂ increase in particular, was magnified by Nrf2 deficiency, and corresponded with exaggerated mitochondrial dysfunction. While Nrf2 did not affect mitochondrial antioxidant abundance, oxidized PRX3 was magnified by Nrf2 deficiency due to decreased NADPH from decreased expression of IDH2 and pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) genes. With severe CSE stress, intrinsic apoptosis was activated to increase cell death. PPP component TALDO1 immunolabeling was decreased in dysmorphic RPE of human AMD globes. Despite limited regulation of mitochondrial antioxidant expression, Nrf2 influences PPP and IDH shuttle activity that indirectly supplies NADPH for the TRX2 system. These results provide insight into how Nrf2 deficiency impacts the mitochondrial antioxidant response, and its role in AMD pathobiology.

GSM2, a transaldolase, contributes to reactive oxygen species homeostasis in Arabidopsis

Plants are exposed to various environmental cues that lead to reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation. ROS production and detoxification are tightly regulated to maintain balance. Although studies of glucose (Glc) are always accompanied by ROS in animals, the role of Glc in respect of ROS in plants is unclear. We isolated gsm2 (Glc-hypersensitive mutant 2), a mutant with a notably chlorotic-cotyledon phenotype. The chloroplast-localized GSM2 was characterized as a transaldolase in the pentose phosphate pathway. With 3% Glc treatment, fewer or no thylakoids were observed in gsm2 cotyledon chloroplasts than in wild-type cotyledon chloroplasts, suggesting that GSM2 is required for chloroplast protection under stress. gsm2 also showed evaluated accumulation of ROS with 3% Glc treatment and was more sensitive to exogenous H₂O₂ than the wild type. Gene expression analysis of the antioxidant enzymes in gsm2 revealed that chloroplast damage to gsm2 cotyledons results from the accumulation of excessive ROS in response to Glc. Moreover, the addition of diphenyleneiodonium chloride or phenylalanine can rescue Glc-induced chlorosis in gsm2 cotyledons. This work suggests that GSM2 functions to maintain ROS balance in response to Glc during early seedling growth and sheds light on the relationship between Glc, the pentose phosphate pathway and ROS.

Transaldolase haploinsufficiency in subjects with acetaminophen-induced liver failure

Transaldolase (TAL) is an enzyme in the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) that generates NADPH for protection against oxidative stress. While deficiency of other PPP enzymes, such as transketolase (TKT), are incompatible with mammalian cell survival, mice lacking TAL are viable and develop progressive liver disease attributed to oxidative stress. Mice with homozygous or heterozygous TAL deficiency are predisposed to cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and acetaminophen (APAP)-induced liver failure. Both mice and humans with complete TAL deficiency accumulate sedoheptulose 7-phosphate (S7P). Previous human studies relied on screening patients with S7P accumulation, thus excluding potentially pathogenic haploinsufficiency. Of note, mice with TAL haploinsufficiency are also predisposed to HCC and APAP-induced liver failure which are preventable with oral N-acetylcysteine (NAC) administration. Based on TALDO1 DNA sequencing, we detected functional TAL deficiency due to novel, heterozygous variations in two of 94 healthy adults and four of 27 subjects with APAP-induced liver failure (P = .022). The functional consequences of these variations were individually validated by site-directed mutagenesis of normal cDNA and loss of activity by recombinant enzyme. All four patients with TAL haplo-insufficiency with APAP-induced liver failure were successfully treated with NAC. We also document two novel variations in two of 15 children with previously unexplained liver cirrhosis. Examination of the National Center for Biotechnology Information databases revealed 274 coding region variations have been documented in 1125 TALDO1 sequences relative to 25 variations in 2870 TKT sequences (P < .0001). These findings suggest an unexpected prevalence and variety of genetic changes in human TALDO1 with relevance for liver injury that may be preventable by treatment with NAC.

Correlation between sperm mitochondrial ND5 and ND6 gene variations and total fertilisation failure

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to investigate the correlation between sperm mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 5 (ND5) and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 6 (ND6) gene variations and total fertilisation failure (TFF).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 232 sperm samples at the fresh in vitro fertilisation (IVF) cycle or the half-intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) cycle were collected for this retrospective controlled study on Han Chinese people between July 2011 and April 2014. Of the 232 total samples, 45 were from the IVF-TFF group and 187 were from couples with normal fertilisation (fertilisation rate > 50%). The mitochondrial ND5 and ND6 gene variations and sperm haplotypes were confirmed using nested PCR and DNA sequencing.

RESULTS

Ten homozygous variations were newly discovered, namely C12417T, T12441A, C12543A, C13650A, C13765A, T13769C, C13775T, A13776G, C13785A and C13845T. The gene variation rates of six sites, C12417T, C13650A, C13765A, T13769C, C13785A and C13845T, in the TFF group were significantly higher than those in the control group (p < 0.05). There were 231 heterozygous variations discovered; however, only nine heterozygous sites (12441, 12561, 12735, 13164, 13743, 13812, 13928, 14172 and 14368) had significantly higher gene variation rates than those in the control group (p < 0.05). In addition, the results showed that haplogroup C did not affect TFF (p > 0.05), and the fertilisation failure rates of haplogroup R and haplogroup D4a were both higher than those in the control group (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggested that the ND5 and ND6 gene variations are correlated with TFF. Furthermore, this study indicated that haplogroup R and haplogroup D4a might be risk factors for TFF.

The True Story of Yeti, the "Abominable" Heterochromatic Gene of Drosophila melanogaster

The Drosophila Yeti gene (CG40218) was originally identified by recessive lethal mutation and subsequently mapped to the deep pericentromeric heterochromatin of chromosome 2. Functional studies have shown that Yeti encodes a 241 amino acid protein called YETI belonging to the evolutionarily conserved family of Bucentaur (BCNT) proteins and exhibiting a widespread distribution in animals and plants. Later studies have demonstrated that YETI protein: (i) is able to bind both subunits of the microtubule-based motor kinesin-I; (ii) is required for proper chromosome organization in both mitosis and meiosis divisions; and more recently (iii) is a new subunit of dTip60 chromatin remodeling complex. To date, other functions of YETI counterparts in chicken (CENtromere Protein 29, CENP-29), mouse (Cranio Protein 27, CP27), zebrafish and human (CranioFacial Development Protein 1, CFDP1) have been reported in literature, but the fully understanding of the multifaceted molecular function of this protein family remains still unclear. In this review we comprehensively highlight recent work and provide a more extensive hypothesis suggesting a broader range of YETI protein functions in different cellular processes.

Clinical, biochemical, and molecular overview of transaldolase deficiency and evaluation of the endocrine function: Update of 34 patients

BACKGROUND

Transaldolase deficiency (TALDO-D) is a rare autosomal recessive inborn error of the pentose phosphate pathway. Since its first description in 2001, several case reports have been published, but there has been no comprehensive overview of phenotype, genotype, and phenotype-genotype correlation.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective questionnaire and literature study of clinical, biochemical, and molecular data of 34 patients from 25 families with proven TALDO-D. In some patients, endocrine abnormalities have been found. To further evaluate these abnormalities, we performed biochemical investigations on blood of 14 patients.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Most patients (n = 22) had an early-onset presentation (prenatally or before 1 month of age); 12 patients had a late-onset presentation (3 months to 9 years). Main presenting symptoms were intrauterine growth restriction, dysmorphic facial features, congenital heart disease, anemia, thrombocytopenia, and hepato(spleno)megaly. An older sib of two affected patients was asymptomatic until the age of 9 years, and only after molecular diagnosis was hepatomegaly noted. In some patients, there was gonadal dysfunction with low levels of testosterone and secondary luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) abnormalities later in life. This overview provides information that can be helpful for managing patients and counseling families regarding prognosis. Diagnostic guidelines, possible genotype-phenotype correlations, treatment options, and pathophysiological disease mechanisms are proposed.

Metabolic enhancers supporting 1-carbon cycle affect sperm functionality: an in vitro comparative study

The sperm plasma membrane is a sensitive target to oxidative stress. The most representative reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavengers in the genital tract, hypotaurine and glutathione, require, for their synthesis, cysteine whose availability is associated with the 1-carbon cycle (1-CC). Human, bovine and ascidian spermatozoa were incubated with compounds supporting the 1-CC (Vitamin B6, Methylcobalamin, 5 Methyl Tetrahydrofolate, Zinc Bisglycinate and N-acetyl-cysteine) (TRT) and compared to the effects induced solely by N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC). In control groups (CNTRL), spermatozoa were incubated with medium alone. After 90 and 180 minutes of incubation, the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨM) in TRT and NAC was significantly (P < 0.01) higher than in CNTRL. At H₂DCFDA evaluation, ROS production differed between species whereas, at 2-OH Ethidium, it significantly decreased in bovine TRT group. Intracellular pH (pH_i) did not significantly vary in relation to treatment. In ascidian spermatozoa, the NAC supplementation decreased external pH, which in turn brought to a pH_i lowering. Buffering seawater with NaHCO₃ reversed the beneficial effects of N-acetyl-cysteine supplementation. In conclusion, both fully supporting the 1-CC and treatment with N-acetyl-cysteine alone improved kinetics, ΔΨM and ROS production in mammalian sperm demonstrating for the first time the direct in vitro effects of these compounds on sperm functionality.

[Transaldolase deficiency - clinical outcome, pathogenesis, diagnostic process]

Transaldolase deficiency is a rare inborn autosomal recessive error of the pentose phosphate pathway that, to date, has been diagnosed in 33 patients, including 4 from Poland. The aim of this manuscript was to present the clinical presentation, pathogenesis and diagnostic process of transaldolase deficiency. The authors also present a diagnostic algorithm of transaldolase deficiency.

Long-Term Systematic Monitoring of Four Polish Transaldolase Deficient Patients

INTRODUCTION

Transaldolase deficiency (TALDO; OMIM 606003) is a rare inborn autosomal recessive error of the pentose phosphate pathway that, to date, has been diagnosed in 33 patients. Tżhere are few reports regarding the long-term follow-up of these patients.The aim of our study is to present the disease progression in the form of a systematic long-term follow-up of four Polish patients with TALDO.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We report four patients who manifested early onset TALDO. They were monitored with systematic clinical and laboratory examinations for 4-13 years. The dominant feature was an early liver injury, with subsequent renal tubulopathy. All patients presented with osteopenia and poor physical development. Our data shows that polyol concentrations seem to decrease with age.

CONCLUSIONS

In our patients, a progressive coagulopathy was the most sensitive parameter of liver dysfunction. Nodular fibrosis of the liver developed over the natural course of TALDO. This is the first report of long-term systematic clinical and biochemical monitoring of the disease progress in patients with TALDO.

Transaldolase inhibition impairs mitochondrial respiration and induces a starvation-like longevity response in Caenorhabditis elegans

Mitochondrial dysfunction can increase oxidative stress and extend lifespan in Caenorhabditis elegans. Homeostatic mechanisms exist to cope with disruptions to mitochondrial function that promote cellular health and organismal longevity. Previously, we determined that decreased expression of the cytosolic pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) enzyme transaldolase activates the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPR^mt) and extends lifespan. Here we report that transaldolase (tald-1) deficiency impairs mitochondrial function in vivo, as evidenced by altered mitochondrial morphology, decreased respiration, and increased cellular H₂O₂ levels. Lifespan extension from knockdown of tald-1 is associated with an oxidative stress response involving p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) MAPKs and a starvation-like response regulated by the transcription factor EB (TFEB) homolog HLH-30. The latter response promotes autophagy and increases expression of the flavin-containing monooxygenase 2 (fmo-2). We conclude that cytosolic redox established through the PPP is a key regulator of mitochondrial function and defines a new mechanism for mitochondrial regulation of longevity.

There are a growing number of studies linking mitochondrial dysfunction to enhanced longevity, especially in the nematode C. elegans. The reasons for these pro-longevity effects have been elusive, but one current model is that adaptive responses to mitochondrial inhibition promote organismal health and stress resistance. Here, we report an intriguing example of mitochondrial stress induced by inhibition of a cytosolic metabolic pathway that extends lifespan in worms. We find that inhibition of the pentose phosphate pathway, which is essential for cytosolic redox homeostasis, affects multiple parameters of mitochondrial function and activates a starvation-like response that promotes longevity through recycling of damaged cellular components and induction of the enzyme flavin-containing monooxygenase 2. These results establish novel links between the pentose phosphate pathway, mitochondrial function, redox homeostasis, and organismal aging.

Two isoforms of TALDO1 generated by alternative translational initiation show differential nucleocytoplasmic distribution to regulate the global metabolic network

Transaldolase 1 (TALDO1) is a rate-limiting enzyme involved in the pentose phosphate pathway, which is traditionally thought to occur in the cytoplasm. In this study, we found that the gene TALDO1 has two translational initiation sites, generating two isoforms that differ by the presence of the first 10 N-terminal amino acids. Notably, the long and short isoforms were differentially localised to the cell nucleus and cytoplasm, respectively. Pull-down and in vitro transport assays showed that the long isoform, unlike the short one, binds to importin α and is actively transported into the nucleus in an importin α/β-dependent manner, demonstrating that the 10 N-terminal amino acids are essential for its nuclear localisation. Additionally, we found that these two isoforms can form homo- and/or hetero-dimers with different localisation dynamics. A metabolite analysis revealed that the subcellular localisation of TALDO1 is not crucial for its activity in the pentose phosphate pathway. However, the expression of these two isoforms differentially affected the levels of various metabolites, including components of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, nucleotides, and sugars. These results demonstrate that the nucleocytoplasmic distribution of TALDO1, modulated via alternative translational initiation and dimer formation, plays an important role in a wide range of metabolic networks.

Transaldolase gene Tal67 enhances the biocontrol activity of Clonostachys rosea 67-1 against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

Clonostachys rosea is a promising biocontrol agent that parasitizes various fungal plant pathogens. In this paper, transaldolase gene Tal67 was found to be greatly upregulated in C. rosea isolate 67-1 during mycoparasitism of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum sclerotia. Quantitative real-time PCR revealed a significant increase in expression at 0-48 h after induction by sclerotia, and the level peaked at 13.9-fold higher than the control at 24 h. Gene disruption led to a decrease in the growth rate of the Tal67-deficient strain ΔTal67 to 5.3 mm/day, which was much lower than the wild type and the complemented strain ΔTal67+ (P < 0.05). The antagonistic activity of ΔTal67 against Botrytis cinerea was 15.8% lower than the wild type, and the parasitic rate to S. sclerotiorum decreased by 24.6%. However, reinsertion of the transaldolase gene recovered the fungicidal activity of C. rosea. The efficacy of the mutants against soybean Sclerotinia stem rot was evaluated in the greenhouse, and the control efficiency of isolate 67-1 reached 65.3%, while the efficiency of the ΔTal67 strain decreased sharply to 17.8%, and the complemented strain ΔTal67+ recovered to 64.8%. These results suggest that Tal67 plays an important role in the growth and biocontrol activity of C. rosea.

Acetaminophen-induced S-nitrosylation and S-sulfenylation signalling in 3D cultured hepatocarcinoma cell spheroids

Acetaminophen (APAP) is possibly the most widely used medication globally and yet little is known of its molecular effects at therapeutic doses. Using a novel approach, we have analysed the redox proteome of the hepatocellular cell line HepG2/C3A treated with therapeutic doses of APAP and quantitated both individual protein abundance and their reversible S-nitrosylation (SNO) and S-sulfenylation (SOH) modifications by mass spectrometry. APAP treatment results in a late, transient increase in ATP production and a multiplicity of alterations in protein abundance and modifications. The majority of the differentially SNO or SOH modified proteins are found in the endoplasmic reticulum and cytosol, suggesting that the source of reactive species is there. The cellular response indicates: constraint of fatty acid metabolism; reduction in ribosome construction and protein synthesis (to conserve ATP); maintenance of glutathione levels (by increased synthetic capacity); and an increased NADPH production (via the pentose phosphate pathway). This response appears to be coordinated, directly or indirectly, by the canonical Wnt and Nrf2 signalling pathways. Combined with the known role of NAPQI, these studies suggest that the physiological and toxicological responses form a continuum: therapeutic doses of APAP produce reactive species and NAPQI in the cytoplasm but result in little permanent damage. The cell mounts a multifaceted response which minimises disruption and repairs are effected within a day or two. Higher doses of APAP lead to intensified reactive species production, which increasingly disturbs mitochondrial function and eventually leads to cell death.

Expression and localization of testis developmental related gene 1 (TDRG1) in human spermatozoa

Testis-specific proteins, synthesized during spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis, are necessary for spermatid differentiation and/or for mature sperm function during fertilization. However, majority of these genes have neither been identified nor fully characterized. Testis developmental related gene 1 (TDRG1), a newly identified human testis-specific gene, encodes a 100-amino-acid protein without any characterized protein domains, and it may play a role in spermatogenesis. However, whether this human-specific protein is important for mature sperm function remains unclear. As an initial effort, in this study, we aimed to systematically investigate the expression and localization of TDRG1 in normal human spermatozoa. Thus, immunohistochemistry was used to analyze the distribution of TDRG1 in human testis. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, western blot analysis and indirect immunofluorescence were used to determine the expression and localization of TDRG1 in normal human spermatozoa. The immunohistochemistry results showed that the TDRG1 protein was expressed in spermatogenic cells in the seminiferous tubules of human testis. Interestingly, the TDRG1 was more abundant in spermatogenic cells at the late stages of spermatogenesis. The TDRG1 antibody specifically recognized an 11-kDa protein only in soluble extracts from normal human spermatozoa. Indirect immunofluorescence assays indicated that TDRG1 located in the midpiece, principal piece and flagellum of normal human spermatozoa. In conclusion, TDRG1 was found not only in spermatogonia, but also in spermatozoa. The localization of TDRG1 in human normal spermatozoa implies its potential regulatory role in sperm motility.

Differences between high- and low-motility buffalo sperm identified by comparative proteomics

This study was undertaken to investigate differences in protein expression between high- and low-motility sperm of swamp buffalo. The research used two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) coupled to matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS) to analyse the different proteins. The results showed 18 different expression protein spots between high- and low-motility buffalo sperm; eight of these proteins were up-regulated in low-motility sperm, five were down-regulated, one deleted and four proteins specifically expressed. Finally, four proteins were successfully identified by MS as belonging to three unique proteins; they are outer dense fibre of sperm tails protein 2 (ODF2), ATP synthase subunit alpha (ATP5A1) and succinyl-CoA synthetase subunit beta (SUCLG2). In summary, these results help to develop an understanding of the molecular mechanisms associated with low-motility sperm and provide clues for finding molecular markers associated with sperm motility.

Activation of the mitochondrial unfolded protein response does not predict longevity in Caenorhabditis elegans

Recent studies have propagated the model that the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPR(mt)) is causal for lifespan extension from inhibition of the electron transport chain (ETC) in Caenorhabditis elegans. Here we report a genome-wide RNAi screen for negative regulators of the UPR(mt). Lifespan analysis of nineteen RNAi clones that induce the hsp-6p::gfp reporter demonstrate differential effects on longevity. Deletion of atfs-1, which is required for induction of the UPR(mt), fails to prevent lifespan extension from knockdown of two genes identified in our screen or following knockdown of the ETC gene cco-1. RNAi knockdown of atfs-1 also has no effect on lifespan extension caused by mutation of the ETC gene isp-1. Constitutive activation of the UPR(mt) by gain of function mutations in atfs-1 fails to extend lifespan. These observations identify several new factors that promote mitochondrial homoeostasis and demonstrate that the UPR(mt), as currently defined, is neither necessary nor sufficient for lifespan extension.

Proteomic analyses reveal a role of cytoplasmic droplets as an energy source during epididymal sperm maturation

A small portion of cytoplasm is generally retained as the cytoplasmic droplet (CD) on the flagellum of spermatozoa after spermiation in mice. CDs are believed to play a role in osmoadaptation by allowing water entrance or exit. However, many lines of evidence suggest that CDs may have roles beyond osmoregulation. To gain more insights, we purified CDs from murine epididymal spermatozoa and conducted proteomic analyses on proteins highly enriched in CDs. Among 105 proteins identified, 71 (68%) were enzymes involved in energy metabolism. We also found that sperm mitochondria underwent a reactivation process and glycolytic enzymes were further distributed and incorporated into different regions of the flagellum during epididymal sperm maturation. Both processes appeared to require CDs. Our data suggest that the CD represents a transient organelle that serves as an energy source essential for epididymal sperm maturation.

The pentose phosphate pathway: an antioxidant defense and a crossroad in tumor cell fate

The pentose phosphate pathway, one of the main antioxidant cellular defense systems, has been related for a long time almost exclusively to its role as a provider of reducing power and ribose phosphate to the cell. In addition to this "traditional" correlation, in the past years multiple roles have emerged for this metabolic cascade, involving the cell cycle, apoptosis, differentiation, motility, angiogenesis, and the response to anti-tumor therapy. These findings make the pentose phosphate pathway a very interesting target in tumor cells. This review summarizes the latest discoveries relating the activity of the pentose phosphate pathway to various aspects of tumor metabolism, such as cell proliferation and death, tissue invasion, angiogenesis, and resistance to therapy, and discusses the possibility that drugs modulating the pathway could be used as potential tools in tumor therapy.

Delivering value from sperm proteomics for fertility

Fertilization of an egg by a spermatozoon sets the stage for mammalian development. Viable sperm are a prerequisite for successful fertilization and beyond. Spermatozoa have a unique cell structure where haploid genomic DNA is located in a tiny cytoplasmic space in the head, mitochondria in the midpiece and then the tail, all enclosed by several layers of membrane. Proteins in sperm play vital roles in motility, capacitation, fertilization, egg activation and embryo development. Molecular defects in these proteins are associated with low fertility or in some cases, infertility. This review will first summarize genesis, molecular anatomy and physiology of spermatozoa, fertilization, embryogenesis and then those proteins playing important roles in various aspects of sperm physiology.

Mice overexpression of human augmenter of liver regeneration (hALR) in male germ cells shows abnormal spermatogenesis and reduced fertility

Human augmenter of liver regeneration (hALR) is a sulfhydryl oxidase that is highly expressed in spermatogonia and early spermatocytes. To investigate the physiological effects of hALR in spermatogenesis, we generated a hALR transgenic mouse model driven by the human TSPY (testis-specific protein, Y-encoded) promoter that allows the transgene to be specifically activated in the testes. hALR content was found to be increased in both germ cells. The histological and TUNEL analysis of transgenic testes revealed a number of spermatogenetic defects including primary spermatocyte overpopulation followed by depletion through apoptosis, degenerating and detached nucleated germ cells, haploid cell loss and intraepithelial vacuoles of varying sizes. In line with these features, adult transgenic male mice also displayed a reduction in fertility. Our data suggest that regulated spatial and temporal expression of hALR is required for normal testicular development and spermatogenesis, and overexpression of hALR results in influencing the sperm morphology and quantity and the eventual reduction in male fertility. Present findings in the mouse may be of interest to human male fertility.

Decreased motility of human spermatozoa presenting phosphatidylserine membrane translocation-cells selection with the swim-up technique

Phosphatidylserine membrane translocation (PST) is considered to be a marker of apoptosis; however, numerous studies have reported on its role in processes not related to cell death. The purpose of the study was to investigate: (1) what is the impact of PST on the motility of spermatozoa, and (2) does the swim-up isolation involve the percentage of cells presenting PST? Semen of 28 normozoospermic men (WHO criteria) was analyzed. High motility spermatozoa were isolated by the swim-up technique. The percentage of spermatozoa with PST in neat semen and after swim-up isolation was assessed with Annexin-V labeled with fluorescein, using flow cytometry technique. The spermatozoas’ motility was measured with a computer-assisted analysis system. The kinetic subpopulations of spermatozoa were identified with dedicated software and analyzed regarding PST. Vital spermatozoa with PST demonstrated progressive movement. The motion analysis system revealed a very strong positive correlation between the percentage of vital spermatozoa with PST and the percentage of spermatozoa belonging to the slow subpopulation (r = 0.83; p < 0.05), as well as a very strong negative correlation between the percentage of vital spermatozoa with PST and the percentage of spermatozoa belonging to the rapid subpopulation (r = −0.86; p < 0.05). After the swim-up isolation, the percentage of vital spermatozoa presenting PST significantly decreased (2.4 ± 2.1% vs. 5.2 ± 2.4%; p < 0.05). Spermatozoa with PST present progressive movement; however, their motility is decreased. Isolation of spermatozoa with the swim-up technique eliminates the cells with PST.

Oxidative stress, inflammation and carcinogenesis are controlled through the pentose phosphate pathway by transaldolase

Metabolism of glucose through the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) influences the development of diverse pathologies. Hemolytic anemia due to deficiency of PPP enzyme glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase is the most common genetic disease in humans. Recently, inactivation of another PPP enzyme, transaldolase (TAL), has been implicated in male infertility and fatty liver progressing to steatohepatitis and cancer. Hepatocarcinogenesis was associated with activation of aldose reductase and redox-sensitive transcription factors and prevented by N-acetylcysteine. In this paper, we discuss how alternative formulations of the PPP with and without TAL reflect cell type-specific metabolic control of oxidative stress, a crucial source of inflammation and carcinogenesis. Ongoing studies of TAL deficiency will identify new molecular targets for diagnosis and treatment in clinical practice.

Mendelian genetics of male infertility

Infertility is defined as the inability of a couple to conceive despite trying for a year, and it affects approximately 15% of the reproductive-age population. It is considered a genetically lethal factor, as the family lineage stops at that individual with no progeny produced. A genetic defect associated with an infertile individual cannot be transmitted to the offspring, ensuring the maintenance of reproductive fitness of the species. However, with the advent of assisted reproductive techniques (ART), we are now able to overcome sterility and bypass nature's protective mechanisms that developed through evolution to prevent fertilization by defective or deficient sperm.

Capacitation status of activated bovine sperm cultured in media containing methyl-β-cyclodextrin affects the acrosome reaction and fertility

Mammalian sperm undergo a series of biochemical transformations in the female reproductive tract that are collectively known as capacitation. One of the key processes involved in capacitation is the activation of sperm motility. Here, we investigated the capacitation and fertility status of activated sperm which had been cultured in media containing methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MBCD). In order to do this, single activated sperm were caught using a micropipette and stained with chlortetracycline (CTC). Firstly, we investigated the effects of preincubation upon motility, capacitation of activated sperm and fertility. Culture in preincubation media supplemented with MBCD increased the rates of activation and fertilization compared with sperm cultured by control methods (p < 0.05). Following capture, individual activated sperm mostly exhibited a pattern characteristic of capacitation.Secondly we examined the effects of culturing sperm in media with or without glucose (G) and pyruvate acid (P) upon activated motility, the capacitation of activated sperm and fertility. Supplementation of culture media with G and P resulted in higher proportions of activated sperm and increased fertilization rates compared to culture without G and P (p < 0.05). Most of the sperm activated by culture in G and P exhibited patterns characteristic of capacitation. Without G and P, individual activated sperm mostly exhibited patterns characteristic of the acrosome reaction (p < 0.05). In conclusion, activated sperm exhibited patterns characteristic of capacitation. In addition, sperm activated in media containing an energy source (glucose and pyruvate acid) appeared to exhibit acrosome reactiveness and fertility.

Methamphetamine causes mitrochondrial oxidative damage in human T lymphocytes leading to functional impairment

Methamphetamine (METH) abuse is known to be associated with an inordinate rate of infections. Although many studies have described the association of METH exposure and immunosuppression, so far the underlying mechanism still remains elusive. In this study, we present evidence that METH exposure resulted in mitochondrial oxidative damage and caused dysfunction of primary human T cells. METH treatment of T lymphocytes led to a rise in intracellular calcium levels that enhanced the generation of reactive oxygen species. TCR-CD28 linked calcium mobilization and subsequent uptake by mitochondria in METH-treated T cells correlated with an increase in mitochondrion-derived superoxide. Exposure to METH-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in the form of marked decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential, increased mitochondrial mass, enhanced protein nitrosylation and diminished protein levels of complexes I, III, and IV of the electron transport chain. These changes paralleled reduced IL-2 secretion and T cell proliferative responses after TCR-CD28 stimulation indicating impaired T cell function. Furthermore, antioxidants attenuated METH-induced mitochondrial damage by preserving the protein levels of mitochondrial complexes I, III, and IV. Altogether, our data indicate that METH can cause T cell dysfunction via induction of oxidative stress and mitochondrial injury as underlying mechanism of immune impairment secondary to METH abuse.

Surfing the wave, cycle, life history, and genes/proteins expressed by testicular germ cells. Part 4: intercellular bridges, mitochondria, nuclear envelope, apoptosis, ubiquitination, membrane/voltage-gated channels, methylation/acetylation, and transcription factors

As germ cells divide and differentiate from spermatogonia to spermatozoa, they share a number of structural and functional features that are common to all generations of germ cells and these features are discussed herein. Germ cells are linked to one another by large intercellular bridges which serve to move molecules and even large organelles from the cytoplasm of one cell to another. Mitochondria take on different shapes and features and topographical arrangements to accommodate their specific needs during spermatogenesis. The nuclear envelope and pore complex also undergo extensive modifications concomitant with the development of germ cell generations. Apoptosis is an event that is normally triggered by germ cells and involves many proteins. It occurs to limit the germ cell pool and acts as a quality control mechanism. The ubiquitin pathway comprises enzymes that ubiquitinate as well as deubiquitinate target proteins and this pathway is present and functional in germ cells. Germ cells express many proteins involved in water balance and pH control as well as voltage-gated ion channel movement. In the nucleus, proteins undergo epigenetic modifications which include methylation, acetylation, and phosphorylation, with each of these modifications signaling changes in chromatin structure. Germ cells contain specialized transcription complexes that coordinate the differentiation program of spermatogenesis, and there are many male germ cell-specific differences in the components of this machinery. All of the above features of germ cells will be discussed along with the specific proteins/genes and abnormalities to fertility related to each topic.

Epididymis seleno-independent glutathione peroxidase 5 maintains sperm DNA integrity in mice

The mammalian epididymis provides sperm with an environment that promotes their maturation and protects them from external stresses. For example, it harbors an array of antioxidants, including non-conventional glutathione peroxidase 5 (GPX5), to protect them from oxidative stress. To explore the role of GPX5 in the epididymis, we generated mice that lack epididymal expression of the enzyme. Histological analyses of Gpx5-/- epididymides and sperm cells revealed no obvious defects. Furthermore, there were no apparent differences in the fertilization rate of sexually mature Gpx5-/- male mice compared with WT male mice. However, a higher incidence of miscarriages and developmental defects were observed when WT female mice were mated with Gpx5-deficient males over 1 year old compared with WT males of the same age. Flow cytometric analysis of spermatozoa recovered from Gpx5-null and WT male mice revealed that sperm DNA compaction was substantially lower in the cauda epididymides of Gpx5-null animals and that they suffered from DNA oxidative attacks. Real-time PCR analysis of enzymatic scavengers expressed in the mouse epididymis indicated that the cauda epididymidis epithelium of Gpx5-null male mice mounted an antioxidant response to cope with an excess of ROS. These observations suggest that GPX5 is a potent antioxidant scavenger in the luminal compartment of the mouse cauda epididymidis that protects spermatozoa from oxidative injuries that could compromise their integrity and, consequently, embryo viability.

Prevention of hepatocarcinogenesis and increased susceptibility to acetaminophen-induced liver failure in transaldolase-deficient mice by N-acetylcysteine

Although oxidative stress has been implicated in acute acetaminophen-induced liver failure and in chronic liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), no common underlying metabolic pathway has been identified. Recent case reports suggest a link between the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) enzyme transaldolase (TAL; encoded by TALDO1) and liver failure in children. Here, we show that Taldo1-/- and Taldo1+/- mice spontaneously developed HCC, and Taldo1-/- mice had increased susceptibility to acetaminophen-induced liver failure. Oxidative stress in Taldo1-/- livers was characterized by the accumulation of sedoheptulose 7-phosphate, failure to recycle ribose 5-phosphate for the oxidative PPP, depleted NADPH and glutathione levels, and increased production of lipid hydroperoxides. Furthermore, we found evidence of hepatic mitochondrial dysfunction, as indicated by loss of transmembrane potential, diminished mitochondrial mass, and reduced ATP/ADP ratio. Reduced beta-catenin phosphorylation and enhanced c-Jun expression in Taldo1-/- livers reflected adaptation to oxidative stress. Taldo1-/- hepatocytes were resistant to CD95/Fas-mediated apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. Remarkably, lifelong administration of the potent antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) prevented acetaminophen-induced liver failure, restored Fas-dependent hepatocyte apoptosis, and blocked hepatocarcinogenesis in Taldo1-/- mice. These data reveal a protective role for the TAL-mediated branch of the PPP against hepatocarcinogenesis and identify NAC as a promising treatment for liver disease in TAL deficiency.

Activation of mammalian target of rapamycin controls the loss of TCRzeta in lupus T cells through HRES-1/Rab4-regulated lysosomal degradation

Persistent mitochondrial hyperpolarization (MHP) and enhanced calcium fluxing underlie aberrant T cell activation and death pathway selection in systemic lupus erythematosus. Treatment with rapamycin, which effectively controls disease activity, normalizes CD3/CD28-induced calcium fluxing but fails to influence MHP, suggesting that altered calcium fluxing is downstream or independent of mitochondrial dysfunction. In this article, we show that activity of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), which is a sensor of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential, is increased in lupus T cells. Activation of mTOR was inducible by NO, a key trigger of MHP, which in turn enhanced the expression of HRES-1/Rab4, a small GTPase that regulates recycling of surface receptors through early endosomes. Expression of HRES-1/Rab4 was increased in CD4(+) lupus T cells, and in accordance with its dominant impact on the endocytic recycling of CD4, it was inversely correlated with diminished CD4 expression. HRES-1/Rab4 overexpression was also inversely correlated with diminished TCRzeta protein levels. Pull-down studies revealed a direct interaction of HRES-1/Rab4 with CD4 and TCRzeta. Importantly, the deficiency of the TCRzeta chain and of Lck and the compensatory up-regulation of FcepsilonRIgamma and Syk, which mediate enhanced calcium fluxing in lupus T cells, were reversed in patients treated with rapamcyin in vivo. Knockdown of HRES-1/Rab4 by small interfering RNA and inhibitors of lysosomal function augmented TCRzeta protein levels in vitro. The results suggest that activation of mTOR causes the loss of TCRzeta in lupus T cells through HRES-1/Rab4-dependent lysosomal degradation.

Transaldolase: from biochemistry to human disease

The role of the enzyme transaldolase (TAL) in central metabolism, its biochemical properties, structure, and role in human disease is reviewed. The nearly ubiquitous enzyme transaldolase is a part of the pentose phosphate pathway and transfers a dihydroxyacetone group from donor compounds (fructose 6-phosphate or sedoheptulose 7-phosphate) to aldehyde acceptor compounds. The phylogeny of transaldolases shows that five subfamilies can be distinguished, three of them with proven TAL enzyme activity, one with unclear function, and the fifth subfamily comprises transaldolase-related enzymes, the recently discovered fructose 6-phosphate aldolases. The three-dimensional structure of a bacterial (Escherichia coli TAL B) and the human enzyme (TALDO1) has been solved. Based on the 3D-structure and mutagenesis studies, the reaction mechanism was deduced. The cofactor-less enzyme proceeds with a Schiff base intermediate (bound dihydroxyacetone). While a transaldolase deficiency is well tolerated in many microorganisms, it leads to severe symptoms in homozygous TAL-deficient human patients. The involvement of TAL in oxidative stress and apoptosis, in multiple sclerosis, and in cancer is discussed.

Mitochondria in mammalian sperm physiology and pathology: a review

While, for a long time, the role of mitochondria in sperm physiology and pathology has been largely ignored, recent research points out the mitochondria as a major organelle with key roles in sperm function both under physiological and biotechnological conditions. This paper briefly reviews these novel findings regarding the role of mitochondria in sperm, paying special attention to the most practical, readily applicable, aspects of the topic such as their role as a major source of the sublethal damage that sperm experiments after cryopreservation.