Association of a common complement receptor 2 haplotype with increased risk of systemic lupus erythematosus

Complement receptor type 1 and 2 (CR1 and CR2) gene polymorphisms and plasma protein levels are associated with the Dengue disease severity

The pathological outcome of dengue disease results from complex interactions between dengue virus (DENV) and host genetics and immune response. Complement receptor types 1 and 2 (CR1 and CR2) mediate complement activation through the alternative pathway. This study investigated the possible association of genetic polymorphisms and plasma levels of CR1 and CR2 with dengue disease. A total of 267 dengue patients and 133 healthy controls were recruited for this study. CR1 and CR2 gene polymorphisms were analyzed by Sanger sequencing, while plasma CR1 and CR2 levels were measured by ELISA. The frequency of the CR1 minor allele rs6691117G was lower in dengue patients and those with severe dengue compared to healthy controls. Plasma CR1 and CR2 levels were decreased in dengue patients compared to healthy controls (P < 0.0001) and were associated with platelet counts. CR1 levels were lower in dengue patients with warning signs (DWS) compared to those without DWS, while CR2 levels were decreased according to the severity of the disease and after 5 days (T1) and 8 days (T2) of follow-up. CR2 levels were decreased in dengue patients positive for anti-DENV IgG and IgM and patients with bleeding and could discriminate DWS and SD from dengue fever patients (AUC = 0.66). In conclusion, this study revealed a reduction in CR2 levels in dengue patients and that the CR1 SNP rs6691117A/G is associated with the dengue severity. The correlation of CR2 levels with platelet counts suggests that CR2 could be an additional biomarker for the prognosis of severe dengue disease.

Identification of a novel mutation in complement receptor 2 in Chinese familial systemic lupus erythematosus

Objectives

This study aims to analyze the relationship between complement receptor 2 (CR2) gene mutation and the clinical phenotype in Chinese familial systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).

Patients and methods

A total of one Chinese familial SLE patients (median age: 30.25 years; range, 22 to 49 years) were included between January 2017 and December 2018. The clinical features and diagnoses of familial SLE patients were analyzed using whole-exome sequencing (WES) of genomic deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) samples. Sanger sequencing was used to verify candidate mutations detected in the examined family.

Results

The mother and her three daughters were diagnosed with SLE. The clinical characteristics showed that the patient and her mother were diagnosed with lupus nephritis. The eldest daughter had decreased renal function and lower serum albumin levels. Immunological index analysis showed that all four patients were positive for anti-SSA and antinuclear antibody (ANA), but that only the second daughter was positive for anti-double-stranded DNA (dsDNA). Complement 3 (C3) was significantly decreased in all patients, while evaluation of the Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index (SLEDAI) showed that the second and third daughters had mild active SLE. The mother and eldest daughter were treated with prednisolone combined with cyclophosphamide, while the other two daughters were treated with prednisolone alone. The WES and Sanger sequencing analyses revealed an unreported missense T>C mutation c.2804 in the 15^th exon of the CR gene in all four patients.

Conclusion

We identified a novel c.2804 (exon 15) T>C mutation in the CR gene of Chinese familial SLE. This mutation was previously reported, suggesting that the CR gene c.2804 (exon 15) T>C mutation is the probable cause of SLE in this family.

IL-4-Induced Quiescence of Resting Naive B Cells Is Disrupted in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Activated naive (aNAV) B cells have been shown to be the precursor of the CD11c+T-bet+ IgD-CD27- double-negative (DN)2 or atypical memory (aMEM) B cells in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). To determine factors that maintain resting naive (rNAV) B cells, the transcriptomic program in naive (IGHD+IGHM +) B cells in human healthy control subjects (HC) and subjects with SLE was analyzed by single-cell RNA-sequencing analysis. In HC, naive B cells expressed IL-4 pathway genes, whereas in SLE, naive B cells expressed type I IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). In HC, aNAV B cells exhibited upregulation of the gene signature of germinal center and classical memory (cMEM) B cells. In contrast, in SLE, aNAV B cells expressed signature genes of aMEM. In vitro exposure of SLE B cells to IL-4 promoted B cell development into CD27+CD38+ plasmablasts/plasma and IgD-CD27+ cMEM B cells. The same treatment blocked the development of CD11c+Tbet+ aNAV and DN2 B cells and preserved DN B cells as CD11c-Tbet- DN1 B cells. Lower expression of IL-4R and increased intracellular IFN-β in naive B cells was correlated with the accumulation of CD21-IgD- B cells and the development of anti-Smith and anti-DNA autoantibodies in patients with SLE (n = 47). Our results show that IL-4R and type I IFN signaling in naive B cells induce the development of distinct lineages of cMEM versus aMEM B cells, respectively. Furthermore, diminished IL-4R signaling shifted activated B cell development from the DN1 to the DN2 trajectory in patients with SLE. Therapies that enhance IL-4R signaling may be beneficial for ISGhi SLE patients.

Regulatory Architecture of the RCA Gene Cluster Captures an Intragenic TAD Boundary, CTCF-Mediated Chromatin Looping and a Long-Range Intergenic Enhancer

The Regulators of Complement Activation (RCA) gene cluster comprises several tandemly arranged genes with shared functions within the immune system. RCA members, such as complement receptor 2 (CR2), are well-established susceptibility genes in complex autoimmune diseases. Altered expression of RCA genes has been demonstrated at both the functional and genetic level, but the mechanisms underlying their regulation are not fully characterised. We aimed to investigate the structural organisation of the RCA gene cluster to identify key regulatory elements that influence the expression of CR2 and other genes in this immunomodulatory region. Using 4C, we captured extensive CTCF-mediated chromatin looping across the RCA gene cluster in B cells and showed these were organised into two topologically associated domains (TADs). Interestingly, an inter-TAD boundary was located within the CR1 gene at a well-characterised segmental duplication. Additionally, we mapped numerous gene-gene and gene-enhancer interactions across the region, revealing extensive co-regulation. Importantly, we identified an intergenic enhancer and functionally demonstrated this element upregulates two RCA members (CR2 and CD55) in B cells. We have uncovered novel, long-range mechanisms whereby autoimmune disease susceptibility may be influenced by genetic variants, thus highlighting the important contribution of chromatin topology to gene regulation and complex genetic disease.

Innate Immunity: A Balance between Disease and Adaption to Stress

Since first being documented in ancient times, the relation of inflammation with injury and disease has evolved in complexity and causality. Early observations supported a cause (injury) and effect (inflammation) relationship, but the number of pathologies linked to chronic inflammation suggests that inflammation itself acts as a potent promoter of injury and disease. Additionally, results from studies over the last 25 years point to chronic inflammation and innate immune signaling as a critical link between stress (exogenous and endogenous) and adaptation. This brief review looks to highlight the role of the innate immune response in disease pathology, and recent findings indicating the innate immune response to chronic stresses as an influence in driving adaptation.

Complement Receptors and Their Role in Leukocyte Recruitment and Phagocytosis

The complement system is deeply embedded in our physiology and immunity. Complement activation generates a multitude of molecules that converge simultaneously on the opsonization of a target for phagocytosis and activation of the immune system via soluble anaphylatoxins. This response is used to control microorganisms and to remove dead cells, but also plays a major role in stimulating the adaptive immune response and the regeneration of injured tissues. Many of these effects inherently depend on complement receptors expressed on leukocytes and parenchymal cells, which, by recognizing complement-derived molecules, promote leukocyte recruitment, phagocytosis of microorganisms and clearance of immune complexes. Here, the plethora of information on the role of complement receptors will be reviewed, including an analysis of how this functionally and structurally diverse group of molecules acts jointly to exert the full extent of complement regulation of homeostasis.

Physical 'strength' of the multi-protein chain connecting immune cells: Does the weakest link limit antibody affinity maturation?: The weakest link in the multi-protein chain facilitating antigen acquisition by B cells in germinal centres limits antibody affinity maturation

The affinities of antibodies (Abs) for their target antigens (Ags) gradually increase in vivo following an infection or vaccination, but reach saturation at values well below those realisable in vitro. This 'affinity ceiling' could in many cases restrict our ability to fight infections and compromise vaccines. What determines the affinity ceiling has been an unresolved question for decades. Here, we argue that it arises from the strength of the chain of protein complexes that is pulled by B cells during the process of Ag acquisition. The affinity ceiling is determined by the strength of the weakest link in the chain. We identify the weakest link and show that the resulting affinity ceiling can explain the Ab affinities realized in vivo, providing a conceptual understanding of Ab affinity maturation. We explore plausible evolutionary underpinnings of the affinity ceiling, examine supporting evidence and alternative hypotheses and discuss implications for vaccination strategies.

A novel mouse model expressing human forms for complement receptors CR1 and CR2

BACKGROUND

The complement cascade is increasingly implicated in development of a variety of diseases with strong immune contributions such as Alzheimer's disease and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Mouse models have been used to determine function of central components of the complement cascade such as C1q and C3. However, species differences in their gene structures mean that mice do not adequately replicate human complement regulators, including CR1 and CR2. Genetic variation in CR1 and CR2 have been implicated in modifying disease states but the mechanisms are not known.

RESULTS

To decipher the roles of human CR1 and CR2 in health and disease, we engineered C57BL/6J (B6) mice to replace endogenous murine Cr2 with human complement receptors, CR1 and CR2 (B6.CR2CR1). CR1 has an array of allotypes in human populations and using traditional recombination methods (Flp-frt and Cre-loxP) two of the most common alleles (referred to here as CR1long and CR1short) can be replicated within this mouse model, along with a CR1 knockout allele (CR1KO). Transcriptional profiling of spleens and brains identified genes and pathways differentially expressed between mice homozygous for either CR1long, CR1short or CR1KO. Gene set enrichment analysis predicts hematopoietic cell number and cell infiltration are modulated by CR1long, but not CR1short or CR1KO.

CONCLUSION

The B6.CR2CR1 mouse model provides a novel tool for determining the relationship between human-relevant CR1 alleles and disease.

A transcriptome-wide association study based on 27 tissues identifies 106 genes potentially relevant for disease pathology in age-related macular degeneration

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) for late stage age-related macular degeneration (AMD) have identified 52 independent genetic variants with genome-wide significance at 34 genomic loci. Typically, such an approach rarely results in the identification of functional variants implicating a defined gene in the disease process. We now performed a transcriptome-wide association study (TWAS) allowing the prediction of effects of AMD-associated genetic variants on gene expression. The TWAS was based on the genotypes of 16,144 late-stage AMD cases and 17,832 healthy controls, and gene expression was imputed for 27 different human tissues which were obtained from 134 to 421 individuals. A linear regression model including each individuals imputed gene expression data and the respective AMD status identified 106 genes significantly associated to AMD variants in at least one tissue (Q-value < 0.001). Gene enrichment analysis highlighted rather systemic than tissue- or cell-specific processes. Remarkably, 31 of the 106 genes overlapped with significant GWAS signals of other complex traits and diseases, such as neurological or autoimmune conditions. Taken together, our study highlights the fact that expression of genes associated with AMD is not restricted to retinal tissue as could be expected for an eye disease of the posterior pole, but instead is rather ubiquitous suggesting processes underlying AMD pathology to be of systemic nature.

Association of complement C3d receptor 2 genotypes with the acquisition of HIV infection in a trial of recombinant glycoprotein 120 vaccine

OBJECTIVES

Complement C3d receptor 2 (CR2) is the main receptor for complement protein C3d and plays an important role in adaptive immune responses. CR2 genetic variants are associated with susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus as well as to HIV-1 infection. In addition, CR2 function can be subverted by HIV-1 for an efficient entry into target cells; in a process known as antibody-dependent enhancement of viral infection. We sought to determine the association between CR2 gene variants with HIV-1 acquisition after vaccination with recombinant gp120 protein (Vax004 clinical trial).

DESIGN AND METHODS

This is a retrospective cross-sectional study, comprising male volunteers of European ancestry including infected (n = 273) and uninfected (n = 402) vaccinees and placebo, who were genotyped for three single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the CR2 gene region.

RESULTS

An interaction was observed between the baseline sexual behavior and the SNP rs3813946 for higher risk of infection in vacinees (interaction term P = 0.02). This SNP was associated with increased susceptibility to HIV-1 infection after vaccination in volunteers with low behavioral risk odds ratio (95% confidence interval): 5.5 (1.4-21.7) P = 0.006 but not vaccinees with high behavioral risk or volunteers given placebo (P = 0.7). Moreover, CR2 genotype was strongly associated with the rate of HIV-1 acquisition after vaccination in low-risk volunteers [hazard odds ratio (95% confidence interval): 3.3 (1.6-7.0), P = 0.001].

CONCLUSION

The current study suggests that CR2 may play a role in HIV-1 acquisition after vaccination with rgp120 proteins.

Association of Epstein-Barr virus serological reactivation with transitioning to systemic lupus erythematosus in at-risk individuals

Objective.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a systemic autoimmune disease with unknown etiology. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is an environmental factor associated with SLE. EBV maintains latency in B cells with frequent reactivation measured by antibodies against viral capsid antigen (VCA) and early antigen (EA). In this study, we determined whether EBV reactivation and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in EBV-associated host genes are associated with SLE transition.

Methods.

SLE patient relatives (n=436) who did not have SLE at baseline were re-contacted after 6.3 (±3.9) years and evaluated for interim transitioning to SLE (≥4 cumulative ACR criteria); 56 (13%) transitioned to SLE prior to the follow-up visit. At both visits, detailed demographic, environmental, clinical information, and blood samples were obtained. Antibodies against viral antigens were measured by ELISA. SNPs in IL10, CR2, TNFAIP3, and CD40 genes were typed by ImmunoChip™. Generalized estimating equations were used to test associations between viral antibody levels and transitioning to SLE.

Results.

Mean baseline VCA IgG (4.879±1.797 vs 3.866±1.795, p=0.0003) and EA IgG (1.192±1.113 vs 0.7774±0.8484, p=0.0236) levels were higher in transitioned compared to autoantibody negative non-transition relatives. Increased VCA IgG and EA IgG were associated with transitioning to SLE (OR 1.28 95%CI 1.07–1.53 p=0.007, OR 1.43 95%CI 1.06–1.93 p=0.02, respectively). Significant interactions were observed between CD40 variant rs48100485 and VCA IgG levels, and IL10 variant rs3024493 and VCA IgA levels in transitioning to SLE.

Conclusion.

Heightened serologic reactivation of EBV increases the probability of transitioning to SLE in unaffected SLE relatives.

Interaction between IL-33 Gene Polymorphisms and Current Smoking with Susceptibility to Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Aims

This study is aimed at exploring the relation between IL-33 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and the risk of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).

Methods

SNPStats (online software) was used to test the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium in controls. Generalized multifactor dimensionality reduction (GMDR) was adopted to screen the preferable interaction between IL-33 SNPs and current smoking.

Results

Logistic regression analysis based on the fundamental data of age, gender, BMI, current smoking, and alcohol drinking showed that both rs1929992-G and rs1891385-C alleles were correlated with an increasing risk of SLE, the ORs (95% CI) of which were 1.62 (1.21-2.05) and 1.64 (1.22-2.10), respectively. One two-locus model (rs1929992×current smoking) had a testing accuracy of 60.11% (P = 0.0010). Through an overall multidimensional model, optimum cross-validation consistency was obtained. The analysis indicated that current smoking status influenced the SLE risk depending on the genotypes at rs1929992. Pairwise LD analysis indicated that haplotype rs1929992G-rs7044343T was statistically related to the elevating risk of SLE (P < 0.05). Those subjects with the G-T haplotype had a higher SLE risk than those with other haplotypes, after correction with factors, including gender, alcohol drinking, age, BMI, and current smoking.

Conclusions

The rs1929992-G and rs1891385-C allele, interaction between the rs1929992 gene and current smoking, and haplotype rs1929992G-rs7044343T were all risk factors of SLE.

Characterization of genetic predisposition and autoantibody profile in atypical haemolytic-uraemic syndrome

We previously reported that Indian paediatric patients with atypical haemolytic-uraemic syndrome (aHUS) showed high frequencies of anti-complement factor H (FH) autoantibodies that are correlated with homozygous deletion of the genes for FH-related proteins 1 and 3 (FHR1 and FHR3) (FHR1/3-/- ). We now report that Indian paediatric aHUS patients without anti-FH autoantibodies also showed modestly higher frequencies of the FHR1/3-/- genotype. Further, when we characterized epitope specificities and binding avidities of anti-FH autoantibodies in aHUS patients, most anti-FH autoantibodies were directed towards the FH cell-surface anchoring polyanionic binding site-containing C-terminal short conservative regions (SCRs) 17-20 with higher binding avidities than for native FH. FH SCR17-20-binding anti-FH autoantibodies also bound the other cell-surface anchoring polyanionic binding site-containing region FH SCR5-8, at lower binding avidities. Anti-FH autoantibody avidities correlated with antibody titres. These anti-FH autoantibody characteristics did not differ between aHUS patients with or without the FHR1/3-/- genotype. Our data suggest a complex matrix of interactions between FHR1-FHR3 deletion, immunomodulation and anti-FH autoantibodies in the aetiopathogenesis of aHUS.

Association of interleukin-10 gene single nucleotide polymorphisms with susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus in a Chinese population

The aim of this study was to investigate the association of interleukin (IL)-10 gene single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in a Chinese population. 848 SLE patients and 461 normal controls were recruited in this study. Nine SNPs in IL-10 gene (rs1518110, rs1518111, rs1554286, rs1800890, rs1800893, rs3024493, rs3024495, rs3024498 and rs6667202) were genotyped using TaqMan genotyping assays on Fluidigm 192.24 system. The frequency of IL-10 rs3024498-C allele was significantly higher in patient group compared with control subjects (OR=5.118, 95% CI=1.819-14.405, P=0.002). No significant differences were detected for the distribution of allele and genotype frequencies of other eight SNPs between patients with SLE and controls after Bonferroni correction (all P>0.0056). Interestingly, significant differences were detected both in the allele and genotype frequencies of rs3024498 between SLE patients with and without arthritis (P=0.002, P=0.022, respectively).There was significant difference in genotype frequency at rs3024498 between SLE patients with and without malar rash (P=0.040). And, there was significant difference in allele frequency at rs3024498 between SLE patients with and without anti-double-stranded DNA (P=0.032). Meanwhile, significant difference in genotype frequency at rs1518110 and rs1518111 were found in patients with and without lupus headache (P=0.025, P=0.038, respectively). There were significant difference in allele and genotype frequency at rs1800890 and rs6667202 between SLE patients with and without thrombocytopenia (rs1800890: P=0.016, P=0.026, respectively; rs6667202: P=0.007, P=0.007, respectively). Further, significant difference were observed both in allele frequency and in genotype distribution of rs1800893 between patients with and without tubular urine and proteinuria (tubular urine: P<0.001, P=0.003, respectively; proteinuria: P=0.001, P=0.018, respectively). In summary, IL-10 rs3024498 polymorphism might contribute to SLE susceptibility and several clinical phenotypes.

Potential influences of complement factor H in autoimmune inflammatory and thrombotic disorders

Complement system homeostasis is important for host self-protection and anti-microbial immune surveillance, and recent research indicates roles in tissue development and remodelling. Complement also appears to have several points of interaction with the blood coagulation system. Deficiency and altered function due to gene mutations and polymorphisms in complement effectors and regulators, including Factor H, have been associated with familial and sporadic autoimmune inflammatory - thrombotic disorders, in which autoantibodies play a part. These include systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, atypical haemolytic uremic syndrome, anti-phospholipid syndrome and age-related macular degeneration. Such diseases are generally complex - multigenic and heterogeneous in their symptoms and predisposition/susceptibility. They usually need to be triggered by vascular trauma, drugs or infection and non-complement genetic factors also play a part. Underlying events seem to include decline in peripheral regulatory T cells, dendritic cell, and B cell tolerance, associated with alterations in lymphoid organ microenvironment. Factor H is an abundant protein, synthesised in many cell types, and its reported binding to many different ligands, even if not of high affinity, may influence a large number of molecular interactions, together with the accepted role of Factor H within the complement system. Factor H is involved in mesenchymal stem cell mediated tolerance and also contributes to self-tolerance by augmenting iC3b production and opsonisation of apoptotic cells for their silent dendritic cell engulfment via complement receptor CR3, which mediates anti-inflammatory-tolerogenic effects in the apoptotic cell context. There may be co-operation with other phagocytic receptors, such as complement C1q receptors, and the Tim glycoprotein family, which specifically bind phosphatidylserine expressed on the apoptotic cell surface. Factor H is able to discriminate between self and nonself surfaces for self-protection and anti-microbe defence. Factor H, particularly as an abundant platelet protein, may also modulate blood coagulation, having an anti-thrombotic role. Here, we review a number of interaction pathways in coagulation and in immunity, together with associated diseases, and indicate where Factor H may be expected to exert an influence, based on reports of the diversity of ligands for Factor H.

The genetic basis of systemic lupus erythematosus: What are the risk factors and what have we learned

The genome-wide association study is a free-hypothesis approach based on screening of thousands or even millions of genetic variants distributed throughout the whole human genome in relation to a phenotype. The relevant role of the genome-wide association studies in the last decade is undisputed because it has permitted to elucidate multiple risk genetic factors associated with the susceptibility to several human complex diseases. Regarding systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) this approach has allowed to identify more than 60 risk loci for SLE susceptibility across populations to date, increasing our understanding on the pathogenesis of this disease. We present the latest findings in the genetic of SLE across populations using genome-wide approaches. These studies revealed that most of the genetic risk is shared across borders and ethnicities. Finally, we focus on describing the most important risk loci for SLE attempting to cover the genetic findings in relation to functional polymorphisms, such as missense single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) or regulatory variants involved in the development of the disease. The functional studies try to identify the causality of some GWAS-associated variants, many of which fall in non-coding regions of the genome, suggesting a regulatory role. Many loci show an environmental interaction, another aspect revealed by the studies of epigenetic modifications and those associated with genetic variants. Finally, new-generation sequencing technologies can open other paths in the research on SLE genetics, the role of rare variants and the detailed identification of causal regulatory variation. The clinical relevance of the genetic factors will be shown when we are able to use them or in combination with other molecular measurements to re-classify a heterogeneous disease such as SLE.

Association of Complement Receptor 2 Gene Polymorphisms with Susceptibility to Osteonecrosis of the Femoral Head in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Osteonecrosis of the femoral head (ONFH) is a complex and multifactorial disease that is influenced by a number of genetic factors in addition to environmental factors. Some autoimmune disorders, including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), are associated with the development of ONFH. Complement receptor type 2 (CR2) is membrane glycoprotein which binds C3 degradation products generated during complement activation. CR2 has many important functions in normal immunity and is assumed to play a role in the development of autoimmune disease. We investigated whether CR2 gene polymorphisms are associated with risk of ONFH in SLE patients. Eight polymorphisms in the CR2 gene were genotyped using TaqMan™ assays in 150 SLE patients and 50 ONFH in SLE patients (SLE_ONFH). The association analysis of genotyped SNPs and haplotypes was performed with ONFH. It was found that three SNPs, rs3813946 in 5′-UTR (untranslated region), rs311306 in intron 1, and rs17615 in exon 10 (nonsynonymous SNP; G/A, Ser639Asn) of the CR2 gene, were associated with an increased risk of ONFH under recessive model (P values; 0.004~0.016). Haplotypes were also associated with an increased risk (OR; 3.73~) of ONFH in SLE patients. These findings may provide evidences that CR2 contributes to human ONFH susceptibility in Korean SLE patients.

A CD21 low phenotype, with no evidence of autoantibodies to complement proteins, is consistent with a poor prognosis in CLL

B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is characterized by differential BCR signaling and autoimmune complications. Complement modulates B-cell function via C3d and CD21 cross-linked to the B-cell receptor (BCR). We hypothesized that CD21 contributes to BCR signaling and participates in the autoimmunity associated with CLL. We analyzed CD21 expression on 106 CLL patient samples and matched serum from 50 patients for the presence of soluble CD21 and autoantibodies to CR2, CR1, MCP and FH. CD21 expression on CLL B-cells was significantly lower than that expressed on B-cells from age-matched controls (P < 0.0001) and was inversely correlated with soluble CD21 (r² = −0.41). We found no evidence of autoantibody to any complement regulator. Low CD21 expression correlated to prognostic subsets of CLL patients, i.e. cases with unmutated IGHV genes (P = 0.0006), high CD38 (P = 0.02) and high ZAP70 expression (P = 0.0017). Low CD21 expression was inversely correlated to the levels of phosphotyrosine induced in CLL cells following BCR ligation with αIgM (r²=–0.21). Importantly, lower CD21 expression was also predictive for reduced overall survival (P = 0.005; HR = 2.7). In conclusion, we showed that reduced expression of CD21 on CLL B-cells appears functionally relevant and was associated with poor clinical outcomes.

Association of complement receptor 2 polymorphisms with innate resistance to HIV-1 infection

HIV-1 induces activation of complement through the classical and lectin pathways. However, the virus incorporates several membrane-bound or soluble regulators of complement activation (RCA) that inactivate complement. HIV-1 can also use the complement receptors (CRs) for complement-mediated antibody-dependent enhancement of infection (Ć-ADE). We hypothesize that hypofunctional polymorphisms in RCA or CRs may protect from HIV-1 infection. For this purpose, 139 SNPs located in 19 RCA and CRs genes were genotyped in a population of 201 Spanish HIV-1-exposed seronegative individuals (HESN) and 250 HIV-1-infected patients. Two SNPs were associated with infection susceptibility, rs1567190 in CR2 (odds ratio (OR) = 2.27, P = 1 × 10(-4)) and rs2842704 in C4BPA (OR = 2.11, P = 2 × 10(-4)). To replicate this finding, we analyzed a cohort of Italian, sexually HESN individuals. Although not significant (P = 0.25, OR = 1.57), similar genotypic proportions were obtained for the CR2 marker rs1567190. The results of the two association analyses were combined through a random effect meta-analysis, with a significant P-value of 2.6 x 10(-5) (OR = 2.07). Furthermore, we found that the protective CR2 genotype is correlated with lower levels CR2 mRNA as well as differences in the ratio of the long and short CR2 isoforms.

Comparison of the gene expression profiles between gallstones and gallbladder polyps

BACKGROUND

Gallstones and gallbladder polyps (GPs) are two major types of gallbladder diseases that share multiple common symptoms. However, their pathological mechanism remains largely unknown. The aim of our study is to identify gallstones and GPs related-genes and gain an insight into the underlying genetic basis of these diseases.

METHODS

We enrolled 7 patients with gallstones and 2 patients with GP for RNA-Seq and we conducted functional enrichment analysis and protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks analysis for identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs).

RESULTS

RNA-Seq produced 41.7 million in gallstones and 32.1 million pairs in GPs. A total of 147 DEGs was identified between gallstones and GPs. We found GO terms for molecular functions significantly enriched in antigen binding (GO:0003823, P=5.9E-11), while for biological processes, the enriched GO terms were immune response (GO:0006955, P=2.6E-15), and for cellular component, the enriched GO terms were extracellular region (GO:0005576, P=2.7E-15). To further evaluate the biological significance for the DEGs, we also performed the KEGG pathway enrichment analysis. The most significant pathway in our KEGG analysis was Cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction (P=7.5E-06). PPI network analysis indicated that the significant hub proteins containing S100A9 (S100 calcium binding protein A9, Degree=94) and CR2 (complement component receptor 2, Degree=8).

CONCLUSION

This present study suggests some promising genes and may provide a clue to the role of these genes playing in the development of gallstones and GPs.

Preferential association of a functional variant in complement receptor 2 with antibodies to double-stranded DNA

Objectives

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE; OMIM 152700) is characterised by the production of antibodies to nuclear antigens. We previously identified variants in complement receptor 2 (CR2/CD21) that were associated with decreased risk of SLE. This study aimed to identify the causal variant for this association.

Methods

Genotyped and imputed genetic variants spanning CR2 were assessed for association with SLE in 15 750 case-control subjects from four ancestral groups. Allele-specific functional effects of associated variants were determined using quantitative real-time PCR, quantitative flow cytometry, electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-PCR.

Results

The strongest association signal was detected at rs1876453 in intron 1 of CR2 (p_meta=4.2×10⁻⁴, OR 0.85), specifically when subjects were stratified based on the presence of dsDNA autoantibodies (case-control p_meta=7.6×10⁻⁷, OR 0.71; case-only p_meta=1.9×10⁻⁴, OR 0.75). Although allele-specific effects on B cell CR2 mRNA or protein levels were not identified, levels of complement receptor 1 (CR1/CD35) mRNA and protein were significantly higher on B cells of subjects harbouring the minor allele (p=0.0248 and p=0.0006, respectively). The minor allele altered the formation of several DNA protein complexes by EMSA, including one containing CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF), an effect that was confirmed by ChIP-PCR.

Conclusions

These data suggest that rs1876453 in CR2 has long-range effects on gene regulation that decrease susceptibility to lupus. Since the minor allele at rs1876453 is preferentially associated with reduced risk of the highly specific dsDNA autoantibodies that are present in preclinical, active and severe lupus, understanding its mechanisms will have important therapeutic implications.

Genetics and epigenetics of systemic lupus erythematosus

Genetics unquestionably contributes to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) predisposition, progression and outcome. Nevertheless, single-gene defects causing lupus-like phenotypes have been infrequently documented. The majority of the identified genetic SLE risk factors are, therefore, common variants, responsible for a small effect on the global risk. Recently, genome wide association studies led to the identification of a growing number of gene variants associated with SLE susceptibility, particular disease phenotypes, and antibody profiles. Further studies addressed the biological effects of these variants. In addition, the role of epigenetics has recently been revealed. These combined efforts contributed to a better understanding of SLE pathogenesis and to the characterization of clinically relevant pathways. In this review, we describe SLE-associated single-gene defects, common variants, and epigenetic changes. We also discuss the limitations of current methods and the challenges that we still have to face in order to incorporate genomic and epigenomic data into clinical practice.

Preferential binding to Elk-1 by SLE-associated IL10 risk allele upregulates IL10 expression

Immunoregulatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10) is elevated in sera from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) correlating with disease activity. The established association of IL10 with SLE and other autoimmune diseases led us to fine map causal variant(s) and to explore underlying mechanisms. We assessed 19 tag SNPs, covering the IL10 gene cluster including IL19, IL20 and IL24, for association with SLE in 15,533 case and control subjects from four ancestries. The previously reported IL10 variant, rs3024505 located at 1 kb downstream of IL10, exhibited the strongest association signal and was confirmed for association with SLE in European American (EA) (P = 2.7×10⁻⁸, OR = 1.30), but not in non-EA ancestries. SNP imputation conducted in EA dataset identified three additional SLE-associated SNPs tagged by rs3024505 (rs3122605, rs3024493 and rs3024495 located at 9.2 kb upstream, intron 3 and 4 of IL10, respectively), and SLE-risk alleles of these SNPs were dose-dependently associated with elevated levels of IL10 mRNA in PBMCs and circulating IL-10 protein in SLE patients and controls. Using nuclear extracts of peripheral blood cells from SLE patients for electrophoretic mobility shift assays, we identified specific binding of transcription factor Elk-1 to oligodeoxynucleotides containing the risk (G) allele of rs3122605, suggesting rs3122605 as the most likely causal variant regulating IL10 expression. Elk-1 is known to be activated by phosphorylation and nuclear localization to induce transcription. Of interest, phosphorylated Elk-1 (p-Elk-1) detected only in nuclear extracts of SLE PBMCs appeared to increase with disease activity. Co-expression levels of p-Elk-1 and IL-10 were elevated in SLE T, B cells and monocytes, associated with increased disease activity in SLE B cells, and were best downregulated by ERK inhibitor. Taken together, our data suggest that preferential binding of activated Elk-1 to the IL10 rs3122605-G allele upregulates IL10 expression and confers increased risk for SLE in European Americans.

Linking complement and anti-dsDNA antibodies in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus is a severe autoimmune disease that affects multiple organ systems resulting in diverse symptoms and outcomes. It is characterized by antibody production to a variety of self-antigens, but it is specifically associated with those against anti-dsDNA. Anti-dsDNA antibodies are present before the onset of clinical disease and are associated with severe manifestations of lupus such as glomerulonephritis. Their levels fluctuate with changes in disease activity and, in combination with the levels of complement proteins C3 and C4, are strong indicators of disease flare and treatment response in patients with lupus. The decreased complement levels that are noted during flares of lupus activity are believed to be secondary to increased autoantibody production and immune complex formation that results in tissue damage; however, recent data suggest that complement activation can also drive development of these pathogenic autoantibodies. This review will explore the various roles of complement in the development and pathogenesis of anti-dsDNA antibodies.

Functional polymorphism in the 5'-UTR of CR2 is associated with susceptibility to nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a squamous cell cancer endemic in Southern China and Southeast Asia. It has been shown that inflammatory and immune responses during EBV infection contribute to the development of NPC. The complement receptor 2 (CR2) gene plays central roles during inflammatory and immune responses and, therefore, is a good candidate susceptibility gene for NPC. We performed PCR-based sequencing to identify multiple single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the exon regions of the CR2 gene in a Cantonese population. Two SNPs were screened in 528 NPC patients and 408 normal individuals to perform a case-control study matched according to age, gender and residence. Furthermore, we cloned the entire 5′-UTR and entire CR2 promoter into a luciferase report system and compared the luciferase activities between the different allelic constructs. A SNP in the 5′-UTR of CR2 (24 T/C, rs3813946) showed a significant association (P<0.01) with NPC in the Cantonese population studied. The subjects were categorized into 2 age groups: group 1, age ≤45 years and group 2, age >45 years. In group 1, the allelic frequencies of 24 T/C in the patients were significantly different from those of the controls (P=0.0034). The odds ratio (OR=1.81) also indicated a higher risk of NPC in individuals who carried the minor allele C. All constructs exerted allelic differences on luciferase activities, but only the susceptible allele +24C construct showed increased activity. Our findings implicate CR2 as a susceptibility gene for NPC and suggest that enhanced CR2 expression may be involved in the oncogenesis and development of NPC.

Murine lupus susceptibility locus Sle1c2 mediates CD4+ T cell activation and maps to estrogen-related receptor γ

Sle1c is a sublocus of the NZM2410-derived Sle1 major lupus susceptibility locus. We have shown previously that Sle1c contributes to lupus pathogenesis by conferring increased CD4(+) T cell activation and increased susceptibility to chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD), which mapped to the centromeric portion of the locus. In this study, we have refined the centromeric sublocus to a 675-kb interval, termed Sle1c2. Mice from recombinant congenic strains expressing Sle1c2 exhibited increased CD4(+) T cell intrinsic activation and cGVHD susceptibility, similar to mice with the parental Sle1c. In addition, B6.Sle1c2 mice displayed a robust expansion of IFN-γ-expressing T cells. NZB complementation studies showed that Sle1c2 expression exacerbated B cell activation, autoantibody production, and renal pathology, verifying that Sle1c2 contributes to lupus pathogenesis. The Sle1c2 interval contains two genes, only one of which, Esrrg, is expressed in T cells. B6.Sle1c2 CD4(+) T cells expressed less Esrrg than B6 CD4(+) T cells, and Esrrg expression was correlated negatively with CD4(+) T cell activation. Esrrg encodes an orphan nuclear receptor that regulates oxidative metabolism and mitochondrial functions. In accordance with reduced Esrrg expression, B6.Sle1c2 CD4(+) T cells present reduced mitochondrial mass and altered mitochondrial functions as well as altered metabolic pathway utilization when compared with B6 CD4(+) T cells. Taken together, we propose Esrrg as a novel lupus susceptibility gene regulating CD4(+) T cell function through their mitochondrial metabolism.

Transcriptional effects of a lupus-associated polymorphism in the 5' untranslated region (UTR) of human complement receptor 2 (CR2/CD21)

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disease with a strong genetic component that determines risk. A common three single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) haplotype of the complement receptor 2 (CR2) gene has been associated with increased risk of SLE (Wu et al., 2007; Douglas et al., 2009), and a less common haplotype consisting of the major allele at SNP1 and minor alleles at SNP2 and 3 confers protection (Douglas et al., 2009). SNP1 (rs3813946), which is located in the 5' untranslated region (UTR) of the CR2 gene, altered transcriptional activity of a CR2 promoter-luciferase reporter gene construct transiently transfected into a B cell line (Wu et al., 2007) and had an independent effect in the protective haplotype (Douglas et al., 2009). In this study, we show that this SNP alters transcriptional activity in a transiently transfected non B-cell line as well as in stably transfected cell lines, supporting its relevance in vivo. Furthermore, the allele at this SNP affects chromatin accessibility of the surrounding sequence and transcription factor binding. These data confirm the effects of rs3813946 on CR2 transcription, identifying the 5' UTR to be a novel regulatory element for the CR2 gene in which variation may alter gene function and modify the development of lupus.

Association of genetic variants in complement factor H and factor H-related genes with systemic lupus erythematosus susceptibility

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), a complex polygenic autoimmune disease, is associated with increased complement activation. Variants of genes encoding complement regulator factor H (CFH) and five CFH-related proteins (CFHR1-CFHR5) within the chromosome 1q32 locus linked to SLE, have been associated with multiple human diseases and may contribute to dysregulated complement activation predisposing to SLE. We assessed 60 SNPs covering the CFH-CFHRs region for association with SLE in 15,864 case-control subjects derived from four ethnic groups. Significant allelic associations with SLE were detected in European Americans (EA) and African Americans (AA), which could be attributed to an intronic CFH SNP (rs6677604, in intron 11, P_meta = 6.6×10⁻⁸, OR = 1.18) and an intergenic SNP between CFHR1 and CFHR4 (rs16840639, P_meta = 2.9×10⁻⁷, OR = 1.17) rather than to previously identified disease-associated CFH exonic SNPs, including I62V, Y402H, A474A, and D936E. In addition, allelic association of rs6677604 with SLE was subsequently confirmed in Asians (AS). Haplotype analysis revealed that the underlying causal variant, tagged by rs6677604 and rs16840639, was localized to a ∼146 kb block extending from intron 9 of CFH to downstream of CFHR1. Within this block, the deletion of CFHR3 and CFHR1 (CFHR3-1Δ), a likely causal variant measured using multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification, was tagged by rs6677604 in EA and AS and rs16840639 in AA, respectively. Deduced from genotypic associations of tag SNPs in EA, AA, and AS, homozygous deletion of CFHR3-1Δ (P_meta = 3.2×10⁻⁷, OR = 1.47) conferred a higher risk of SLE than heterozygous deletion (P_meta = 3.5×10⁻⁴, OR = 1.14). These results suggested that the CFHR3-1Δ deletion within the SLE-associated block, but not the previously described exonic SNPs of CFH, might contribute to the development of SLE in EA, AA, and AS, providing new insights into the role of complement regulators in the pathogenesis of SLE.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disease, associated with increased complement activation. Previous studies have provided evidence for the presence of SLE susceptibility gene(s) in the chromosome 1q31-32 locus. Within 1q32, genes encoding complement regulator factor H (CFH) and five CFH-related proteins (CFHR1-CFHR5) may contribute to the development of SLE, because genetic variants of these genes impair complement regulation and predispose to various human diseases. In this study, we tested association of genetic variants in the region containing CFH and CFHRs with SLE. We identified genetic variants predisposing to SLE in European American, African American, and Asian populations, which might be attributed to the deletion of CFHR3 and CFHR1 genes but not previously identified disease-associated exonic variants of CFH. This study provides the first evidence for consistent association between CFH/CFHRs and SLE across multi-ancestral SLE datasets, providing new insights into the role of complement regulators in the pathogenesis of SLE.

Current advances in lupus genetic and genomic studies in Asia

The genetic components in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) have long been established, however, it has been unclear for many years whether the same genetic risk factors for SLE are shared across different ethnic groups. Over the past few years, a number of genetic and genomic studies have been conducted in Asian populations to address this question. These studies have demonstrated that genetic heterogeneity does exist in SLE across different ethnic groups. With these studies, it has been established that a number of genes associated with SLE in Caucasians are also risk factors in Asians: HLA class II genes, STAT4, BANK1, BLK, IRF5, TNFSF4, ITGAM, etc., while there are also novel genetic risk factors identified by these studies in Asians, for instance, the ETS1 and WDFY4 in Chinese. For the genomic studies, the interferon signature has been confirmed as a major lupus molecular phenotype in Asians the same as in Caucasians; microRNA expression profiling and its novel role in regulating the interferon pathway has been first revealed in Asians. Further understanding of the function of lupus disease genes and delineating the key molecular pathway(s) will enhance the development of novel therapeutic targets and biomarkers for individualized clinical management for lupus patients.

Murine models of systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multifactorial autoimmune disorder. The study of diverse mouse models of lupus has provided clues to the etiology of SLE. Spontaneous mouse models of lupus have led to identification of numerous susceptibility loci from which several candidate genes have emerged. Meanwhile, induced models of lupus have provided insight into the role of environmental factors in lupus pathogenesis as well as provided a better understanding of cellular mechanisms involved in the onset and progression of disease. The SLE-like phenotypes present in these models have also served to screen numerous potential SLE therapies. Due to the complex nature of SLE, it is necessary to understand the effect specific targeted therapies have on immune homeostasis. Furthermore, knowledge gained from mouse models will provide novel therapy targets for the treatment of SLE.

The complex nature of serum C3 and C4 as biomarkers of lupus renal flare

To assess the relationship between serum C3 or C4 levels and lupus renal flare, C3 and C4 levels were measured bimonthly in 71 lupus nephritis patients for a mean of 35 months, during which time 70 renal flares were identified. Comparing baseline, pre-flare, and at-flare values indicated that neither C3 nor C4 levels decreased pre-flare, but both decreased on average significantly at flare. However, sensitivity/specificity for C3 (75%/71%) and C4 (48%/71%) were low. To account for other influencing factors, multiple regression was performed that included bimonthly values of C-reactive protein (CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), and genotype data on C3 (S/F), CRP (1846G > A), and the complement regulator factor H (Y402H). This analysis revealed that reduced levels of C4, but not C3, were independently associated with the two-month pre-flare period. Conversely, reduced levels of C3, but not C4, were independently associated with the flare visit. Significant pro-flare interactions included low C3 levels with the factor H 402HH-encoding genotype, and low CRP levels with the C3 F allele. Together these data suggest that C4 activation is critical for initiating renal flare while C3 activation is involved in the actual tissue damage, and that these effects are influenced by genetic variability in complement activation and regulation.

Murine lupus susceptibility locus Sle1a requires the expression of two sub-loci to induce inflammatory T cells

The NZM2410-derived Sle1a lupus susceptibility locus induces activated autoreactive CD4⁺ T cells and reduces the number and function of Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells. In this study, we first showed that Sle1a contributes to autoimmunity by increasing anti-nuclear antibody production when expressed on either NZB or NZW heterozygous genomes, and by enhancing the chronic graft vs. host disease response indicating an expansion of the autoreactive B cell pool. Screening two non-overlapping recombinants, the Sle1a.1 and Sle1a.2 intervals that cover the entire Sle1a locus, revealed that both Sle1a.1 and Sle1a.2 were necessary for the full Sle1a phenotype. Sle1a.1, and to a lesser extent Sle1a.2, significantly affected CD4⁺ T cell activation as well as Treg differentiation and function. Sle1a.2 also increased the production of autoreactive B cells. Since the Sle1a.1 and Sle1a.2 intervals contain only one and 15 known genes, respectively, this study considerably reduces the number of candidate genes responsible for the production of autoreactive T cells. These results also demonstrate that the Sle1 locus is an excellent model for the genetic architecture of lupus, in which a major obligate phenotype results from the co-expression of multiple genetic variants with individual weak effects.

Pathways: Strategies for susceptibility genes in SLE

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disorder marked by an inappropriate immune response to nuclear antigens. Recent whole genome association and more focused studies have revealed numerous genes implicated in this disease process, including ITGAM, Fc gamma receptors, complement components, C-reactive protein, and others. One common feature of these molecules is their involvement in the immune opsonin pathway and in phagocytic clearing of nuclear antigens and apoptotic debris, which provide excessive exposure of lupus-related antigens to immune cells. Analysis of gene-gene interactions in the opsonin pathway and its relationship to SLE may provide a system-based approach to identify additional candidate genes associated with disease able to account for a larger part of lupus susceptibility.

European population substructure is associated with mucocutaneous manifestations and autoantibody production in systemic lupus erythematosus

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether genetic substructure in European-derived populations is associated with specific manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), including mucocutaneous phenotypes, autoantibody production, and renal disease.

METHODS

SLE patients of European descent (n=1,754) from 8 case collections were genotyped for >1,400 ancestry informative markers that define a north-south gradient of European substructure. Using the Structure program, each SLE patient was characterized in terms of percent Northern (versus percent Southern) European ancestry based on these genetic markers. Nonparametric methods, including tests for trend, were used to identify associations between Northern European ancestry and specific SLE manifestations.

RESULTS

In multivariate analyses, increasing levels of Northern European ancestry were significantly associated with photosensitivity (Ptrend=0.0021, odds ratio for highest quartile of Northern European ancestry versus lowest quartile [ORhigh-low] 1.64, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.13-2.35) and discoid rash (Ptrend=0.014, ORhigh-low 1.93, 95% CI 0.98-3.83). In contrast, increasing levels of Northern European ancestry had a protective effect against the production of anticardiolipin autoantibodies (Ptrend=1.6x10(-4), ORhigh-low 0.46, 95% CI 0.30-0.69) and anti-double-stranded DNA autoantibodies (Ptrend=0.017, ORhigh-low 0.67, 95% CI 0.46-0.96).

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that specific SLE manifestations vary according to Northern versus Southern European ancestry. Thus, genetic ancestry may contribute to the clinical heterogeneity and variation in disease outcomes among SLE patients of European descent. Moreover, these results suggest that genetic studies of SLE subphenotypes will need to carefully address issues of population substructure based on genetic ancestry.

Complement receptor 2 polymorphisms associated with systemic lupus erythematosus modulate alternative splicing

Genetic factors influence susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). A recent family-based analysis in Caucasian and Chinese populations provided evidence for association of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the complement receptor 2 (CR2/CD21) gene with SLE. Here we confirmed this result in a case-control analysis of an independent European-derived population including 2084 patients with SLE and 2853 healthy controls. A haplotype formed by the minor alleles of three CR2 SNPs (rs1048971, rs17615, rs4308977) showed significant association with decreased risk of SLE (30.4% in cases vs 32.6% in controls, P=0.016, OR=0.90 (0.82-0.98)). Two of these SNPs are in exon 10, directly 5' of an alternatively spliced exon preferentially expressed in follicular dendritic cells (FDC), and the third is in the alternatively spliced exon. Effects of these SNPs and a fourth SNP in exon 11 (rs17616) on alternative splicing were evaluated. We found that the minor alleles of these SNPs decreased splicing efficiency of exon 11 both in vitro and ex vivo. These findings further implicate CR2 in the pathogenesis of SLE and suggest that CR2 variants alter the maintenance of tolerance and autoantibody production in the secondary lymphoid tissues where B cells and FDCs interact.

A loss-of-function variant of PTPN22 is associated with reduced risk of systemic lupus erythematosus

A gain-of-function R620W polymorphism in the PTPN22 gene, encoding the lymphoid tyrosine phosphatase LYP, has recently emerged as an important risk factor for human autoimmunity. Here we report that another missense substitution (R263Q) within the catalytic domain of LYP leads to reduced phosphatase activity. High-resolution structural analysis revealed the molecular basis for this loss of function. Furthermore, the Q263 variant conferred protection against human systemic lupus erythematosus, reinforcing the proposal that inhibition of LYP activity could be beneficial in human autoimmunity.

Increased B cell deletion and significantly reduced auto-antibody titre due to premature expression of human complement receptor 2 (CR2, CD21)

The involvement of complement receptor 2 (CR2) in B cell tolerance and autoimmune disease has been revealed over the past decade or so. Our previous studies have established that mice prematurely expressing human CR2 under the control of a lambda light chain promoter (in particular the hCR2^high line) have a marked deficit in their immune response to various antigens and fail to develop collagen-induced arthritis. This phenotype appears to be the result of irreversible changes in B cell signalling pathways and suggested that hCR2 expressing mice are protected from developing autoimmune disease. To test this hypothesis, we examined the ability of the hCR2 to block the development of spontaneous autoimmune disease on the C57BL/6j-Fas^lpr/Fas^lpr (B6^lpr) background. We found that expression of hCR2 on the B6^lpr background resulted in a significant reduction in levels of anti-nuclear antibodies (ANA) generated as mice aged but the levels of ANA were still higher than those found in age matched C57BL/6j (B6) mice. B cells from hCR2^high mice were found to display a higher baseline level of apoptosis, whether analysed ex vivo or after in vitro culture, than their B6 counterparts and this was apparently linked to both surface IgM expression by the B cells and C3 levels in the mice. Our data also provides evidence that B cell survival in the presence of hCR2 is heavily modified by the background strain of the mouse. Overall, we have demonstrated that mice expressing hCR2 on their B cells during bone marrow development display a higher degree of apoptosis which may lead to a deletion of autoreactive B cells and be protective against the development of autoimmune disease.

Altered T and B lymphocyte signaling pathways in lupus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) has long been recognized to be characterized by dysregulated signaling pathways in T and B lymphocytes, beginning with observations of cellular hyperactivity and hyperresponsiveness, and evolving to recent studies focused upon the genetic and molecular bases of such phenomena. This review focuses on recently elucidated signaling abnormalities currently thought to be intrinsic to T and/or B cells in human SLE.

Epistasis between the MHC and the RCA alpha block in primary Sjögren syndrome

OBJECTIVE

The RCA alpha block (Regulators of Complement Activation, 1q32) contains critical complement regulatory genes such as CR1 and MCP. This study examined RCA alpha block haplotype associations with both disease susceptibility and diversification of the anti-Ro/La autoantibody response in primary Sjögren syndrome (pSS).

METHODS

115 patients with pSS and 98 controls were included in the study. 93 of 109 (85%) of the patients with pSS were seropositive for Ro/La autoantibodies. The Genomic Matching Technique (GMT) was used to define RCA alpha block ancestral haplotypes (AH).

RESULTS

RCA alpha block haplotypes, AH1 and AH3, were both associated with autoantibody-positive pSS (p = 0.0003). Autoantibody associations with both HLA DR3 and DR15 have been previously defined. There was an epistatic interaction (p = 0.023) between RCA alpha AH1 and HLA DR3, and this genotypic combination was present in 48% of autoantibody-positive patients with pSS compared with 8% of controls. This epistasis is most simply attributable to an interaction between C4 and its receptor, CR1, encoded within the RCA alpha block. Both DR3 and a relative C4 deficiency are carried on the major histocompatibility complex 8.1 ancestral haplotype. Only four of 92 (4%) autoantibody-positive patients with pSS did not carry any risk RCA alpha or HLA haplotype, compared with 36 of 96 (38%) controls, and there were differences in haplotype frequencies within autoantibody subsets of pSS.

CONCLUSIONS

Normal population variation in the RCA alpha block, in addition to the major histocompatibility complex, contributes genetic susceptibility to systemic autoimmune disease and the autoantibody response. This finding provides evidence for the role of regulation of complement activation in disease pathogenesis.

A compass that points to lupus: genetic studies on type I interferon pathway

It was more than 20 years ago that patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) were first reported to display elevated serum levels of type I interferon (IFN). Since then, extensive studies revealed a crucial role for type I IFN in SLE pathogenesis. The current model proposes that small increase of type I IFN production by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) is sufficient to induce unabated activation of immature peripheral DCs. IFN-matured DCs select and activate autoreactive T cells and B cells, rather than deleting them, resulting in peripheral tolerance breakdown, a characteristic feature of SLE. Furthermore, immune complexes provide an amplification loop to pDCs for further IFN production. In the past 5 years, high-throughput technologies such as expression profiling and single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) typing established the role of altered type I IFN system in SLE, and a detailed picture of its molecular mechanisms is beginning to emerge. In this review, we discuss two major lines of genetics studies on type I IFN pathway related to human SLE: (1) expression profiling of IFN-responsive genes and (2) disease-associated SNPs of IFN-related genes, especially IRF5 (IFN-regulatory factor 5). Lastly, we discuss how such genetic alterations in type I IFN pathway fit in the current model of SLE pathogenesis.