Mice with mutations of Dock7 have generalized hypopigmentation and white-spotting but show normal neurological function

Three Novel KIT Polymorphisms Found in Horses with White Coat Color Phenotypes

This paper reports three novel KIT variants likely responsible for previously unexplained white patterning phenotypes observed in three groups of horses. White spots and markings may have substantial consequences on the value and health of domesticated horses. This study aims to elucidate the genetic mechanisms underlying depigmented coat colors to aid in producing prosperous herds. Aligned whole genome sequences were manually screened to identify three polymorphisms in a family of Anglo-Arabian horses (N = 7), a family of Warmblood horses (N = 5), and a single stock-type mare with unexplained white markings. Sanger sequencing confirmed the presence of the variants, and in silico predictive programs were used to predict the functional impacts of each. We propose to term the novel variants W37, W38, and W39, respectively, per convention. The W37 polymorphism was always observed in the presence of one W35 allele, suggesting complete linkage. All three variants were predicted to alter or remove the KIT protein active domain, repressing typical protein folding and impacting pathways that upregulate pigmentation. The severe predicted impact on biological function suggests that these variants may cause increased white spotting, providing a possible explanation for the depigmentation phenotypes observed in affected individuals.

PMEL p.Leu18del dilutes coat color of Kumamoto sub-breed of Japanese Brown cattle

Background

Coat color is important for registration and maintenance of livestock. Standard coat color of Kumamoto sub-breed of Japanese Brown cattle is solid brown, but individuals with diluted coat color have been observed recently. In this study, we attempted to identify polymorphism(s) responsible for coat color dilution by whole genome analysis.

Results

One of the diluted cattle possessed 7302 exonic polymorphisms which could affect genes’ function. Among them, 14 polymorphisms in 10 coat color-related genes were assumed to be specific for the diluted cattle. Subsequent genotyping with three diluted cattle and 74 standard cattle elucidated that PMEL p.Leu18del was the causative polymorphism for coat color dilution in this sub-breed. Individuals with del/del type of this polymorphism showed diluted coat color, but coat color of heterozygotes were intermediate with various dilution rates.

Conclusions

Coat color dilution of Kumamoto sub-breed was caused by PMEL p.Leu18del. The causative del allele has been detected in several genetically distant cattle breeds, suggesting that PMEL p.Leu18del can be used as a DNA marker to control cattle coat color.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-022-08916-8.

Assessment of autism-relevant behaviors in C57BKS/J leptin receptor deficient mice

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) was associated with greater autism risk in epidemiological studies. Disrupted leptin signaling may contribute to their coincidence, as it is found in both disorders. Given this we examined leptin receptor (Lepr) deficient (BKS.Cg-Dock7^m +/+ Lepr^db/J diabetic (db)) heterozygous (db/+) mice for autism-relevant behaviors. BKS db/+ females are lean with normal blood glucose, but they develop GDM while pregnant. We hypothesized BKS db/+ offspring might exhibit physiological and behavior traits consistent with autism. Adolescent body weight, fasting blood glucose, serum corticosterone, social preferences, self-grooming, marble burying, social dominance and cognitive flexibility of BKS db/+ mice was compared to C57BLKS/J (BKS) and C57BL/6J (BL6) mice. Male db/+ weighed more and had higher blood glucose and corticosterone relative to BL6, but not BKS mice. Also, male db/+ lacked social interaction preference, explored arenas less, and buried more marbles than BL6, but not BKS males. Male and female db/+ were more dominant and made more mistakes in water T-mazes locating a sunken platform after its position was reversed than BL6, but not BKS mice. Overall BKS db/+, particularly males, exhibited some autism-like social deficits and restrictive-repetitive behaviors relative to BL6, but BKS strain contributions to BKS db/+ behaviors were evident. Since BKS db/+ and BKS behavioral and physiological phenotypes are already so similar, it will be difficult to use these models in studies designed to detect contributions of fetal GDM exposures to offspring behaviors.

Research Techniques Made Simple: Forward Genetic Screening to Uncover Genes Involved in Skin Biology

The primary goals of modern genetics are to identify disease-causing mutations and to define the functions of genes in biological processes. Two complementary approaches, reverse and forward genetics, can be used to achieve this goal. Reverse genetics is a gene-driven approach that comprises specific gene targeting followed by phenotypic assessment. Conversely, forward genetics is a phenotype-driven approach that involves the phenotypic screening of organisms with randomly induced mutations followed by subsequent identification of the causative mutations (i.e., those responsible for phenotype). In this article, we focus on how forward genetics in mice can be used to explore dermatologic disease. We outline mouse mutagenesis with the chemical N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea and the strategy used to instantaneously identify mutations that are causative of specific phenotypes. Furthermore, we summarize the types of phenotypic screens that can be performed to explore various aspects of dermatologic disease.

Theophylline induces differentiation and modulates cytoskeleton dynamics and cytokines secretion in human melanoma-initiating cells

AIMS

Cutaneous melanoma is the most aggressive skin cancer, derived from neoplastic transformation of melanocytes. Since several evidences highlighted the importance of a hierarchical model of differentiation among cancer cells, closely related to resistance mechanisms and tumor relapse, we investigated the effects of theophylline (Theo), a methylxanthine commonly used in treatment of respiratory diseases, on melanoma cells with different degree of differentiation, including patient-derived melanoma-initiating cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The antiproliferative and antimetastatic effects of Theo was demonstrated by cell counting, adhesion and migration assays on A375 and SK-MEL-30 cells. Further, Theo ability to reduce cell growth was highly significant in A375-derived spheroids and in two patient-derived melanoma-initiating cells (MICs). In order to identify pathways potentially involved in the antineoplastic properties of Theo, a comparative mass spectrometry proteomic analysis was used. Then, melanin content, tyrosinase and tissue transglutaminase activities as differentiation markers and actin re-organization through confocal microscopy were evaluated. Furthermore, a secretome profile of MICs after Theo treatments was performed by multiplex immunoassay.

KEY FINDINGS

Obtained results demonstrate inhibitory effects of Theo on melanoma cell proliferation and migration, mainly in MICs, together with the induction of differentiation parameters. Moreover, our data indicate that the known anti-melanoma effect of Theo is due also to its ability to interfere with cytoskeleton dynamics and to induce the secretion of inflammatory molecules involved in recruitment of immunosuppressive cells in tumor microenvironment.

SIGNIFICANCE

Data strongly suggest that Theo supplement, either as drug or as dietary supply, may represent a potent additional weapon against melanoma.

Mouse germ line mutations due to retrotransposon insertions

Transposable element (TE) insertions are responsible for a significant fraction of spontaneous germ line mutations reported in inbred mouse strains. This major contribution of TEs to the mutational landscape in mouse contrasts with the situation in human, where their relative contribution as germ line insertional mutagens is much lower. In this focussed review, we provide comprehensive lists of TE-induced mouse mutations, discuss the different TE types involved in these insertional mutations and elaborate on particularly interesting cases. We also discuss differences and similarities between the mutational role of TEs in mice and humans.

Spontaneous mutation of Dock7 results in lower trabecular bone mass and impaired periosteal expansion in aged female Misty mice

Misty mice (m/m) have a loss of function mutation in Dock7 gene, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor, resulting in low bone mineral density, uncoupled bone remodeling and reduced bone formation. Dock7 has been identified as a modulator of osteoblast number and in vitro osteogenic differentiation in calvarial osteoblast culture. In addition, m/m exhibit reduced preformed brown adipose tissue innervation and temperature as well as compensatory increase in beige adipocyte markers. While the low bone mineral density phenotype is in part due to higher sympathetic nervous system (SNS) drive in young mice, it is unclear what effect aging would have in mice homozygous for the mutation in the Dock7 gene. We hypothesized that age-related trabecular bone loss and periosteal envelope expansion would be altered in m/m. To test this hypothesis, we comprehensively characterized the skeletal phenotype of m/m at 16, 32, 52, and 78wks of age. When compared to age-matched wild-type control mice (+/+), m/m had lower areal bone mineral density (aBMD) and areal bone mineral content (aBMC). Similarly, both femoral and vertebral BV/TV, Tb.N, and Conn.D were decreased in m/m while there was also an increase in Tb.Sp. As low bone mineral density and decreased trabecular bone were already present at 16wks of age in m/m and persisted throughout life, changes in age-related trabecular bone loss were not observed highlighting the role of Dock7 in controlling trabecular bone acquisition or bone loss prior to 16wks of age. Cortical thickness was also lower in the m/m across all ages. Periosteal and endosteal circumferences were higher in m/m compared to +/+ at 16wks. However, endosteal and periosteal expansion were attenuated in m/m, resulting in m/m having lower periosteal and endosteal circumferences by 78wks of age compared to +/+, highlighting the critical role of Dock7 in appositional bone expansion. Histomorphometry revealed that osteoblasts were nearly undetectable in m/m and marrow adipocytes were elevated 3.5 fold over +/+ (p=0.014). Consistent with reduced bone formation, osteoblast gene expression of Alp, Col1a1, Runx-2, Sp7, and Bglap was significantly decreased in m/m whole bone. Furthermore, markers of osteoclasts were either unchanged or suppressed. Bone marrow stromal cell migration and motility were inhibited in culture and changes in senescence markers suggest that osteoblast function may also be inhibited with loss of Dock7 expression in m/m. Finally, increased Oil Red O staining in m/m ear mesenchymal stem cells during adipogenesis highlights a potential shift of cells from the osteogenic to adipogenic lineages. In summary, loss of Dock7 in the aging m/m resulted in an impairment of periosteal and endocortical envelope expansion, but did not alter age-related trabecular bone loss. These studies establish Dock7 as a critical regulator of both cortical and trabecular bone mass, and demonstrate for the first time a novel role of Dock7 in modulating compensatory changes in the periosteum with aging.

Adams-Oliver Syndrome Type 2 in Association with Compound Heterozygous DOCK6 Mutations

Adams-Oliver syndrome (AOS) is a multiple congenital anomaly syndrome characterized by aplasia cutis congenita (ACC) and transverse terminal limb defects (TTLDs). We present a case of type 2 autosomal recessive AOS associated with heterozygous mutations in the dedicator of cytokinesis 6 (DOCK6) gene, with characteristic findings of ACC, TTLD, intracerebral periventricular calcifications, and polymicrogyria.

Widespread DNA hypomethylation and differential gene expression in Turner syndrome

Adults with 45,X monosomy (Turner syndrome) reflect a surviving minority since more than 99% of fetuses with 45,X monosomy die in utero. In adulthood 45,X monosomy is associated with increased morbidity and mortality, although strikingly heterogeneous with some individuals left untouched while others suffer from cardiovascular disease, autoimmune disease and infertility. The present study investigates the leukocyte DNAmethylation profile by using the 450K-Illumina Infinium assay and the leukocyte RNA-expression profile in 45,X monosomy compared with karyotypically normal female and male controls. We present results illustrating that genome wide X-chromosome RNA-expression profile, autosomal DNA-methylation profile, and the X-chromosome methylation profile clearly distinguish Turner syndrome from controls. Our results reveal genome wide hypomethylation with most differentially methylated positions showing a medium level of methylation. Contrary to previous studies, applying a single loci specific analysis at well-defined DNA loci, our results indicate that the hypomethylation extend to repetitive elements. We describe novel candidate genes that could be involved in comorbidity in TS and explain congenital urinary malformations (PRKX), premature ovarian failure (KDM6A), and aortic aneurysm formation (ZFYVE9 and TIMP1).

Interaction of myosin VI and its binding partner DOCK7 plays an important role in NGF-stimulated protrusion formation in PC12 cells

DOCK7 (dedicator of cytokinesis 7) is a guanidine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for Rac1 GTPase that is involved in neuronal polarity and axon generation as well in Schwann cell differentiation and myelination. Recently, we identified DOCK7 as the binding partner of unconventional myosin VI (MVI) in neuronal-lineage PC12 cells and postulated that this interaction could be important in vivo [Majewski et al. (2012) Biochem Cell Biol., 90:565-574]. Herein, we found that MVI-DOCK7 interaction takes also place in other cell lines and demonstrated that MVI cargo domain via its RRL motif binds to DOCK7 C-terminal M2 and DHR2 domains. In MVI knockdown cells, lower Rac1 activity and a decrease of DOCK7 phosphorylation on Tyr1118 were observed, indicating that MVI could contribute to DOCK7 activity. MVI and DOCK7 co-localization was maintained during NGF-stimulated PC12 cell differentiation and observed also in the outgrowths. Also, during differentiation an increase in phosphorylation of DOCK7 as well as of its downstream effector JNK kinase was detected. Interestingly, overexpression of GFP-tagged MVI cargo domain (GFP-GT) impaired protrusion formation indicating that full length protein is important for this process. Moreover, a transient increase in Rac activity observed at 5min of NGF-stimulated differentiation of PC12 cells (overexpressing either GFP or GFP-MVI) was not detected in cells overexpressing the cargo domain. These data indicate that MVI-DOCK7 interaction could have functional implications in the protrusion outgrowth, and full length MVI seems to be important for delivery and maintenance of DOCK7 along the protrusions, and exerting its GEF activity.

Brown adipose tissue and bone

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is capable of transforming chemically stored energy, in the form of triglycerides, into heat. Recent studies have shown that metabolically active BAT is present in a large proportion of adult humans, where its activity correlates with a favorable metabolic status. Hence, the tissue is now regarded as an interesting target for therapies against obesity and associated diseases such as type 2 diabetes, the hypothesis being that an induction of BAT would be beneficial for these disease states. Apart from the association between BAT activity and a healthier metabolic status, later studies have also shown a positive correlation between BAT volume and both bone cross-sectional area and bone mineral density, suggesting that BAT might stimulate bone anabolism. The aim of this review is to give the reader a brief overview of the BAT research field and to summarize and discuss recent findings regarding BAT being a potential player in bone metabolism.

Identification of genes important for cutaneous function revealed by a large scale reverse genetic screen in the mouse

The skin is a highly regenerative organ which plays critical roles in protecting the body and sensing its environment. Consequently, morbidity and mortality associated with skin defects represent a significant health issue. To identify genes important in skin development and homeostasis, we have applied a high throughput, multi-parameter phenotype screen to the conditional targeted mutant mice generated by the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute's Mouse Genetics Project (Sanger-MGP). A total of 562 different mouse lines were subjected to a variety of tests assessing cutaneous expression, macroscopic clinical disease, histological change, hair follicle cycling, and aberrant marker expression. Cutaneous lesions were associated with mutations in 23 different genes. Many of these were not previously associated with skin disease in the organ (Mysm1, Vangl1, Trpc4ap, Nom1, Sparc, Farp2, and Prkab1), while others were ascribed new cutaneous functions on the basis of the screening approach (Krt76, Lrig1, Myo5a, Nsun2, and Nf1). The integration of these skin specific screening protocols into the Sanger-MGP primary phenotyping pipelines marks the largest reported reverse genetic screen undertaken in any organ and defines approaches to maximise the productivity of future projects of this nature, while flagging genes for further characterisation.

Dock GEFs and their therapeutic potential: neuroprotection and axon regeneration

The dedicator of cytokinesis (Dock) family is composed of atypical guanine exchange factors (GEFs) that activate the Rho GTPases Rac1 and Cdc42. Rho GTPases are best documented for their roles in actin polymerization and they regulate important cellular functions, including morphogenesis, migration, neuronal development, and cell division and adhesion. To date, 11 Dock family members have been identified and their roles have been reported in diverse contexts. There has been increasing interest in elucidating the roles of Dock proteins in recent years and studies have revealed that they are potential therapeutic targets for various diseases, including glaucoma, Alzheimer's disease, cancer, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and combined immunodeficiency. Among the Dock proteins, Dock3 is predominantly expressed in the central nervous system and recent studies have revealed that Dock3 plays a role in protecting retinal ganglion cells from neurotoxicity and oxidative stress as well as in promoting optic nerve regeneration. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the 11 Dock GEFs and their therapeutic potential, with a particular focus on Dock3 as a novel target for the treatment of glaucoma and other neurodegenerative diseases.

Angiopoietin-like proteins 3, 4 and 8: regulating lipid metabolism and providing new hope for metabolic syndrome

Angiopoietin-like proteins (ANGPTLs) are a group of eight proteins that share structural similarity to the members of the angiopoietin protein family. ANGPTL3 plays a vital role in the regulation of the plasma levels of triglyceride and cholesterol, mainly via reversible inhibition of the lipoprotein lipase activity. ANGPTL4, which functions as a homo-oligomer different from ANGPTL3 and ANGPTL8, not only regulates the plasma levels of triglyceride and prevents the uptake of dietary lipids into adipose tissues but also inhibits intravascular lipolysis. ANGPTL8 (also called betatrophin) has been identified as an important factor in regulating the triglyceride levels and adipose tissue mass as well as in replenishing the adipose tissue triglyceride store. ANGPTL8 acts together with ANGPTL3 to regulate the lipid metabolism, and ANGPTL8 promotes cleavage of ANGPTL3 to augment the activity of ANGPTL3. In addition, ANGPTL8 promotes proliferation of pancreatic β-cells and enhances insulin secretion. The properties of ANGPTLs in regulating the lipid metabolism suggest their application in the target therapy for metabolic syndrome. As ANGPTLs are regulated by several factors and may be involved in certain specific pathways of lipid metabolism, designing drugs that target ANGPTLs or factors regulating ANGPTLs may be an efficient approach to treat metabolic syndrome.

Dock-family exchange factors in cell migration and disease

Dock family proteins are evolutionary conserved exchange factors for the Rho GTPases Rac and Cdc42. There are 11 Dock proteins in mammals, named Dock1 (or Dock180) to Dock11 that play different cellular functions. In particular, Dock proteins regulate actin cytoskeleton, cell adhesion and migration. Not surprisingly, members of the Dock family have been involved in various pathologies, including cancer and defects in the central nervous and immune systems. This review proposes an update of the recent findings regarding the function of Dock proteins, focusing on their role in the control of cell migration and invasion and the consequences in human diseases.

Mutations in DOCK7 in individuals with epileptic encephalopathy and cortical blindness

Epileptic encephalopathies are increasingly thought to be of genetic origin, although the exact etiology remains uncertain in many cases. We describe here three girls from two nonconsanguineous families affected by a clinical entity characterized by dysmorphic features, early-onset intractable epilepsy, intellectual disability, and cortical blindness. In individuals from each family, brain imaging also showed specific changes, including an abnormally marked pontobulbar sulcus and abnormal signals (T2 hyperintensities) and atrophy in the occipital lobe. Exome sequencing performed in the first family did not reveal any gene with rare homozygous variants shared by both affected siblings. It did, however, show one gene, DOCK7, with two rare heterozygous variants (c.2510delA [p.Asp837Alafs(∗)48] and c.3709C>T [p.Arg1237(∗)]) found in both affected sisters. Exome sequencing performed in the proband of the second family also showed the presence of two rare heterozygous variants (c.983C>G [p.Ser328(∗)] and c.6232G>T [p.Glu2078(∗)]) in DOCK7. Sanger sequencing confirmed that all three individuals are compound heterozygotes for these truncating mutations in DOCK7. These mutations have not been observed in public SNP databases and are predicted to abolish domains critical for DOCK7 function. DOCK7 codes for a Rac guanine nucleotide exchange factor that has been implicated in the genesis and polarization of newborn pyramidal neurons and in the morphological differentiation of GABAergic interneurons in the developing cortex. All together, these observations suggest that loss of DOCK7 function causes a syndromic form of epileptic encephalopathy by affecting multiple neuronal processes.

Insights into the biological functions of Dock family guanine nucleotide exchange factors

Rho GTPases regulate many essential processes during development, yet the full impact of their upstream regulation through guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) is only beginning to be appreciated. In this review, Laurin and Côté focus on emerging biological functions of the mammalian Dock family of GEFs in development and disease and discuss how recent discoveries might be exploited for novel therapeutic strategies.

Rho GTPases play key regulatory roles in many aspects of embryonic development, regulating processes such as differentiation, proliferation, morphogenesis, and migration. Two families of guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) found in metazoans, Dbl and Dock, are responsible for the spatiotemporal activation of Rac and Cdc42 proteins and their downstream signaling pathways. This review focuses on the emerging roles of the mammalian DOCK family in development and disease. We also discuss, when possible, how recent discoveries concerning the biological functions of these GEFs might be exploited for the development of novel therapeutic strategies.

Dock protein family in brain development and neurological disease

The family of dedicator of cytokinesis (Dock), a protein family that belongs to the atypical Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) for Rac and/or Cdc42 GTPases, plays pivotal roles in various processes of brain development. To date, 11 members of Docks have been identified in the mammalian system. Emerging evidence has suggested that members of the Dock family are associated with several neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases, including Alzheimer disease and autism spectrum disorders. This review summarizes recent advances on the understanding of the roles of the Dock protein family in normal and diseased processes in the nervous system. Furthermore, interacting proteins and the molecular regulation of Docks are discussed.

Altered thermogenesis and impaired bone remodeling in Misty mice

Fat mass may be modulated by the number of brown-like adipocytes in white adipose tissue (WAT) in humans and rodents. Bone remodeling is dependent on systemic energy metabolism and, with age, bone remodeling becomes uncoupled and brown adipose tissue (BAT) function declines. To test the interaction between BAT and bone, we employed Misty (m/m) mice, which were reported be deficient in BAT. We found that Misty mice have accelerated age-related trabecular bone loss and impaired brown fat function (including reduced temperature, lower expression of Pgc1a, and less sympathetic innervation compared to wild-type (+/ +)). Despite reduced BAT function, Misty mice had normal core body temperature, suggesting heat is produced from other sources. Indeed, upon acute cold exposure (4°C for 6 hours), inguinal WAT from Misty mice compensated for BAT dysfunction by increasing expression of Acadl, Pgc1a, Dio2, and other thermogenic genes. Interestingly, acute cold exposure also decreased Runx2 and increased Rankl expression in Misty bone, but only Runx2 was decreased in wild-type. Browning of WAT is under the control of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and, if present at room temperature, could impact bone metabolism. To test whether SNS activity could be responsible for accelerated trabecular bone loss, we treated wild-type and Misty mice with the β-blocker, propranolol. As predicted, propranolol slowed trabecular bone volume/total volume (BV/TV) loss in the distal femur of Misty mice without affecting wild-type. Finally, the Misty mutation (a truncation of DOCK7) also has a significant cell-autonomous role. We found DOCK7 expression in whole bone and osteoblasts. Primary osteoblast differentiation from Misty calvaria was impaired, demonstrating a novel role for DOCK7 in bone remodeling. Despite the multifaceted effects of the Misty mutation, we have shown that impaired brown fat function leads to altered SNS activity and bone loss, and for the first time that cold exposure negatively affects bone remodeling.

The WASH complex, an endosomal Arp2/3 activator, interacts with the Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome complex BLOC-1 and its cargo phosphatidylinositol-4-kinase type IIα

The WASH complex, an endosomal activator of the Arp2/3 complex involved in branched actin polymerization, is identified as a new factor in vesicle traffic mediated by the Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome complex BLOC-1.

Vesicle biogenesis machinery components such as coat proteins can interact with the actin cytoskeleton for cargo sorting into multiple pathways. It is unknown, however, whether these interactions are a general requirement for the diverse endosome traffic routes. In this study, we identify actin cytoskeleton regulators as previously unrecognized interactors of complexes associated with the Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome. Two complexes mutated in the Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome, adaptor protein complex-3 and biogenesis of lysosome-related organelles complex-1 (BLOC-1), interact with and are regulated by the lipid kinase phosphatidylinositol-4-kinase type IIα (PI4KIIα). We therefore hypothesized that PI4KIIα interacts with novel regulators of these complexes. To test this hypothesis, we immunoaffinity purified PI4KIIα from isotope-labeled cell lysates to quantitatively identify interactors. Strikingly, PI4KIIα isolation preferentially coenriched proteins that regulate the actin cytoskeleton, including guanine exchange factors for Rho family GTPases such as RhoGEF1 and several subunits of the WASH complex. We biochemically confirmed several of these PI4KIIα interactions. Of importance, BLOC-1 complex, WASH complex, RhoGEF1, or PI4KIIα depletions altered the content and/or subcellular distribution of the BLOC-1–sensitive cargoes PI4KIIα, ATP7A, and VAMP7. We conclude that the Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome complex BLOC-1 and its cargo PI4KIIα interact with regulators of the actin cytoskeleton.

During embryogenesis, esrp1 expression is restricted to a subset of epithelial cells and is associated with splicing of a number of developmentally important genes

BACKGROUND

Development of a mature organism from a single cell requires a series of important morphological changes, which is in part regulated by alternative splicing. In this article, we report the expression of Esrp1 during early mouse embryogenesis, a splicing factor implicated in epithelial to mesenchymal transitions.

RESULTS

By qRT-PCR, we find higher expression of Esrp1 and Esrp2 in placenta compared to the embryos. We also find a correlation between the expression of Esrp1 and alternative splicing of several known target exons. Using in situ RNA hybridization we show that while Esrp1 expression is ubiquitous in embryonic day (E)6.5 mouse embryos, expression becomes restricted to the chorion and definitive endoderm starting at E7.5. Esrp1 expression was consistently restricted to a subset of epithelial cell types in developing embryos from E9.5 to E13.5.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that Esrp1 could play an important role in the morphological changes underlying embryogenesis of the placenta and embryo.

Atypical angiopoietin-like protein that regulates ANGPTL3

Angiopoietin-like proteins (ANGPTLs) play major roles in the trafficking and metabolism of lipids. Inactivation of ANGPTL3, a gene located in an intron of DOCK7, results in very low levels of LDL-cholesterol (C), HDL-C and triglyceride (TAG). We identified another ANGPTL family member, ANGPTL8, which is located in the corresponding intron of DOCK6. A variant in this family member (rs2278426, R59W) was associated with lower plasma LDL-C and HDL-C levels in three populations. ANGPTL8 is expressed in liver and adipose tissue, and circulates in plasma of humans. Expression of ANGPTL8 was reduced by fasting and increased by refeeding in both mice and humans. To examine the functional relationship between the two ANGPTL family members, we expressed ANGPTL3 at physiological levels alone or together with ANGPTL8 in livers of mice. Plasma TAG level did not change in mice expressing ANGPTL3 alone, whereas coexpression with ANGPTL8 resulted in hypertriglyceridemia, despite a reduction in circulating ANGPTL3. ANGPTL8 coimmunoprecipitated with the N-terminal domain of ANGPTL3 in plasma of these mice. In cultured hepatocytes, ANGPTL8 expression increased the appearance of N-terminal ANGPTL3 in the medium, suggesting ANGPTL8 may activate ANGPTL3. Consistent with this scenario, expression of ANGPTL8 in Angptl3(-/-) mice failed to promote hypertriglyceridemia. Thus, ANGPTL8, a paralog of ANGPTL3 that arose through duplication of an ancestral DOCK gene, regulates postprandial TAG and fatty acid metabolism by controlling activation of its progenitor, and perhaps other ANGPTLs. Inhibition of ANGPTL8 provides a new therapeutic strategy for reducing plasma lipoprotein levels.

DOCK7 interacts with TACC3 to regulate interkinetic nuclear migration and cortical neurogenesis

Neurogenesis in the developing neocortex relies on the ability of radial glial progenitor cells (RGCs) to switch from proliferative to differentiative neuron-generating divisions, but the molecular mechanisms that control this switch in a correct temporal manner are not well understood. Here, we show that DOCK7, a member of the DOCK180 family of proteins, plays an important role in the regulation of RGC proliferation versus differentiation. Silencing of DOCK7 in RGCs of developing mouse embryos impedes neuronal differentiation and maintains cells as cycling progenitors. In contrast, DOCK7 overexpression promotes RGC differentiation to basal progenitors and neurons. We further present evidence that DOCK7 influences neurogenesis by controlling apically directed interkinetic nuclear migration (INM) of RGCs. Importantly, DOCK7 exerts its effects by antagonizing the microtubule growth-promoting function of the centrosome-associated protein TACC3. Thus, DOCK7 interaction with TACC3 controls INM and the genesis of neurons from RGCs during cortical development.

Sensory nerve induced inflammation contributes to heterotopic ossification

Heterotopic ossification (HO), or bone formation in soft tissues, is often the result of traumatic injury. Much evidence has linked the release of BMPs (bone morphogenetic proteins) upon injury to this process. HO was once thought to be a rare occurrence, but recent statistics from the military suggest that as many as 60% of traumatic injuries, resulting from bomb blasts, have associated HO. In this study, we attempt to define the role of peripheral nerves in this process. Since BMP2 has been shown previously to induce release of the neuroinflammatory molecules, substance P (SP) and calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP), from peripheral, sensory neurons, we examined this process in vivo. SP and CGRP are rapidly expressed upon delivery of BMP2 and remain elevated throughout bone formation. In animals lacking functional sensory neurons (TRPV1(-/-) ), BMP2-mediated increases in SP and CGRP were suppressed as compared to the normal animals, and HO was dramatically inhibited in these deficient mice, suggesting that neuroinflammation plays a functional role. Mast cells, known to be recruited by SP and CGRP, were elevated after BMP2 induction. These mast cells were localized to the nerve structures and underwent degranulation. When degranulation was inhibited using cromolyn, HO was again reduced significantly. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed nerves expressing the stem cell markers nanog and Klf4, as well as the osteoblast marker osterix, after BMP2 induction, in mice treated with cromolyn. The data collectively suggest that BMP2 can act directly on sensory neurons to induce neurogenic inflammation, resulting in nerve remodeling and the migration/release of osteogenic and other stem cells from the nerve. Further, blocking this process significantly reduces HO, suggesting that the stem cell population contributes to bone formation.

The atypical Guanine-nucleotide exchange factor, dock7, negatively regulates schwann cell differentiation and myelination

In development of the peripheral nervous system, Schwann cells proliferate, migrate, and ultimately differentiate to form myelin sheath. In all of the myelination stages, Schwann cells continuously undergo morphological changes; however, little is known about their underlying molecular mechanisms. We previously cloned the dock7 gene encoding the atypical Rho family guanine-nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) and reported the positive role of Dock7, the target Rho GTPases Rac/Cdc42, and the downstream c-Jun N-terminal kinase in Schwann cell migration (Yamauchi et al., 2008). We investigated the role of Dock7 in Schwann cell differentiation and myelination. Knockdown of Dock7 by the specific small interfering (si)RNA in primary Schwann cells promotes dibutyryl cAMP-induced morphological differentiation, indicating the negative role of Dock7 in Schwann cell differentiation. It also results in a shorter duration of activation of Rac/Cdc42 and JNK, which is the negative regulator of myelination, and the earlier activation of Rho and Rho-kinase, which is the positive regulator of myelination. To obtain the in vivo evidence, we generated Dock7 short hairpin (sh)RNA transgenic mice. They exhibited a decreased expression of Dock7 in the sciatic nerves and enhanced myelin thickness, consistent with in vitro observation. The effects of the in vivo knockdown on the signals to Rho GTPases are similar to those of the in vitro knockdown. Collectively, the signaling through Dock7 negatively regulates Schwann cell differentiation and the onset of myelination, demonstrating the unexpected role of Dock7 in the interplay between Schwann cell migration and myelination.

F. Recessive mutations in DOCK6, encoding the guanidine nucleotide exchange factor DOCK6, lead to abnormal actin cytoskeleton organization and Adams-Oliver syndrome

Adams-Oliver syndrome (AOS) is defined by the combination of aplasia cutis congenita (ACC) and terminal transverse limb defects (TTLD). It is usually inherited as an autosomal-dominant trait, but autosomal-recessive inheritance has also been documented. In an individual with autosomal-recessive AOS, we combined autozygome analysis with exome sequencing to identify a homozygous truncating mutation in dedicator of cytokinesis 6 gene (DOCK6) which encodes an atypical guanidine exchange factor (GEF) known to activate two members of the Rho GTPase family: Cdc42 and Rac1. Another homozygous truncating mutation was identified upon targeted sequencing of DOCK6 in an unrelated individual with AOS. Consistent with the established role of Cdc42 and Rac1 in the organization of the actin cytoskeleton, we demonstrate a cellular phenotype typical of a defective actin cytoskeleton in patient cells. These findings, combined with a Dock6 expression profile that is consistent with an AOS phenotype as well as the very recent demonstration of dominant mutations of ARHGAP31 in AOS, establish Cdc42 and Rac1 as key molecules in the pathogenesis of AOS and suggest that other regulators of these Rho GTPase proteins might be good candidates in the quest to define the genetic spectrum of this genetically heterogeneous condition.

Using regulatory and epistatic networks to extend the findings of a genome scan: identifying the gene drivers of pigmentation in merino sheep

Extending genome wide association analysis by the inclusion of gene expression data may assist in the dissection of complex traits. We examined piebald, a pigmentation phenotype in both human and Merino sheep, by analysing multiple data types using a systems approach. First, a case control analysis of 49,034 ovine SNP was performed which confirmed a multigenic basis for the condition. We combined these results with gene expression data from five tissue types analysed with a skin-specific microarray. Promoter sequence analysis of differentially expressed genes allowed us to reverse-engineer a regulatory network. Likewise, by testing two-loci models derived from all pair-wise comparisons across piebald-associated SNP, we generated an epistatic network. At the intersection of both networks, we identified thirteen genes with insulin-like growth factor binding protein 7 (IGFBP7), platelet-derived growth factor alpha (PDGFRA) and the tetraspanin platelet activator CD9 at the kernel of the intersection. Further, we report a number of differentially expressed genes in regions containing highly associated SNP including ATRN, DOCK7, FGFR1OP, GLI3, SILV and TBX15. The application of network theory facilitated co-analysis of genetic variation with gene expression, recapitulated aspects of the known molecular biology of skin pigmentation and provided insights into the transcription regulation and epistatic interactions involved in piebald Merino sheep.

Heterotopic ossification has some nerve

Heterotopic ossification, defined as the formation of bone in abnormal anatomic locations, can be clinically insignificant or devastating and debilitating, depending on the site and duration of new bone formation. There are many causes of heterotopic ossification (HO), including soft tissue trauma, central nervous system injury, vasculopathies, arthropathies, and inheritance. One of the least understood components of HO is the interaction of the peripheral nervous system with the induction of this process. Recent work has shown that, upon traumatic injury, a cascade of events termed neurogenic inflammation is initiated, which involves the release of neuropeptides, such as substance P and calcitonin gene related peptide. Release of these peptides ultimately leads to the recruitment of activated platelets, mast cells, and neutrophils to the injury site. These cells appear to be involved with both remodeling of the nerve, as well as potentially recruiting additional cells from the bone marrow to the injury site. Further, sensory neurons stimulated at the injury site relay local information to the brain, which can then redirect neuroendocrine signaling in the hypothalamus towards repair of the injured site. While numerous studies have highlighted the important role of nerve-derived signals, both central and peripheral, in the regulation of normal bone remodeling of the skeleton,1 this review focuses on the role of the local, peripheral nerves in the formation of heterotopic bone. We concentrate on the manner in which local changes in bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) expression contribute to a cascade of events within the peripheral nerves, both sensory and sympathetic, in the immediate area of HO formation.

Cellular signaling of Dock family proteins in neural function

Dock180-related proteins are genetically conserved from Drosophila and C. elegans to mammals and are atypical types of guanine-nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) for Rac and/or Cdc42 of small GTPases of the Rho family. Eleven members of the family occur in mammalian cells, each playing key roles in many aspects of essential cellular functions such as regulation of cytoskeletal organization, phagocytosis, cell migration, polarity formation, and differentiation. This review will summarize the newly accumulated findings concerning the Dock180-related proteins' molecular and cellular functions, emphasizing the roles of these proteins in neuronal cells and glial cells as well as their interactions in the central and peripheral nervous systems.