DAF-16 recruits the CREB-binding protein coactivator complex to the insulin-like growth factor binding protein 1 promoter in HepG2 cells

Forkhead box O proteins: steering the course of stem cell fate

Stem cells are pivotal players in the intricate dance of embryonic development, tissue maintenance, and regeneration. Their behavior is delicately balanced between maintaining their pluripotency and differentiating as needed. Disruptions in this balance can lead to a spectrum of diseases, underscoring the importance of unraveling the complex molecular mechanisms that govern stem cell fate. Forkhead box O (FOXO) proteins, a family of transcription factors, are at the heart of this intricate regulation, influencing a myriad of cellular processes such as survival, metabolism, and DNA repair. Their multifaceted role in steering the destiny of stem cells is evident, as they wield influence over self-renewal, quiescence, and lineage-specific differentiation in both embryonic and adult stem cells. This review delves into the structural and regulatory intricacies of FOXO transcription factors, shedding light on their pivotal roles in shaping the fate of stem cells. By providing insights into the specific functions of FOXO in determining stem cell fate, this review aims to pave the way for targeted interventions that could modulate stem cell behavior and potentially revolutionize the treatment and prevention of diseases.

Acetylation of FOXO1 activates Bim expression involved in CVB3 induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis

Viral myocarditis (VMC) is the major reason for sudden cardiac death among both children and young adults. Of these, coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) is the most common causative agent of myocarditis. Recently, the role of signaling pathways in the pathogenesis of VMC has been evaluated in several studies, which has provided a new perspective on identifying potential therapeutic targets for this hitherto incurable disease. In the present study, in vivo and in vitro experiments showed that CVB3 infection leads to increased Bim expression and triggers apoptosis. In addition, by knocking down Bim using RNAi, we further confirmed the biological function of Bim in apoptosis induced by CVB3 infection. We additionally found that Bim and forkhead box O1 class (FOXO1) inhibition significantly increased the viability of CVB3-infected cells while blocking viral replication and viral release. Moreover, CVB3-induced Bim expression was directly dependent on FOXO1 acetylation, which is catalyzed by the co-regulation of CBP and SirTs. Furthermore, the acetylation of FOXO1 was an important step in Bim activation and apoptosis induced by CVB3 infection. The findings of this study suggest that CVB3 infection induces apoptosis through the FOXO1 acetylation-Bim pathway, thus providing new insights for developing potential therapeutic targets for enteroviral myocarditis.

Hypoxia aggravates the burden of yellowstripe goby (Mugilogobius chulae) under atorvastatin exposure

In the present study, an estuarine benthic fish, Mugilogobius chulae (M. chulae), was exposed to hypoxia, atorvastatin (ATV), a highly used and widely detected lipid-lowering drug in aquatic environment, and the combination of hypoxia and ATV for 7 days, respectively, so as to address and compare the effects of the combination of hypoxia and ATV exposure on M. chulae. The results showed that lipid metabolism in M. chulae was greatly affected: lipid synthesis was blocked and catabolism was enhanced, exhibiting that lipids content were heavily depleted. The combined exposure of hypoxia and ATV caused oxidative stress and induced massive inflammatory response in the liver of M. chulae. Signaling pathways involving in energy metabolism and redox responses regulated by key factors such as HIF, PPAR, p53 and sirt1 play important regulatory roles in hypoxia-ATV stress. Critically, we found that the response of M. chulae to ATV was more sensitive under hypoxia than normoxia. ATV exposure to aquatic non-target organisms under hypoxic conditions may make a great impact on the detoxification and energy metabolism, especially lipid metabolism, and aggravate the oxidative pressure of the exposed organisms.

The CBP-1/p300 Lysine Acetyltransferase Regulates the Heat Shock Response in C. elegans

The decline of proteostasis is a hallmark of aging that is, in part, affected by the dysregulation of the heat shock response (HSR), a highly conserved cellular response to proteotoxic stress in the cell. The heat shock transcription factor HSF-1 is well-studied as a key regulator of proteostasis, but mechanisms that could be used to modulate HSF-1 function to enhance proteostasis during aging are largely unknown. In this study, we examined lysine acetyltransferase regulation of the HSR and HSF-1 in C. elegans. We performed an RNA interference screen of lysine acetyltransferases and examined mRNA expression of the heat-shock inducible gene hsp-16.2, a widely used marker for HSR activation. From this screen, we identified one acetyltransferase, CBP-1, the C. elegans homolog of mammalian CREB-binding protein CBP/p300, as a negative regulator of the HSR. We found that while knockdown of CBP-1 decreases the overall lifespan of the worm, it also enhances heat shock protein production upon heat shock and increases thermotolerance of the worm in an HSF-1 dependent manner. Similarly, we examined a hallmark of HSF-1 activation, the formation of nuclear stress bodies (nSBs). In analyzing the recovery rate of nSBs, we found that knockdown of CBP-1 enhanced the recovery and resolution of nSBs after stress. Collectively, our studies demonstrate a role of CBP-1 as a negative regulator of HSF-1 activity and its physiological effects at the organismal level upon stress.

Identification and functional characterization of transcriptional activators in human cells

Transcription is orchestrated by thousands of transcription factors (TFs) and chromatin-associated proteins, but how these are causally connected to transcriptional activation is poorly understood. Here, we conduct an unbiased proteome-scale screen to systematically uncover human proteins that activate transcription in a natural chromatin context. By combining interaction proteomics and chemical inhibitors, we delineate the preference of these transcriptional activators for specific co-activators, highlighting how even closely related TFs can function via distinct cofactors. We also identify potent transactivation domains among the hits and use AlphaFold2 to predict and experimentally validate interaction interfaces of two activation domains with BRD4. Finally, we show that many novel activators are partners in fusion events in tumors and functionally characterize a myofibroma-associated fusion between SRF and C3orf62, a potent p300-dependent activator. Our work provides a functional catalog of potent transactivators in the human proteome and a platform for discovering transcriptional regulators at genome scale.

Extreme longevity variants at the FOXO3 locus may moderate FOXO3 isoform levels

The rs2802292, rs2764264 and rs13217795 variants of FOXO3 have been associated with extreme longevity in multiple human populations, but the mechanisms underpinning this remain unclear. We aimed to characterise potential effects of longevity-associated variation on the expression and mRNA processing of the FOXO3 gene. We performed a comprehensive assessment of FOXO3 isoform usage across a wide variety of human tissues and carried out a bioinformatic analysis of the potential for longevity-associated variants to disrupt regulatory regions involved in isoform choice. We then related the expression of full length and 5′ truncated FOXO3 isoforms to rs13217795 genotype in peripheral blood and skeletal muscle from individuals of different rs13217795 genotypes. FOXO3 isoforms displayed considerable tissue specificity. We determined that rs13231195 and its tightly aligned proxy variant rs9400239 may lie in regulatory regions involved in isoform choice. The longevity allele at rs13217795 was associated with increased levels of full length FOXO3 isoforms in peripheral blood and a decrease in truncated FOXO3 isoforms in skeletal muscle RNA. We suggest that the longevity effect of FOXO3 SNPs may in part derive from a shift in isoform usage in skeletal muscle away from the production of 5′ truncated FOXO3 isoforms lacking a complete forkhead DNA binding domain, which may have compromised functionality.

CBP-1/p300 acetyltransferase regulates SKN-1/Nrf cellular levels, nuclear localization, and activity in C. elegans

SKN-1/Nrf transcription factors regulate diverse biological processes essentially stress defense, detoxification, and longevity. Studies in model organisms have identified a broad range of regulatory processes and mechanisms that profoundly influence SKN-1/Nrf functions. Defining the mechanisms how SKN-1 is regulated will provide insight how cells defend against diverse stressors contributing to aging and disease. In this study, we demonstrate a crucial role for the acetyltransferase CBP-1, the C. elegans homolog of mammalian CREB-binding protein CBP/p300 in the activation of SKN-1. cbp-1 is essential for tolerance of oxidative stress and normal lifespan. CBP-1 directly interacts with SKN-1 and increases SKN-1 protein abundance. In particular CBP-1 modulates SKN-1 nuclear translocation under basal conditions and in response to stress and promotes SKN-1-dependent transcription of protective genes. Moreover, CBP-1 is required for SKN-1 nuclear recruitment, transcriptional activity, and longevity due to reduced insulin/IGF-1-like signaling, mTOR-, and GSK-3 signaling. Our findings establish the acetyltransferase CBP-1 as a critical activator of SKN-1 that directly modulates SKN-1 protein stability, nuclear localization, and function to ascertain normal stress response and lifespan.

Roles of forkhead box O (FoxO) transcription factors in neurodegenerative diseases: A panoramic view

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), which are among the most important aging-related diseases, are typically characterized by neuronal damage and a progressive impairment in neurological function during aging. Few effective therapeutic targets for NDDs have been revealed; thus, an understanding of the pathogenesis of NDDs is important. Forkhead box O (FoxO) transcription factors have been implicated in the mechanisms regulating aging and longevity. The functions of FoxOs are regulated by diverse post-translational modifications (e.g., phosphorylation, acetylation, ubiquitination, methylation and glycosylation). FoxOs exert both detrimental and protective effects on NDDs. Therefore, an understanding of the precise function of FoxOs in NDDs will be helpful for developing appropriate treatment strategies. In this review, we first introduce the post-translational modifications of FoxOs. Next, the regulation of FoxO expression and post-translational modifications in the central nervous system (CNS) is described. Afterwards, we analyze and address the important roles of FoxOs in NDDs. Finally, novel potential directions of future FoxO research in NDDs are discussed. This review recapitulates essential facts and questions about the promise of FoxOs in treating NDDs, and it will likely be important for the design of further basic studies and to realize the potential for FoxOs as therapeutic targets in NDDs.

Histone acetylation promotes long-lasting defense responses and longevity following early life heat stress

Early exposure to some mild stresses can slow down the aging process and extend lifespan, raising the question of how early life stress might impact the somatic health of aged animals. Here, we reveal that early life heat experience triggers the establishment of epigenetic memory in soma, which promotes long-lasting stress responses and longevity in C. elegans. Unlike lethal heat shock, mild heat activates a unique transcriptional program mimicking pathogen defense responses, characterized by the enhanced expression of innate immune and detoxification genes. Surprisingly, the expression of defense response genes persists long after heat exposure, conferring enhanced stress resistance even in aged animals. Further studies identify the histone acetyltransferase CBP-1 and the chromatin remodeling SWI/SNF complex as epigenetic modulators of the long-lasting defense responses. Histone acetylation is elevated by heat stress and maintained into agedness thereafter. Accordingly, histone acetylation levels were increased on the promoters of defense genes. Moreover, disruption of epigenetic memory abrogates the longevity response to early hormetic heat stress, indicating that long-lasting defense responses are crucial for the survival of aged animals. Together, our findings provide mechanistic insights into how temperature stress experienced in early life provides animals with lifetime health benefits.

Organism aging is a deleterious process characterized by the progressive decline of cellular and tissue functions in the late life stage. However, the rate of aging is often determined by an organism’s historic experiences that occur in early life. For example, some mild stresses experienced in early life can extend animal lifespan, implying that early stresses might impact the health of aged animals, the mechanisms of which remain largely unknown. Here, by using the model organism C. elegans, we reveal a mechanism of how early life heat stress impacts the health of aged animals and promotes longevity. We find that early exposure to mild heat activates basal innate immune and detoxification responses, which are surprisingly maintained long after temperature drop, even into agedness, and therefore contribute to lifespan extension. Remarkably, the long-lasting defense responses require epigenetic memory established by histone acetyltransferase CBP-1 and chromatin remodeling complex SWI/SNF. As a previous study has reported high temperature-induced transgenerational epigenetic effects in germline that involve histone methylation, our findings suggest that temperature may trigger distinct epigenetic changes in soma and germline, conferring adaptations in both the parental generation and their offspring.

Zbtb7c is a critical gluconeogenic transcription factor that induces glucose-6-phosphatase and phosphoenylpyruvate carboxykinase 1 genes expression during mice fasting

Gluconeogenesis is essential for blood glucose homeostasis during fasting and is regulated by various enzymes, which are encoded by gluconeogenic genes. Those genes are controlled by various transcription factors. Zinc finger and BTB domain-containing 7c (Zbtb7c, also called Kr-pok) is a BTB-POZ family transcription factor with proto-oncogenic activity. Previous findings have indicated that Zbtb7c is involved in the regulation of fatty acid biosynthesis, suggesting an involvement also in primary metabolism. We found here that fasting induced Zbtb7c expression in the mouse liver and in primary liver hepatocytes. We also observed that Zbtb7c-knockout mice have decreased blood glucose levels, so we investigated whether Zbtb7c plays a role in gluconeogenesis. Indeed, differential gene expression analysis of Zbtb7c-knockout versus wild type mouse livers showed downregulated transcription of gluconeogenic genes encoding the glucose 6-phosphatase catalytic subunit (G6pc) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 (Pck1), while Zbtb7c expression upregulated these two genes, under fasting conditions. Mechanistically, we found that when complexed with histone deacetylase 3 (Hdac3), Zbtb7c binds insulin response elements (IREs) within the G6pc and Pck1 promoters. Moreover, complexed Zbtb7c deacetylated forkhead box O1 (Foxo1), thereby increasing Foxo1 binding to the G6pc and Pck1 IREs, resulting in their transcriptional activation. These results demonstrate Zbtb7c to be a crucial metabolic regulator of blood glucose homeostasis, during mammalian fasting.

FoxO1 and FoxA1/2 form a complex on DNA and cooperate to open chromatin at insulin-regulated genes

We have previously shown that cooperative, interdependent binding by the pioneer factors FoxO1 and FoxA1/2 is required for recruitment of RNA polymerase II and H3K27 acetylation to the promoters of insulin-regulated genes. However, the underlying mechanisms are unknown. In this study, we demonstrate that, in HepG2 cells, FoxO1 and FoxA2 form a complex on DNA that is disrupted by insulin treatment. Insulin-mediated phosphorylation of FoxO1 and FoxA2 does not impair their cooperative binding to mononucleosome particles assembled from the IGFBP1 promoter, indicating that direct disruption of complex formation by phosphorylation is not responsible for the loss of interdependent FoxO1:FoxA1/2 binding following insulin treatment. Since FoxO1 and FoxA1/2 binding is required for the establishment and maintenance of transcriptionally active chromatin at insulin-regulated genes, we hypothesized that cooperative FoxO1 and FoxA1/2 binding dictates the chromatin remodeling events required for the initial activation of these genes. In support of this idea, we demonstrate that FoxO1 and FoxA2 cooperatively open linker histone compacted chromatin templates containing the IGFBP1 promoter. Taken together, these results provide a mechanism for how interdependent FoxO1:FoxA1/2 binding is negatively impacted by insulin and provide a developmental context for cooperative gene activation by these factors.

Regulation of cellular senescence via the FOXO4-p53 axis

Forkhead box O (FOXO) and p53 proteins are transcription factors that regulate diverse signalling pathways to control cell cycle, apoptosis and metabolism. In the last decade both FOXO and p53 have been identified as key players in aging, and their misregulation is linked to numerous diseases including cancers. However, many of the underlying molecular mechanisms remain mysterious, including regulation of ageing by FOXOs and p53. Several activities appear to be shared between FOXOs and p53, including their central role in the regulation of cellular senescence. In this review, we will focus on the recent advances on the link between FOXOs and p53, with a particular focus on the FOXO4‐p53 axis and the role of FOXO4/p53 in cellular senescence. Moreover, we discuss potential strategies for targeting the FOXO4‐p53 interaction to modulate cellular senescence as a drug target in treatment of aging‐related diseases and morbidity.

Oncogenic IL7R is downregulated by histone deacetylase inhibitor in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma via modulation of acetylated FOXO1

The interleukin-7 receptor (IL7R) is generally expressed in immune cells and is critical in survival, development and homeostasis in the immune system. Advanced genome-wide cancer studies have reported that IL7R is genetically amplified in human esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), however, the exact role of IL7R in ESCC has not been investigated. In the present study, it was found that IL7R was overexpressed in ESCC cohorts and the loss of IL7R induced anti-oncogenic effects in ESCC cell lines. A small panel of epigenetic drugs were screened for their ability to downregulate the expression of IL7R. Unexpectedly, apicidin, a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, effectively downregulated the expression of IL7R in a dose-dependent manner at an early time-point, as determined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction and IL7R immunostaining, and did not require de novo protein synthesis. Of note, apicidin induced the acetylation of Forkhead box-containing protein, O subfamily 1, which acts as a repressor at the IL7R promoter, accompanied with depleted active histone modifications based on chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. Taken together, these results demonstrated that targeting oncogenic IL7R in ESCC by HDAC inhibitors may be a valuable therapeutic approach.

FOXO1 cysteine-612 mediates stimulatory effects of the coregulators CBP and PGC1α on FOXO1 basal transcriptional activity

Hepatic production and release of metabolites, nutrients and micronutrient transporters is tightly regulated at the level of gene expression. In this regard, transcription factor FOXO1 modulates the expression of genes such as G6PC and SELENOP, encoding the catalytic subunit of glucose 6-phosphatase and the plasma selenium transporter selenoprotein P, respectively. Here, we analyzed the role of cysteine residues in FOXO1 in controlling its activity with respect to regulation of G6PC and SELENOP in HepG2 human hepatoma cells. None of the seven FOXO1 cysteines affected FOXO1 binding to DNA or its basal subcellular distribution. Whereas overexpression of wildtype FOXO1 caused a strong induction of both G6PC and SELENOP promoter activities and mRNA levels, the induction was lowered by approx. 50% if cysteine-deficient FOXO1 was overexpressed instead. Only the most C-terminal of the seven FOXO1 cysteines, Cys612, was required and sufficient to ensure full FOXO1 transactivation activity. Coexpression of FOXO1 coregulators, CBP or PGC1α, had a strong synergistic effect in stimulating G6PC promoter activity and expression, fully relying on the presence of FOXO1 Cys612. Similarly, a synergistic effect of FOXO1 and CBP was observed for SELENOP. In contrast, stimulation of SELENOP by PGC1α was independent of FOXO1-Cys612, due to the close proximity of a hepatocyte nuclear factor-4α binding site to the FOXO1 binding site within the SELENOP promoter, as demonstrated using mutant SELENOP promoter constructs. In summary, full basal FOXO1 transactivation activity relies on Cys612, which mediates synergistic effects of coregulators, CBP or PGC1α, on FOXO1 transcriptional activity. The extent of Cys612 contribution depends on the promoter context of FOXO1 target genes.

Dietary Restriction and Glycolytic Inhibition Reduce Proteotoxicity and Extend Lifespan via NHR-49

Mechanisms mediating protective effects of dietary restriction during aging are of great interest since activating such mechanisms protect against a wide range of age-related diseases. In mammals key metabolic responses to nutritional deprivation are mediated by the transcription factor PPAR-alpha, which is activated by free fatty acids and promotes lipid metabolism while inhibiting glucose metabolism. The C. elegans gene nhr-49 appears to function similarly in C. elegans. Here we report that protective effects of dietary restriction and inhibition of glucose metabolism to increase lifespan wild-type C. elegans and reduce toxicity in a polyQ model of Huntington's disease in C. elegans are dependent on NHR-49 and its co-activator CREB-Binding Protein (CBP). We have previously demonstrated that inhibition of cbp blocks protective effects of dietary restriction and blocks the molecular switch from glucose metabolism to alternative substrates. Conversely, increased glucose concentration and inhibition of cbp reduce lifespan and increase proteotoxicity. Lactate and inhibition of ETC complex II mimicked toxic effects of glucose on proteotoxicity whereas pyruvate and inhibition of ETC complex I protected against glucose-enhanced proteotoxicity. These results support that PPAR-alpha-like activity mediates protective effects of dietary restriction by reducing glucose metabolism via reducing production of NADH, and corroborate and extend recent studies demonstrating that PPPAR-alpha agonists increase lifespan in C. elegans dependent on NHR-49.

FOXO in Neural Cells and Diseases of the Nervous System

The evolutionarily conserved FOXO family of transcription factors has emerged as a significant arbiter of neural cell fate and function in mammals. From the neural stem cell (NSC) state through mature neurons under both physiological and pathological conditions, they have been found to modulate neural cell survival, stress responses, lineage commitment, and neuronal signaling. Lineage-specific FOXO knockout mice have provided an invaluable tool for the dissection of FOXO biology in the nervous system. Within the NSC compartments of the brain, FOXOs are required for the maintenance of NSC quiescence and for the clearance of reactive oxygen species. Within mature neurons, FOXO transcriptional activity is essential for the prevention of age-dependent axonal degeneration. Acutely, FOXO3 has been found to cause axonal degeneration upon withdrawal of neurotrophic factors. In more active neural signaling, FOXO6 promotes increased dendritic spine density of hippocampal neurons and is required for the consolidation of memories. In addition to the central nervous system (CNS), FOXOs also influence the functionality of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). FOXO1 knockout within the PNS results in a reduction of sympathetic tone and decreased levels of brain-derived norepinephrine and lower energy expenditure. FOXO3 knockout mice have impaired hearing which may be due to defects in synapse localization within the ear. Given the scope of FOXO activities in both the CNS and PNS, it will be of interest to study FOXOs within the context of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. From within the nervous system, FOXOs may also regulate important parameters such as whole-body metabolism, motor function, and catecholamine production, making FOXOs key players in physiologic homeostasis.

Epigenetic mechanisms underlying lifespan and age-related effects of dietary restriction and the ketogenic diet

Aging constitutes the central risk factor for major diseases including many forms of cancer, neurodegeneration, and cardiovascular diseases. The aging process is characterized by both global and tissue-specific changes in gene expression across taxonomically diverse species. While aging has historically been thought to entail cell-autonomous, even stochastic changes, recent evidence suggests that modulation of this process can be hierarchal, wherein manipulations of nutrient-sensing neurons (e.g., in the hypothalamus) produce peripheral effects that may modulate the aging process itself. The most robust intervention extending lifespan, plausibly impinging on the aging process, involves different modalities of dietary restriction (DR). Lifespan extension by DR is associated with broad protection against diseases (natural and engineered). Here we review potential epigenetic processes that may link lifespan to age-related diseases, particularly in the context of DR and (other) ketogenic diets, focusing on brain and hypothalamic mechanisms.

Dysregulation of In Vitro Decidualization of Human Endometrial Stromal Cells by Insulin via Transcriptional Inhibition of Forkhead Box Protein O1

Insulin resistance and compensatory hyperinsulinemia are characteristic features of obesity and polycystic ovary syndrome, and both are associated with reduced fertility and implantation. There is little knowledge about the effect of insulin on the decidualization process and previous findings are contradictory. We investigated the effect of insulin on the regulation of forkhead box protein O1 (FOXO1), one of the most important transcription factors during decidualization. Endometrial stromal cells were isolated from six healthy, regularly menstruating women and decidualized in vitro. Gene expression levels of six putative FOXO1 target genes (including insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 (IGFBP1) and prolactin (PRL)) were measured with Real-Time PCR following FOXO1 inhibition or insulin treatment. PI3K inhibition was used to identify the possible mechanism behind regulation. Subcellular localization of FOXO1 was analyzed with immunofluorescence. All the genes (IGFBP1, CTGF, INSR, DCN, LEFTY2), except prolactin, were evaluated as FOXO1 target genes in decidualizing stromal cells. Insulin caused a significant dose-dependent inhibition of the verified FOXO1 target genes. It was also demonstrated that insulin regulated FOXO1 target genes by transcriptional inactivation and nuclear export of FOXO1 via PI3K pathway. However, insulin did not inhibit the morphological transformation of endometrial stromal cells via transcriptional inactivation of FOXO1. This study provides new insights on the action of insulin on the endometrium via regulation of FOXO1. It is suggested that hyperinsulinemia results in dysregulation of a high number of FOXO1 controlled genes that may contribute to endometrial dysfunction and reproductive failure. Our findings may illuminate possible reasons for unexplained infertility.

Structural and functional characterisation of FOXO/Acan-DAF-16 from the parasitic nematode Angiostrongylus cantonensis

Fork head box transcription factors subfamily O (FoxO) is regarded to be significant in cell-cycle control, cell differentiation, ageing, stress response, apoptosis, tumour formation and DNA damage repair. In the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, the FoxO transcription factor is encoded by Ce-daf-16, which is negatively regulated by insulin-like signaling (IIS) and involved in promoting dauer formation through bringing about its hundreds of downstream genes expression. In nematode parasites, orthologues of daf-16 from several species have been identified, with functions in rescue of dauer phenotypes determined in a surrogate system C. elegans. In this study, we identified the FoxO encoding gene, Acan-daf-16, from the parasitic nematode Angiostrongylus cantonensis, and determined the genomic structures, transcripts and functions far more thorough in longevity, stress resistance and dauer formation. Acan-daf-16 encodes two proteins, Acan-DAF-16A and Acan-DAF-16B, consisting of 555 and 491 amino acids, respectively. Both isoforms possess the highly conserved fork head domains. Acan-daf-16A and Acan-daf-16B are expressed from distinct promoters. The expression patterns of Acan-daf-16 isoforms in the C. elegans surrogate system showed that p Acan-daf-16a:gfp was expressed in all cells of C. elegans, including the pharynx, and the expression of p Acan-daf-16b:gfp was restricted to the pharynx. In addition to the same genomic organization to the orthologue in C. elegans, Ce-daf-16, both Acan-DAF-16 isoforms could restore the C. elegans daf-16(mg54) mutation in longevity, dauer formation and stress resistance, in spite of the partial complementation of Acan-DAF-16B isoform in longevity. These findings provide further evidence of the functional conservation of DAF-16s between parasitic nematodes and the free-living nematode C. elegans.

The oncoprotein HBXIP suppresses gluconeogenesis through modulating PCK1 to enhance the growth of hepatoma cells

Hepatitis B X-interacting protein (HBXIP) as an oncoprotein plays crucial roles in the development of cancer, involving glucose metabolism reprogramming. In this study, we are interested in whether the oncoprotein HBXIP is involved in the modulation of gluconeogenesis in liver cancer. Here, we showed that the expression level of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PCK1), a key enzyme of gluconeogenesis, was lower in clinical hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) tissues than that in normal tissues. Mechanistically, HBXIP inhibited the expression of PCK1 through down-regulating transcription factor FOXO1 in hepatoma cells, and up-regulated miR-135a targeting the 3'UTR of FOXO1 mRNA in the cells. In addition, HBXIP increased the phosphorylation levels of FOXO1 protein by activating PI3K/Akt pathway, leading to the export of FOXO1 from nucleus to cytoplasm. Strikingly, over-expression of PCK1 could abolish the HBXIP-promoted growth of hepatoma cells in vitro and in vivo. Thus, we conclude that the oncoprotein HBXIP is able to depress the gluconeogenesis through suppressing PCK1 to promote hepatocarcinogenesis, involving miR-135a/FOXO1 axis and PI3K/Akt/p-FOXO1 pathway. Our finding provides new insights into the mechanism by which oncoprotein HBXIP modulates glucose metabolism reprogramming in HCC.

Histone deacetylase inhibitors induce autophagy through FOXO1-dependent pathways

Autophagy is a catabolic process in response to starvation or other stress conditions to sustain cellular homeostasis. At present, histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACIs) are known to induce autophagy in cells through inhibition of mechanistic target of rapamycin (MTOR) pathway. FOXO1, an important transcription factor regulated by AKT, is also known to play a role in autophagy induction. At present, the role of FOXO1 in the HDACIs-induced autophagy has not been reported. In this study, we first observed that HDACIs increased the expression of FOXO1 at the mRNA and protein level. Second, we found that FOXO1 transcriptional activity was enhanced by HDACIs, as evidenced by increased FOXO1 nuclear accumulation and transcriptional activity. Third, suppression of FOXO1 function by siRNA knockdown or by a chemical inhibitor markedly blocked HDACIs-induced autophagy. Moreover, we found that FOXO1-mediated autophagy is achieved via its transcriptional activation, leading to a dual effect on autophagy induction: (i) enhanced expression of autophagy-related (ATG) genes, and (ii) suppression of MTOR via transcription of the SESN3 (sestrin 3) gene. Finally, we found that inhibition of autophagy markedly enhanced HDACIs-mediated cell death, indicating that autophagy serves as an important cell survival mechanism. Taken together, our studies reveal a novel function of FOXO1 in HDACIs-mediated autophagy in human cancer cells and thus support the development of a novel therapeutic strategy by combining HDACIs and autophagy inhibitors in cancer therapy.

Loss of Interdependent Binding by the FoxO1 and FoxA1/A2 Forkhead Transcription Factors Culminates in Perturbation of Active Chromatin Marks and Binding of Transcriptional Regulators at Insulin-sensitive Genes

FoxO1 binds to insulin response elements located in the promoters of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 1 (IGFBP1) and glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase), activating their expression. Insulin-mediated phosphorylation of FoxO1 promotes cytoplasmic translocation, inhibiting FoxO1-mediated transactivation. We have previously demonstrated that FoxO1 opens and remodels chromatin assembled from the IGFBP1 promoter via a highly conserved winged helix motif. This finding, which established FoxO1 as a "pioneer" factor, suggested a model whereby FoxO1 chromatin remodeling at regulatory targets facilitates binding and recruitment of additional regulatory factors. However, the impact of FoxO1 phosphorylation on its ability to bind chromatin and the effect of FoxO1 loss on recruitment of neighboring transcription factors at its regulatory targets in liver chromatin is unknown. In this study, we demonstrate that an amino acid substitution that mimics insulin-mediated phosphorylation of a serine in the winged helix DNA binding motif curtails FoxO1 nucleosome binding. We also demonstrate that shRNA-mediated loss of FoxO1 binding to the IGFBP1 and G6Pase promoters in HepG2 cells significantly reduces binding of RNA polymerase II and the pioneer factors FoxA1/A2. Knockdown of FoxA1 similarly reduced binding of RNA polymerase II and FoxO1. Reduction in acetylation of histone H3 Lys-27 accompanies loss of FoxO1 and FoxA1/A2 binding. Interdependent binding of FoxO1 and FoxA1/A2 possibly entails cooperative binding because FoxO1 and FoxA1/A2 facilitate one another's binding to IGFPB1 promoter DNA. These results illustrate how transcription factors can nucleate transcriptional events in chromatin in response to signaling events and suggest a model for regulation of hepatic glucose metabolism through interdependent FoxO/FoxA binding.

Systems pharmacology of adiposity reveals inhibition of EP300 as a common therapeutic mechanism of caloric restriction and resveratrol for obesity

Both caloric restriction (CR) and resveratrol (RSV) have beneficial effects on obesity. However, the biochemical pathways that mediate these beneficial effects might be complex and interconnected and have not been fully elucidated. To reveal the common therapeutic mechanism of CR and RSV, we performed a comparative transcriptome analysis of adipose tissues from diet-induced obese (DIO) zebrafish and obese humans. We identified nine genes in DIO zebrafish and seven genes in obese humans whose expressions were regulated by CR and RSV. Although the gene lists did not overlap except for one gene, the gene ontologies enriched in the gene lists were highly overlapped, and included genes involved in adipocyte differentiation, lipid storage and lipid metabolism. Bioinformatic analysis of cis-regulatory sequences of these genes revealed that their transcriptional regulators also overlapped, including EP300, HDAC2, CEBPB, CEBPD, FOXA1, and FOXA2. We also identified 15 and 46 genes that were dysregulated in the adipose tissue of DIO zebrafish and obese humans, respectively. Bioinformatics analysis identified EP300, HDAC2, and CEBPB as common transcriptional regulators for these genes. EP300 is a histone and lysyl acetyltransferase that modulates the function of histone and various proteins including CEBPB, CEBPD, FOXA1, and FOXA2. We demonstrated that adiposity in larval zebrafish was significantly reduced by C646, an inhibitor of EP300 that antagonizes acetyl-CoA. The reduction of adiposity by C646 was not significantly different from that induced by RSV or co-treatment of C646 and RSV. These results indicate that the inhibition of EP300 might be a common therapeutic mechanism between CR and RSV in adipose tissues of obese individuals.

Redox regulation of FoxO transcription factors

Transcription factors of the forkhead box, class O (FoxO) family are important regulators of the cellular stress response and promote the cellular antioxidant defense. On one hand, FoxOs stimulate the transcription of genes coding for antioxidant proteins located in different subcellular compartments, such as in mitochondria (i.e. superoxide dismutase-2, peroxiredoxins 3 and 5) and peroxisomes (catalase), as well as for antioxidant proteins found extracellularly in plasma (e.g., selenoprotein P and ceruloplasmin). On the other hand, reactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as other stressful stimuli that elicit the formation of ROS, may modulate FoxO activity at multiple levels, including posttranslational modifications of FoxOs (such as phosphorylation and acetylation), interaction with coregulators, alterations in FoxO subcellular localization, protein synthesis and stability. Moreover, transcriptional and posttranscriptional control of the expression of genes coding for FoxOs is sensitive to ROS. Here, we review these aspects of FoxO biology focusing on redox regulation of FoxO signaling, and with emphasis on the interplay between ROS and FoxOs under various physiological and pathophysiological conditions. Of particular interest are the dual role played by FoxOs in cancer development and their key role in whole body nutrient homeostasis, modulating metabolic adaptations and/or disturbances in response to low vs. high nutrient intake. Examples discussed here include calorie restriction and starvation as well as adipogenesis, obesity and type 2 diabetes.

Branched-chain amino acids modulate the expression of hepatic fatty acid metabolism-related genes in female broiler chickens

SCOPE

The effects and roles of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) in hepatic fat metabolism are still unknown.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Here, we used broiler chickens, in which lipogenesis occurs essentially in the liver as in human, to investigate the effects of three levels of BCAAs (control "C," low "L" and exogenous supplemented diet "L+S") on growth, carcass traits, immunity, and hepatic fat metabolism. Despite the same productive performance, immunity, and plasma BCAA levels between all groups, low BCAA levels significantly downregulated the hepatic expression of lipogenic genes particularly acetyl-CoA carboxylase alpha (ACCα) and stearoyl-coA desaturase 1 (p = 0.0036 and p = 0.0008, respectively) and upregulated the hepatic expression of mitochondrial β-oxidation- (uncoupling protein and NRF-1, p < 0.05) and dynamic-related genes (DNM1, p < 0.05). Concomitant with these changes, low BCAA levels increased the phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)α(Thr172), ACCα(Ser79), and forkhead box protein O1 (FoxO1(Ser256)) and decreased the phosphorylation of mTOR(Ser2481) and P70 S6 kinase (Thr389). The mRNA abundance of the transcription factors SREBP1/2, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha/beta, and FoxO1 were also increased in the liver of L group compared to the control.

CONCLUSION

Together our data indicate that low BCAA levels inhibit fatty acid synthesis and enhanced fatty acid β-oxidation in the liver of female broiler chickens and these effects were probably mediated through AMPK-mTOR-FoxO1 pathway.

Two potential hookworm DAF-16 target genes, SNR-3 and LPP-1: gene structure, expression profile, and implications of a cis-regulatory element in the regulation of gene expression

BACKGROUND

Hookworms infect nearly 700 million people, causing anemia and developmental stunting in heavy infections. Little is known about the genomic structure or gene regulation in hookworms, although recent publication of draft genome assemblies has allowed the first investigations of these topics to be undertaken. The transcription factor DAF-16 mediates multiple developmental pathways in the free living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, and is involved in the recovery from the developmentally arrested L3 in hookworms. Identification of downstream targets of DAF-16 will provide a better understanding of the molecular mechanism of hookworm infection.

METHODS

Genomic Fragment 2.23 containing a DAF-16 binding element (DBE) was used to identify overlapping complementary expressed sequence tags (ESTs). These sequences were used to search a draft assembly of the Ancylostoma caninum genome, and identified two neighboring genes, snr-3 and lpp-1, in a tail-to-tail orientation. Expression patterns of both genes during parasitic development were determined by qRT-PCR. DAF-16 dependent cis-regulatory activity of fragment 2.23 was investigated using an in vitro reporter system.

RESULTS

The snr-3 gene spans approximately 5.6 kb in the genome and contains 3 exons and 2 introns, and contains the DBE in its 3' untranslated region. Downstream from snr-3 in a tail-to-tail arrangement is the gene lpp-1. The lpp-1 gene spans more than 6 kb and contains 10 exons and 9 introns. The A. caninum genome contains 2 apparent splice variants, but there are 7 splice variants in the A. ceylanicum genome. While the gene order is similar, the gene structures of the hookworm genes differ from their C. elegans orthologs. Both genes show peak expression in the late L4 stage. Using a cell culture based expression system, fragment 2.23 was found to have both DAF-16-dependent promoter and enhancer activity that required an intact DBE.

CONCLUSIONS

Two putative DAF-16 targets were identified by genome wide screening for DAF-16 binding elements. Aca-snr-3 encodes a core small nuclear ribonucleoprotein, and Aca-lpp-1 encodes a lipid phosphate phosphohydrolase. Expression of both genes peaked at the late L4 stage, suggesting a role in L4 development. The 3'-terminal genomic fragment of the snr-3 gene displayed Ac-DAF-16-dependent cis-regulatory activity.

Activation of Foxo1 by insulin resistance promotes cardiac dysfunction and β-myosin heavy chain gene expression

BACKGROUND

Heart failure is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the USA and is closely associated with diabetes mellitus. The molecular link between diabetes mellitus and heart failure is incompletely understood. We recently demonstrated that insulin receptor substrates 1, 2 (IRS1, 2) are key components of insulin signaling and loss of IRS1 and IRS2 mediates insulin resistance, resulting in metabolic dysregulation and heart failure, which is associated with downstream Akt inactivation and in turn activation of the forkhead transcription factor Foxo1.

METHODS AND RESULTS

To determine the role of Foxo1 in control of heart failure in insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus, we generated mice lacking Foxo1 gene specifically in the heart. Mice lacking both IRS1 and IRS2 in adult hearts exhibited severe heart failure and a remarkable increase in the β-isoform of myosin heavy chain (β-MHC) gene expression, whereas deletion of cardiac Foxo1 gene largely prevented the heart failure and resulted in a decrease in β-MHC expression. The effect of Foxo1 deficiency on rescuing cardiac dysfunction was also observed in db/db mice and high-fat diet mice. Using cultures of primary ventricular cardiomyocytes, we found that Foxo1 interacts with the promoter region of β-MHC and stimulates gene expression, mediating an effect of insulin that suppresses β-MHC expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests that Foxo1 has important roles in promoting diabetic cardiomyopathy and controls β-MHC expression in the development of cardiac dysfunction. Targeting Foxo1 and its regulation will provide novel strategies in preventing metabolic and myocardial dysfunction and influencing MHC plasticity in diabetes mellitus.

The roles of FoxOs in modulation of aging by calorie restriction

FoxO activity and modifications, such as its phosphorylation, acetylation, and methylation, may help drive the expression of genes involved in combating oxidative stress by causing the epigenetic modifications, and thus, preserve cellular function during aging and age-related diseases, such as diabetes, cancer, and Alzheimer disease. Insulin signaling has been postulated to influence the aging process by increasing resistance to oxidative stress, and slowing the accumulation of oxidative damage. Some antioxidative effects are mediated by a conserved family of forkhead box transcription factors (FoxOs), which in the absence of insulin signaling freely bind to promoters of antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase, and catalase. On the other hand, calorie restriction (CR) extends the lifespans of several species via the insulin pathway, and extends longevity and healthspan in diverse species via a conserved mechanism. CR enhances adaptive stress responses at the cellular and organism levels and extends lifespan in a FoxO-independent manner. Thus, increased modification of FoxO is modulated via the hyperinsulinemia-induced PI3K/Akt pathway during aging, and CR reverses this process. Accordingly, FoxO plays an important role in maintenance of metabolic homeostasis and removal of oxidative stress in the aging process and in the effect of CR on lifespan.

Novel mechanism of blood pressure regulation by forkhead box class O1-mediated transcriptional control of hepatic angiotensinogen

The renin-angiotensin system is a major determinant of blood pressure regulation. It consists of a cascade of enzymatic reactions involving 3 components: angiotensinogen, renin, and angiotensin-converting enzyme, which generate angiotensin II as a biologically active product. Angiotensinogen is largely produced in the liver, acting as a major determinant of the circulating renin-angiotensin system, which exerts acute hemodynamic effects on blood pressure regulation. How the expression of angiotensinogen is regulated is not completely understood. Here, we hypothesize that angiotensinogen is regulated by forkhead transcription factor forkhead box class O1 (Foxo1), an insulin-suppressed transcription factor, and thereby controls blood pressure in mice. We generated liver-specific Foxo1 knockout mice, which exhibited a reduction in plasma angiotensinogen and angiotensin II levels and a significant decrease in blood pressure. Using hepatocyte cultures, we demonstrated that overexpression of Foxo1 increased angiotensinogen expression, whereas hepatocytes lacking Foxo1 demonstrated a reduction of angiotensinogen gene expression and partially impaired insulin inhibition on angiotensinogen gene expression. Furthermore, mouse angiotensinogen prompter analysis demonstrated that the angiotensinogen promoter region contains a functional Foxo1-binding site, which is responsible for both Foxo1 stimulation and insulin suppression on the promoter activity. Together, these data demonstrate that Foxo1 regulates hepatic angiotensinogen gene expression and controls plasma angiotensinogen and angiotensin II levels, modulating blood pressure control in mice.

USP7 attenuates hepatic gluconeogenesis through modulation of FoxO1 gene promoter occupancy

Hepatic forkhead protein FoxO1 is a key component of systemic glucose homeostasis via its ability to regulate the transcription of rate-limiting enzymes in gluconeogenesis. Important in the regulation of FoxO1 transcriptional activity are the modifying/demodifying enzymes that lead to posttranslational modification. Here, we demonstrate the functional interaction and regulation of FoxO1 by herpesvirus-associated ubiquitin-specific protease 7 (USP7; also known as herpesvirus-associated ubiquitin-specific protease, HAUSP), a deubiquitinating enzyme. We show that USP7-mediated mono-deubiquitination of FoxO1 results in suppression of FoxO1 transcriptional activity through decreased FoxO1 occupancy on the promoters of gluconeogenic genes. Knockdown of USP7 in primary hepatocytes leads to increased expression of FoxO1-target gluconeogenic genes and elevated glucose production. Consistent with this, USP7 gain-of-function suppresses the fasting/cAMP-induced activation of gluconeogenic genes in hepatocyte cells and in mouse liver, resulting in decreased hepatic glucose production. Notably, we show that the effects of USP7 on hepatic glucose metabolism depend on FoxO1. Together, these results place FoxO1 under the intimate regulation of deubiquitination and glucose metabolic control with important implication in diseases such as diabetes.

Novel effects of Brefeldin A (BFA) in signaling through the insulin receptor (IR) pathway and regulating FoxO1-mediated transcription

Brefeldin A (BFA) is a fungal metabolite best known for its ability to inhibit activation of ADP-ribosylation factor (Arf) and thereby inhibit secretory traffic. BFA also appears to regulate the trafficking of the GLUT4 glucose transporter by inducing its relocation from intracellular stores to the cell surface. Such redistribution of GLUT4 is normally regulated by insulin-mediated signaling. Hence, we tested whether BFA may intersect with the insulin pathway. We report that BFA causes the activation of the insulin receptor (IR), IRS-1, Akt-2, and AS160 components of the insulin pathway. The response is mediated through phosphoinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) and Akt kinase since the PI3K inhibitor wortmannin and the Akt inhibitors MK2206 and perifosine inhibit the BFA effect. BFA-mediated activation of the insulin pathway results in Akt-mediated phosphorylation of the insulin-responsive transcription factor FoxO1. This leads to nuclear exclusion of FoxO1 and a decrease in transcription of the insulin-responsive gene SIRT-1. Our findings suggest novel effects for BFA in signaling and transcription, and imply that BFA has multiple intracellular targets and can be used to regulate diverse cellular responses that include vesicular trafficking, signaling and transcription.

Transcriptional/epigenetic regulator CBP/p300 in tumorigenesis: structural and functional versatility in target recognition

In eukaryotic cells, gene transcription is regulated by sequence-specific DNA-binding transcription factors that recognize promoter and enhancer elements near the transcriptional start site. Some coactivators promote transcription by connecting transcription factors to the basal transcriptional machinery. The highly conserved coactivators CREB-binding protein (CBP) and its paralog, E1A-binding protein (p300), each have four separate transactivation domains (TADs) that interact with the TADs of a number of DNA-binding transcription activators as well as general transcription factors (GTFs), thus mediating recruitment of basal transcription machinery to the promoter. Most promoters comprise multiple activator-binding sites, and many activators contain tandem TADs, thus multivalent interactions may stabilize CBP/p300 at the promoter, and intrinsically disordered regions in CBP/p300 and many activators may confer adaptability to these multivalent complexes. CBP/p300 contains a catalytic histone acetyltransferase (HAT) domain, which remodels chromatin to 'relax' its superstructure and enables transcription of proximal genes. The HAT activity of CBP/p300 also acetylates some transcription factors (e.g., p53), hence modulating the function of key transcriptional regulators. Through these numerous interactions, CBP/p300 has been implicated in complex physiological and pathological processes, and, in response to different signals, can drive cells towards proliferation or apoptosis. Dysregulation of the transcriptional and epigenetic functions of CBP/p300 is associated with leukemia and other types of cancer, thus it has been recognized as a potential anti-cancer drug target. In this review, we focus on recent exciting findings in the structural mechanisms of CBP/p300 involving multivalent and dynamic interactions with binding partners, which may pave new avenues for anti-cancer drug development.

FoxO1 deacetylation regulates thyroid hormone-induced transcription of key hepatic gluconeogenic genes

Hepatic gluconeogenesis is a concerted process that integrates transcriptional regulation with hormonal signals. A major regulator is thyroid hormone (TH), which acts through its nuclear receptor (TR) to induce the expression of the hepatic gluconeogenic genes, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PCK1) and glucose-6-phosphatase (G6PC). Forkhead transcription factor FoxO1 also is an important regulator of these genes; however, its functional interactions with TR are not known. Here, we report that TR-mediated transcriptional activation of PCK1 and G6PC in human hepatic cells and mouse liver was FoxO1-dependent and furthermore required FoxO1 deacetylation by the NAD(+)-dependent deacetylase, SirT1. siRNA knockdown of FoxO1 decreased, whereas overexpression of FoxO1 increased, TH-dependent transcriptional activation of PCK1 and G6PC in cultured hepatic cells. FoxO1 siRNA knockdown also decreased TH-mediated transcription in vivo. Additionally, TH was unable to induce FoxO1 deacetylation or hepatic PCK1 gene expression in TH receptor β-null (TRβ(-/-)) mice. Moreover, TH stimulated FoxO1 recruitment to the PCK1 and G6PC gene promoters in a SirT1-dependent manner. In summary, our results show that TH-dependent deacetylation of a second metabolically regulated transcription factor represents a novel mechanism for transcriptional integration of nuclear hormone action with cellular energy status.

Deletion of microRNA-80 activates dietary restriction to extend C. elegans healthspan and lifespan

Caloric/dietary restriction (CR/DR) can promote longevity and protect against age-associated disease across species. The molecular mechanisms coordinating food intake with health-promoting metabolism are thus of significant medical interest. We report that conserved Caenorhabditis elegans microRNA-80 (mir-80) is a major regulator of the DR state. mir-80 deletion confers system-wide healthy aging, including maintained cardiac-like and skeletal muscle-like function at advanced age, reduced accumulation of lipofuscin, and extended lifespan, coincident with induction of physiological features of DR. mir-80 expression is generally high under ad lib feeding and low under food limitation, with most striking food-sensitive expression changes in posterior intestine. The acetyltransferase transcription co-factor cbp-1 and interacting transcription factors daf-16/FOXO and heat shock factor-1 hsf-1 are essential for mir-80(Δ) benefits. Candidate miR-80 target sequences within the cbp-1 transcript may confer food-dependent regulation. Under food limitation, lowered miR-80 levels directly or indirectly increase CBP-1 protein levels to engage metabolic loops that promote DR.

IGF-1-induced enhancement of PRNP expression depends on the negative regulation of transcription factor FOXO3a

The conformational conversion of the cellular prion protein (PrP^C) into its β-sheet-rich scrapie isoform (PrP^Sc) causes fatal prion diseases, which are also called transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). Recent studies suggest that the expression of PrP^C by the PRNP gene is crucial for the development of TSEs. Therefore, the identification of the exogenous and endogenous stimulating factors that regulate PRNP expression would help to understand the pathogenesis of TSEs. Here, we demonstrate that forkhead box O3a (FOXO3a) negatively regulates PRNP expression by binding to the PRNP promoter, which is negatively regulated by insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). Our results show that the IGF-1-induced enhancement of PRNP mRNA and protein levels is due to the activation of the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. The activation of Akt then induces the phosphorylation of FOXO3a, leading to its translocation from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and preventing its binding to the PRNP promoter. Treatment with the PI3K-Akt inhibitor LY294002 induces the nuclear retention of FOXO3a, which leads to a decrease in PRNP expression. We present a new IGF-1-PI3K-Akt-FOXO3a pathway, which influences PRNP expression. The results of this work are vital for understanding the function of PrP^C and for future therapeutic approaches to human TSEs.

Forkhead box class O transcription factors in liver function and disease

The forkhead box transcription factor class O (FOXO) family represents a group of transcription factors that is required for a number of stress-related transcriptional programs including antioxidant response, gluconeogenesis, cell cycle control, apoptosis, and autophagy. The liver utilizes several FOXO-dependent pathways to adapt to its routine cycles of feeding and fasting and to respond to the stresses induced by disease. FOXO1 is a direct transcriptional regulator of gluconeogenesis, reciprocally regulated by insulin, and has profound effects on hepatic lipid metabolism. FOXO3 is required for antioxidant responses and autophagy and is altered in hepatitis C infection and fatty liver. Emerging evidence suggests dysregulation of FOXO3 in some hepatocellular carcinomas. FOXOs are notable for the extensive number of functionally significant posttranslational modifications that they undergo. Recent advances in our understanding how FOXOs are regulated are providing a more detailed picture of how specific combinations of posttranslational modifications alter both nuclear translocation as well as transcriptional specificity under different conditions. This review summarizes emerging knowledge of FOXO function in the liver, FOXO changes in liver disease, and the posttranslational modifications responsible for these effects.

Proteomic analysis of coregulators bound to ERα on DNA and nucleosomes reveals coregulator dynamics

Chromatin immunoprecipitation studies have mapped protein occupancies at many genomic loci. However, a detailed picture of the complexity of coregulators (CoRs) bound to a defined enhancer along with a transcription factor is missing. To address this, we used biotin-DNA pull-down assays coupled with mass spectrometry-immunoblotting to identify at least 17 CoRs from nuclear extracts bound to 17β-estradiol (E2)-liganded estrogen receptor-α on estrogen response elements (EREs). Unexpectedly, these complexes initially are biochemically stable and contain certain atypical corepressors. Addition of ATP dynamically converts these complexes to an "activated" state by phosphorylation events, primarily mediated by DNA-dependent protein kinase. Importantly, a "natural" ERE-containing enhancer and nucleosomal EREs recruit similar complexes. We further discovered the mechanism whereby H3K4me3 stimulates ERα-mediated transcription as compared with unmodified nucleosomes. H3K4me3 templates promote specific CoR dynamics in the presence of ATP and AcCoA, as manifested by CBP/p300 and SRC-3 dismissal and SAGA and TFIID stabilization/recruitment.

Sequence and expression analyses of KIX domain proteins suggest their importance in seed development and determination of seed size in rice, and genome stability in Arabidopsis

The KIX domain, which mediates protein-protein interactions, was first discovered as a motif in the large multidomain transcriptional activator histone acetyltransferase p300/CBP. Later, the domain was also found in Mediator subunit MED15, where it interacts with many transcription factors. In both proteins, the KIX domain is a target of activation domains of diverse transcription activators. It was found to be an essential component of several specific gene-activation pathways in fungi and metazoans. Not much is known about KIX domain proteins in plants. This study aims to characterize all the KIX domain proteins encoded by the genomes of Arabidopsis and rice. All identified KIX domain proteins are presented, together with their chromosomal locations, phylogenetic analysis, expression and SNP analyses. KIX domains were found not only in p300/CBP- and MED15-like plant proteins, but also in F-box proteins in rice and DNA helicase in Arabidopsis, suggesting roles of KIX domains in ubiquitin-mediated proteasomal degradation and genome stability. Expression analysis revealed overlapping expression of OsKIX_3, OsKIX_5 and OsKIX_7 in different stages of rice seeds development. Moreover, an association analysis of 136 in silico mined SNP loci in 23 different rice genotypes with grain-length information identified three non-synonymous SNP loci in these three rice genes showing strong association with long- and short-grain differentiation. Interestingly, these SNPs were located within KIX domain encoding sequences. Overall, this study lays a foundation for functional analysis of KIX domain proteins in plants.

Role of the hypothalamus in mediating protective effects of dietary restriction during aging

Dietary restriction (DR) can extend lifespan and reduce disease burden across a wide range of animals and yeast but the mechanisms mediating these remarkably protective effects remain to be elucidated despite extensive efforts. Although it has generally been assumed that protective effects of DR are cell-autonomous, there is considerable evidence that many whole-body responses to nutritional state, including DR, are regulated by nutrient-sensing neurons. In this review, we explore the hypothesis that nutrient sensing neurons in the ventromedial hypothalamus hierarchically regulate the protective responses of dietary restriction. We describe multiple peripheral responses that are hierarchically regulated by the hypothalamus and we present evidence for non-cell autonomous signaling of dietary restriction gathered from a diverse range of models including invertebrates, mammalian cell culture, and rodent studies.

Mechanisms of activin-stimulated FSH synthesis: the story of a pig and a FOX

Activins were discovered and, in fact, named more than a quarter century ago based on their abilities to stimulate pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) synthesis and secretion. However, it is only in the last decade that we have finally come to understand their underlying mechanisms of action in gonadotroph cells. In this minireview, we chronicle the research that led to the recent discovery of forkhead box L2 (FOXL2) as an essential mediator of activin-regulated FSH beta subunit (Fshb) transcription in vitro and in vivo.

Post-translational regulation of FOXO

The Forkhead box O (FOXO) family transcription factors play critical roles in a series of cellular processes, including the cell cycle, cell death, metabolism, and oxidative stress resistance. FOXO proteins are subject to several post-translational modifications, which are closely related to their activity. In this paper, we review the post-translational modifications of FOXOs and their biological functions.

Genome-wide analysis of FoxO1 binding in hepatic chromatin: potential involvement of FoxO1 in linking retinoid signaling to hepatic gluconeogenesis

The forkhead transcription factor FoxO1 is a critical regulator of hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism, and dysregulation of FoxO1 function has been implicated in diabetes and insulin resistance. We globally identified FoxO1 occupancy in mouse hepatic chromatin on a genome-wide level by chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled with high-throughput DNA sequencing (ChIP-seq). To establish the specific functional significance of FoxO1 against other FoxO proteins, ChIP-seq was performed with chromatin from liver-specific FoxO1 knockout and wild-type mice. Here we identified 401 genome-wide FoxO1-binding locations. Motif search reveals a sequence element, 5′ GTAAACA 3′, consistent with a previously known FoxO1-binding site. Gene set enrichment analysis shows that the data from FoxO1 ChIP-seq are highly correlated with the global expression profiling of genes regulated by FoxO1, demonstrating the functional relevance of our FoxO1 ChIP-seq study. Interestingly, gene ontology analysis reveals the functional significance of FoxO1 in retinoid metabolic processes. We show here that FoxO1 directly binds to the genomic sites for the genes in retinoid metabolism. Notably, deletion of FoxO1 caused a significantly reduced induction of Pck1 and Pdk4 in response to retinoids. As Pck1 and Pdk4 are downstream targets of retinoid signaling, these results suggest that FoxO1 plays a potential role in linking retinoid metabolism to hepatic gluconeogenesis.

C. elegans SIRT6/7 homolog SIR-2.4 promotes DAF-16 relocalization and function during stress

FoxO transcription factors and sirtuin family deacetylases regulate diverse biological processes, including stress responses and longevity. Here we show that the Caenorhabditis elegans sirtuin SIR-2.4—homolog of mammalian SIRT6 and SIRT7 proteins—promotes DAF-16–dependent transcription and stress-induced DAF-16 nuclear localization. SIR-2.4 is required for resistance to multiple stressors: heat shock, oxidative insult, and proteotoxicity. By contrast, SIR-2.4 is largely dispensable for DAF-16 nuclear localization and function in response to reduced insulin/IGF-1-like signaling. Although acetylation is known to regulate localization and activity of mammalian FoxO proteins, this modification has not been previously described on DAF-16. We find that DAF-16 is hyperacetylated in sir-2.4 mutants. Conversely, DAF-16 is acetylated by the acetyltransferase CBP-1, and DAF-16 is hypoacetylated and constitutively nuclear in response to cbp-1 inhibition. Surprisingly, a SIR-2.4 catalytic mutant efficiently rescues the DAF-16 localization defect in sir-2.4 null animals. Acetylation of DAF-16 by CBP-1 in vitro is inhibited by either wild-type or mutant SIR-2.4, suggesting that SIR-2.4 regulates DAF-16 acetylation indirectly, by preventing CBP-1-mediated acetylation under stress conditions. Taken together, our results identify SIR-2.4 as a critical regulator of DAF-16 specifically in the context of stress responses. Furthermore, they reveal a novel role for acetylation, modulated by the antagonistic activities of CBP-1 and SIR-2.4, in modulating DAF-16 localization and function.

Sensing and responding appropriately to environmental insults is a challenge facing all organisms. In the roundworm C. elegans, the FoxO protein DAF-16 moves to the nucleus in response to stress, where it regulates gene expression and plays a key role in ensuring organismal survival. In this manuscript, we characterize SIR-2.4 as a novel factor that promotes DAF-16 function during stress. SIR-2.4 is a member of a family of proteins called sirtuins, some of which promote increased lifespan in model organisms. Worms lacking SIR-2.4 show impaired DAF-16 nuclear recruitment, DAF-16–dependent gene expression, and survival in response to a variety of stressors. SIR-2.4 regulates DAF-16 by indirectly affecting levels of a modification called acetylation on DAF-16. Overall, our work has revealed SIR-2.4 to be a key new factor in stress resistance and DAF-16 regulation in C. elegans. Future studies will address whether mammalian SIR-2.4 homologs SIRT6 and SIRT7 act similarly towards mammalian FoxO proteins.

FoxO1 inhibits sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c) gene expression via transcription factors Sp1 and SREBP-1c

Induction of lipogenesis in response to insulin is critically dependent on the transcription factor, sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c). FoxO1, a forkhead box class-O transcription factor, is an important mediator of insulin action, but its role in the regulation of lipid metabolism has not been clearly defined. We examined the effects of FoxO1 on srebp1 gene expression in vivo and in vitro. In vivo studies showed that constitutively active (CA) FoxO1 (CA-FoxO1) reduced basal expression of SREBP-1c mRNA in liver by ∼60% and blunted induction of SREBP-1c in response to feeding. In liver-specific FoxO knock-out mice, SREBP-1c expression was increased ∼2-fold. Similarly, in primary hepatocytes, CA-FoxO1 suppressed SREBP1-c expression and inhibited basal and insulin-induced SREBP-1c promoter activity. SREBP-1c gene expression is induced by the liver X receptor (LXR), but CA-FoxO1 did not block the activation of SREBP-1c by the LXR agonist TO9. Insulin stimulates SREBP-1c transcription through Sp1 and via "feed forward" regulation by newly synthesized SREBP-1c. CA-FoxO1 inhibited SREBP-1c by reducing the transactivational capacity of both Sp1 and SREBP-1c. In addition, chromatin immunoprecipitation assays indicate that FoxO1 can associate with the proximal promoter region of the srebp1 gene and disrupt the assembly of key components of the transcriptional complex of the SREBP-1c promoter. We conclude that FoxO1 inhibits SREBP-1c transcription via combined actions on multiple transcription factors and that this effect is exerted at least in part through reduced transcriptional activity of Sp1 and SREBP-1c and disrupted assembly of the transcriptional initiation complex on the SREBP-1c promoter.

The role of phosphoinositide 3-kinase signaling in intestinal inflammation

The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling pathway plays a central role in regulating the host inflammatory response. The net effect can either be pro- or anti-inflammatory depending on the system and cellular context studied. This paper focuses on phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling in innate and adaptive immune cells of the intestinal mucosa. The role of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling in mouse models of inflammatory bowel disease is also discussed. With the development of new isoform specific inhibitors, we are beginning to understand the specific role of this complex pathway, in particular the role of the γ isoform in intestinal inflammation. Continued research on this complex pathway will enhance our understanding of its role and provide rationale for the design of new approaches to intervention in chronic inflammatory conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease.

Structures of KIX domain of CBP in complex with two FOXO3a transactivation domains reveal promiscuity and plasticity in coactivator recruitment

Forkhead box class O 3a (FOXO3a) is a transcription factor and tumor suppressor linked to longevity that determines cell fate through activating transcription of cell differentiation, survival, and apoptotic genes. Recruitment of the coactivator CBP/p300 is a crucial step in transcription, and we revealed that in addition to conserved region 3 (CR3) of FOXO3a, the C-terminal segment of CR2 (CR2C) binds CBP/p300 and contributes to transcriptional activity. CR2C and CR3 of FOXO3a interact with the KIX domain of CBP/p300 at both "MLL" and "c-Myb" binding sites simultaneously. A FOXO3a CR2C-CR3 peptide in complex with KIX exists in equilibrium between two equally populated conformational states, one of which has CR2C bound to the MLL site and CR3 bound to the c-Myb site, whereas in the other, CR2C and CR3 bind the c-Myb and MLL sites, respectively. This promiscuous interaction between FOXO3a and CBP/p300 is further supported by additional binding sites on CBP/p300, namely, the TAZ1 and TAZ2 domains. In functional studies, our structure-guided mutagenesis showed that both CR2C and CR3 are involved in the activation of certain endogenous FOXO3a target genes. Further, phosphorylation of S626, a known AMP-dependent protein kinase target in CR3, increased affinity for CBP/p300 and the phosphomimetic mutation enhanced transactivation of luciferase. These findings underscore the significance of promiscuous multivalent interactions and posttranslational modification in the recruitment of transcriptional coactivators, which may allow transcription factors to adapt to various gene-specific genomic and chromatin structures and respond to cell signals.

DAF-12 regulates a connected network of genes to ensure robust developmental decisions

The nuclear receptor DAF-12 has roles in normal development, the decision to pursue dauer development in unfavorable conditions, and the modulation of adult aging. Despite the biologic importance of DAF-12, target genes for this receptor are largely unknown. To identify DAF-12 targets, we performed chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by hybridization to whole-genome tiling arrays. We identified 1,175 genomic regions to be bound in vivo by DAF-12, and these regions are enriched in known DAF-12 binding motifs and act as DAF-12 response elements in transfected cells and in transgenic worms. The DAF-12 target genes near these binding sites include an extensive network of interconnected heterochronic and microRNA genes. We also identify the genes encoding components of the miRISC, which is required for the control of target genes by microRNA, as a target of DAF-12 regulation. During reproductive development, many of these target genes are misregulated in daf-12(0) mutants, but this only infrequently results in developmental phenotypes. In contrast, we and others have found that null daf-12 mutations enhance the phenotypes of many miRISC and heterochronic target genes. We also find that environmental fluctuations significantly strengthen the weak heterochronic phenotypes of null daf-12 alleles. During diapause, DAF-12 represses the expression of many heterochronic and miRISC target genes, and prior work has demonstrated that dauer formation can suppress the heterochronic phenotypes of many of these target genes in post-dauer development. Together these data are consistent with daf-12 acting to ensure developmental robustness by committing the animal to adult or dauer developmental programs despite variable internal or external conditions.

FOXO3 deficiency leads to increased susceptibility to cigarette smoke-induced inflammation, airspace enlargement, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Forkhead box class O 3a (FOXO3) is a member of the FoxO transcription factor subfamily, which regulates the expression of target genes not only through DNA binding as a transcription factor, but also through protein-protein interaction. Although FoxO3 is a well-known transcription factor involved in diverse biological processes, the role of FoxO3 in cigarette smoke (CS)-induced lung inflammation and injury has not been studied. It is, therefore, hypothesized that deficiency of FoxO3 leads to increased susceptibility to CS-induced lung inflammatory response and airspace enlargement. In this article, we show that the levels of FOXO3 are significantly decreased in lungs of smokers and patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, as well as in lungs of mice exposed to CS. Genetic ablation of FoxO3 led to pulmonary emphysema and exaggerated inflammatory response in lungs of mice exposed to CS. We further showed that CS induced the translocation of FoxO3 into the nucleus where FoxO3 interacted with NF-κB and disrupted NF-κB DNA-binding ability, leading to inhibition of its activity. Targeted disruption of FoxO3 also resulted in downregulation of antioxidant genes in mouse lungs in response to CS exposure. These results suggest that FoxO3 plays a pivotal role in regulation of lung inflammatory response and antioxidant genes, and deficiency of FoxO3 results in development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/emphysema.