Synaptojanin is the major constitutively active phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate 5-phosphatase in rodent brain

A candidate loss-of-function variant in SGIP1 causes synaptic dysfunction and recessive parkinsonism

Synaptic dysfunction is recognized as an early step in the pathophysiology of parkinsonism. Several genetic mutations affecting the integrity of synaptic proteins cause or increase the risk of developing disease. We have identified a candidate causative mutation in synaptic "SH3GL2 Interacting Protein 1" (SGIP1), linked to early-onset parkinsonism in a consanguineous Arab family. Additionally, affected siblings display intellectual, cognitive, and behavioral dysfunction. Metabolic network analysis of [18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography scans shows patterns very similar to those of idiopathic Parkinson's disease. We show that the identified SGIP1 mutation causes a loss of protein function, and analyses in newly created Drosophila models reveal movement defects, synaptic transmission dysfunction, and neurodegeneration, including dopaminergic synapse loss. Histology and correlative light and electron microscopy reveal the absence of synaptic multivesicular bodies and the accumulation of degradative organelles. This research delineates a putative form of recessive parkinsonism, converging on defective synaptic proteostasis and opening avenues for diagnosis, genetic counseling, and treatment.

Parkinsonism mutations in DNAJC6 cause lipid defects and neurodegeneration that are rescued by Synj1

Recent evidence links dysfunctional lipid metabolism to the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease, but the mechanisms are not resolved. Here, we generated a new Drosophila knock-in model of DNAJC6/Auxilin and find that the pathogenic mutation causes synaptic dysfunction, neurological defects and neurodegeneration, as well as specific lipid metabolism alterations. In these mutants, membrane lipids containing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, including phosphatidylinositol lipid species that are key for synaptic vesicle recycling and organelle function, are reduced. Overexpression of another protein mutated in Parkinson's disease, Synaptojanin-1, known to bind and metabolize specific phosphoinositides, rescues the DNAJC6/Auxilin lipid alterations, the neuronal function defects and neurodegeneration. Our work reveals a functional relation between two proteins mutated in Parkinsonism and implicates deregulated phosphoinositide metabolism in the maintenance of neuronal integrity and neuronal survival.

Expression pattern and the roles of phosphatidylinositol phosphatases in testis

Phosphoinositides (PIs) are relatively rare lipid components of the cellular membranes. Their homeostasis is tightly controlled by specific PI kinases and phosphatases. PIs play essential roles in cellular signaling, cytoskeletal organization, and secretory processes in various diseases and normal physiology. Gene targeting experiments strongly suggest that in mice with deficiency of several PI phosphatases such as Pten, Mtmrs, Inpp4b, and Inpp5b, spermatogenesis is affected, resulting in partial or complete infertility. Similarly, in men, loss of several of the PIP phosphatases is observed in infertility characterized by the lack of mature sperm. Using available gene expression databases, we compare expression of known PI phosphatases in various testicular cell types, infertility patients, and mouse age-dependent testicular gene expression, and discuss their potential roles in testis physiology and spermatogenesis.

Synj1 haploinsufficiency causes dopamine neuron vulnerability and alpha-synuclein accumulation in mice

Synaptojanin1 (synj1) is a phosphoinositide phosphatase with dual SAC1 and 5'-phosphatase enzymatic activities in regulating phospholipid signaling. The brain-enriched isoform has been shown to participate in synaptic vesicle (SV) recycling. More recently, recessive human mutations were identified in the two phosphatase domains of SYNJ1, including R258Q, R459P and R839C, which are linked to rare forms of early-onset Parkinsonism. We now demonstrate that Synj1 heterozygous deletion (Synj1+/-), which is associated with an impaired 5'-phosphatase activity, also leads to Parkinson's disease (PD)-like pathologies in mice. We report that male Synj1+/- mice display age-dependent motor function abnormalities as well as alpha-synuclein accumulation, impaired autophagy and dopaminergic terminal degeneration. Synj1+/- mice contain elevated 5'-phosphatase substrate, PI(4,5)P2, particularly in the midbrain neurons. Moreover, pharmacological elevation of membrane PI(4,5)P2 in cultured neurons impairs SV endocytosis, specifically in midbrain neurons, and further exacerbates SV trafficking defects in Synj1+/- midbrain neurons. We demonstrate down-regulation of SYNJ1 transcript in a subset of sporadic PD brains, implicating a potential role of Synj1 deficiency in the decline of dopaminergic function during aging.

The Role of mTOR Signaling as a Therapeutic Target in Cancer

The aim of this review was to summarize current available information about the role of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling in cancer as a potential target for new therapy options. The mTOR and PI3K/AKT/mTORC1 (mTOR complex 1) signaling are critical for the regulation of many fundamental cell processes including protein synthesis, cell growth, metabolism, survival, catabolism, and autophagy, and deregulated mTOR signaling is implicated in cancer, metabolic dysregulation, and the aging process. In this review, we summarize the information about the structure and function of the mTOR pathway and discuss the mechanisms of its deregulation in human cancers including genetic alterations of PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway components. We also present recent data regarding the PI3K/AKT/mTOR inhibitors in clinical studies and the treatment of cancer, as well the attendant problems of resistance and adverse effects.

A positive feedback loop between Flower and PI(4,5)P2 at periactive zones controls bulk endocytosis in Drosophila

Synaptic vesicle (SV) endocytosis is coupled to exocytosis to maintain SV pool size and thus neurotransmitter release. Intense stimulation induces activity-dependent bulk endocytosis (ADBE) to recapture large quantities of SV constituents in large endosomes from which SVs reform. How these consecutive processes are spatiotemporally coordinated remains unknown. Here, we show that Flower Ca²⁺ channel-dependent phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P₂) compartmentalization governs control of these processes in Drosophila. Strong stimuli trigger PI(4,5)P₂ microdomain formation at periactive zones. Upon exocytosis, Flower translocates from SVs to periactive zones, where it increases PI(4,5)P₂ levels via Ca²⁺ influxes. Remarkably, PI(4,5)P₂ directly enhances Flower channel activity, thereby establishing a positive feedback loop for PI(4,5)P₂ microdomain compartmentalization. PI(4,5)P₂ microdomains drive ADBE and SV reformation from bulk endosomes. PI(4,5)P₂ further retrieves Flower to bulk endosomes, terminating endocytosis. We propose that the interplay between Flower and PI(4,5)P₂ is the crucial spatiotemporal cue that couples exocytosis to ADBE and subsequent SV reformation.

Attenuated levels of phospholipids in the striatum of rats infused with rotenone causing hemiparkinsonism as detected by simple dye-lipid complex

Parkinson's disease (PD), a progressive neurodegeneration, is characterized by loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) and loss of motor co-ordination. Impaired metabolism of major lipids such as phospholipids which play regulatory roles in cellular functions and signaling has been implicated in the pathology of PD. We aim to investigate the striatal phospholipids (PLs) in hemiparkinsonism infused by rotenone in rats. As there are no cost-effective modes of PL, we have utilized dye-lipid complex technique for the first time in PD models for screening and also for semi-quantifying (individually) the levels of the deregulated PL in brain samples. Rats were divided into 2 groups: i. control and ii. ROT-infused which received intracranial injection of Rotenone (6 μg/μl; flow rate 0.2 μl/min). At the end of experimental period of 14 days, the striatum was dissected out for the analyses of PLs. Dye-based detection of PL and two-dimensional thin-layer chromatographic analyses of PL were performed. Detection of dye-PL complex was possible for phosphatidyl choline (PC), phosphatidyl inositol (PI), and spingomyelin (SM) (but not for phosphatidyl ethanolamine-PE) using dyes viz victoria blue B, toluidine blue and ammonium ferrothiocyanate, respectively. Two-dimensional analyses of phospholipids confirmed the dye-PL complex and depicted significant reduction (p < 0.05) on semi-quantitative assessment, in the striatum of control and hemiparkinsonic rats. We suggest a low level of PLs esp of PI in striatum of rats using a simple dye-detection that was validated by HR-LCMS. The finding implies that a critical role is being played by these PLs (PC, PI and SM) mainly PI (p < 0.001), in rotenone infused hemiparkinsonism, thus deserving wider but simpler investigations to detect and identify their role in parkinsonism.

Phosphatidylinositolphosphate phosphatase activities and cancer

Signaling through the phosphoinositide 3-kinase pathways mediates the actions of a plethora of hormones, growth factors, cytokines, and neurotransmitters upon their target cells following receptor occupation. Overactivation of these pathways has been implicated in a number of pathologies, in particular a range of malignancies. The tight regulation of signaling pathways necessitates the involvement of both stimulatory and terminating enzymes; inappropriate activation of a pathway can thus result from activation or inhibition of the two signaling arms. The focus of this review is to discuss, in detail, the activities of the identified families of phosphoinositide phosphatase expressed in humans, and how they regulate the levels of phosphoinositides implicated in promoting malignancy.

The structure of phosphoinositide phosphatases: Insights into substrate specificity and catalysis

Phosphoinositides (PIs) are a group of key signaling and structural lipid molecules involved in a myriad of cellular processes. PI phosphatases, together with PI kinases, are responsible for the conversion of PIs between distinctive phosphorylation states. PI phosphatases are a large collection of enzymes that are evolved from at least two disparate ancestors. One group is distantly related to endonucleases, which apply divalent metal ions for phosphoryl transfer. The other group is related to protein tyrosine phosphatases, which contain a highly conserved active site motif Cys-X5-Arg (CX5R). In this review, we focus on structural insights to illustrate current understandings of the molecular mechanisms of each PI phosphatase family, with emphasis on their structural basis for substrate specificity determinants and catalytic mechanisms. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Phosphoinositides.

Screening assay for small-molecule inhibitors of synaptojanin 1, a synaptic phosphoinositide phosphatase

Elevation of amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) is critically associated with Alzheimer disease (AD) pathogenesis. Aβ-induced synaptic abnormalities, including altered receptor trafficking and synapse loss, have been linked to cognitive deficits in AD. Recent work implicates a lipid critical for neuronal function, phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2], in Aβ-induced synaptic and behavioral impairments. Synaptojanin 1 (Synj1), a lipid phosphatase mediating the breakdown of PI(4,5)P2, has been shown to play a role in synaptic vesicle recycling and receptor trafficking in neurons. Heterozygous deletion of Synj1 protected neurons from Aβ-induced synaptic loss and restored learning and memory in a mouse model of AD. Thus, inhibition of Synj1 may ameliorate Aβ-associated impairments, suggesting Synj1 as a potential therapeutic target. To this end, we developed a screening assay for Synj1 based on detection of inorganic phosphate liberation from a water-soluble, short-chain PI(4,5)P2. The assay displayed saturable kinetics and detected Synj1's substrate preference for PI(4,5)P2 over PI(3,4,5)P3. The assay will enable identification of novel Synj1 inhibitors that have potential utility as chemical probes to dissect the cellular role of Synj1 as well as potential to prevent or reverse AD-associated synaptic abnormalities.

Biochemistry and structure of phosphoinositide phosphatases

Phosphoinositides are the phosphorylated derivatives of phosphatidylinositol, and play a very significant role in a diverse range of signaling processes in eukaryotic cells. A number of phosphoinositide-metabolizing enzymes, including phosphoinositide-kinases and phosphatases are involved in the synthesis and degradation of these phospholipids. Recently, the function of various phosphatases in the phosphatidylinositol signaling pathway has been of great interest. In the present review we summarize the structural insights and biochemistry of various phosphatases in regulating phosphoinositide metabolism.

Enterococcus faecalis utilizes maltose by connecting two incompatible metabolic routes via a novel maltose 6'-phosphate phosphatase (MapP)

Similar to Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecalis transports and phosphorylates maltose via a phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP):maltose phosphotransferase system (PTS). The maltose-specific PTS permease is encoded by the malT gene. However, E. faecalis lacks a malA gene encoding a 6-phospho-α-glucosidase, which in B. subtilis hydrolyses maltose 6'-P into glucose and glucose 6-P. Instead, an operon encoding a maltose phosphorylase (MalP), a phosphoglucomutase and a mutarotase starts upstream from malT. MalP was suggested to split maltose 6-P into glucose 1-P and glucose 6-P. However, purified MalP phosphorolyses maltose but not maltose 6'-P. We discovered that the gene downstream from malT encodes a novel enzyme (MapP) that dephosphorylates maltose 6'-P formed by the PTS. The resulting intracellular maltose is cleaved by MalP into glucose and glucose 1-P. Slow uptake of maltose probably via a maltodextrin ABC transporter allows poor growth for the mapP but not the malP mutant. Synthesis of MapP in a B. subtilis mutant accumulating maltose 6'-P restored growth on maltose. MapP catalyses the dephosphorylation of intracellular maltose 6'-P, and the resulting maltose is converted by the B. subtilis maltose phosphorylase into glucose and glucose 1-P. MapP therefore connects PTS-mediated maltose uptake to maltose phosphorylase-catalysed metabolism. Dephosphorylation assays with a wide variety of phospho-substrates revealed that MapP preferably dephosphorylates disaccharides containing an O-α-glycosyl linkage.

G proteins, p60TRP, and neurodegenerative diseases

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex brain disorder of the limbic system and association cortices. The disease is characterized by the production and deposition of the amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) in the brain, and the neuropathological mechanisms involved must be deciphered to gain further insights into the fundamental aspects of the protein biology responsible for the development and progression of this disease. Aβ is generated by the intramembranous cleavage of the β-amyloid precursor protein, which is mediated by the proteases β- and γ-secretase. Accumulating evidence suggests the importance of the coupling of this cleavage mechanism to G protein signaling. Heterotrimeric G proteins play pivotal roles as molecular switches in signal transduction pathways mediated by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Extracellular stimuli activate these receptors, which in turn catalyze guanosine triphosphate-guanosine diphosphate exchange on the G protein α-subunit. The activation-deactivation cycles of G proteins underlie their crucial functions as molecular switches for a vast array of biological responses. The novel transcription regulator protein p60 transcription regulator protein and its related GPCR signaling pathways have recently been described as potential targets for the development of alternative strategies for inhibiting the early signaling mechanisms involved in neurodegenerative diseases such as AD.

Removal or masking of phosphatidylinositol(4,5)bisphosphate from the outer mitochondrial membrane causes mitochondrial fragmentation

Mitochondria are central players in programmed cell death and autophagy. While phosphoinositides are well established regulators of membrane traffic, cellular signalling and the destiny of certain organelles, their presence and role for mitochondria remain elusive. In this study we show that removal of PtdIns(4,5)P₂ by phosphatases or masking the lipid with PH domains leads to fission of mitochondria and increased autophagy. Induction of general autophagy by amino acid starvation also coincides with the loss of mitochondrial PtdIns(4,5)P₂, suggesting an important role for this lipid in the processes that govern mitophagy. Our findings reveal that PKCα can rescue the removal or masking of PtdIns(4,5)P₂, indicating that the inositol lipid is upstream of PKC.

Structure of the PTEN-like region of auxilin, a detector of clathrin-coated vesicle budding

Auxilin, a J-domain containing protein, recruits the Hsc70 uncoating ATPase to newly budded clathrin-coated vesicles. The timing of auxilin arrival determines that uncoating will commence only after the clathrin lattice has fully assembled and after membrane fission is complete. Auxilin has a region resembling PTEN, a PI3P phosphatase. We have determined the crystal structure of this region of bovine auxilin 1; it indeed resembles PTEN closely. A change in the structure of the P loop accounts for the lack of phosphatase activity. Inclusion of phosphatidylinositol phosphates substantially enhances liposome binding by wild-type auxilin, but not by various mutants bearing changes in loops of the C2 domain. Nearly all these mutations also prevent recruitment of auxilin to newly budded coated vesicles. We propose a specific geometry for auxilin association with a membrane bilayer and discuss implications of this model for the mechanism by which auxilin detects separation of a vesicle from its parent membrane.

The inositol 5-phosphatase SHIP2 regulates endocytic clathrin-coated pit dynamics

SHIP2 is recruited early to clathrin-coated pits by the scaffold protein intersectin and dissociates before fission.

Phosphatidylinositol (PI) 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P₂) and its phosphorylated product PI 3,4,5-triphosphate (PI(3,4,5)P₃) are two major phosphoinositides concentrated at the plasma membrane. Their levels, which are tightly controlled by kinases, phospholipases, and phosphatases, regulate a variety of cellular functions, including clathrin-mediated endocytosis and receptor signaling. In this study, we show that the inositol 5-phosphatase SHIP2, a negative regulator of PI(3,4,5)P₃-dependent signaling, also negatively regulates PI(4,5)P₂ levels and is concentrated at endocytic clathrin-coated pits (CCPs) via interactions with the scaffold protein intersectin. SHIP2 is recruited early at the pits and dissociates before fission. Both knockdown of SHIP2 expression and acute production of PI(3,4,5)P₃ shorten CCP lifetime by enhancing the rate of pit maturation, which is consistent with a positive role of both SHIP2 substrates, PI(4,5)P₂ and PI(3,4,5)P₃, on coat assembly. Because SHIP2 is a negative regulator of insulin signaling, our findings suggest the importance of the phosphoinositide metabolism at CCPs in the regulation of insulin signal output.

The role of the inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatases in cellular function and human disease

Phosphoinositides are membrane-bound signalling molecules that regulate cell proliferation and survival, cytoskeletal reorganization and vesicular trafficking by recruiting effector proteins to cellular membranes. Growth factor or insulin stimulation induces a canonical cascade resulting in the transient phosphorylation of PtdIns(4,5)P(2) by PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) to form PtdIns(3,4,5)P(3), which is rapidly dephosphorylated either by PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10) back to PtdIns(4,5)P(2), or by the 5-ptases (inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatases), generating PtdIns(3,4)P(2). The 5-ptases also hydrolyse PtdIns(4,5)P(2), forming PtdIns4P. Ten mammalian 5-ptases have been identified, which share a catalytic mechanism similar to that of the apurinic/apyrimidinic endonucleases. Gene-targeted deletion of 5-ptases in mice has revealed that these enzymes regulate haemopoietic cell proliferation, synaptic vesicle recycling, insulin signalling, endocytosis, vesicular trafficking and actin polymerization. Several studies have revealed that the molecular basis of Lowe's syndrome is due to mutations in the 5-ptase OCRL (oculocerebrorenal syndrome of Lowe). Futhermore, the 5-ptases SHIP [SH2 (Src homology 2)-domain-containing inositol phosphatase] 2, SKIP (skeletal muscle- and kidney-enriched inositol phosphatase) and 72-5ptase (72 kDa 5-ptase)/Type IV/Inpp5e (inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase E) are implicated in negatively regulating insulin signalling and glucose homoeostasis in specific tissues. SHIP2 polymorphisms are associated with a predisposition to insulin resistance. Gene profiling studies have identified changes in the expression of various 5-ptases in specific cancers. In addition, 5-ptases such as SHIP1, SHIP2 and 72-5ptase/Type IV/Inpp5e regulate macrophage phagocytosis, and SHIP1 also controls haemopoietic cell proliferation. Therefore the 5-ptases are a significant family of signal-modulating enzymes that govern a plethora of cellular functions by regulating the levels of specific phosphoinositides. Emerging studies have implicated their loss or gain of function in human disease.

Synaptojanin-1 plays a key role in astrogliogenesis: possible relevance for Down's syndrome

There is increasing interest in gliogenesis as the relevance of glia to both brain development and pathology becomes better understood. However, little is known about this process. The use of multidimensional protein identification technology (MudPIT) to identify changes in phosphoprotein levels in rat neural precursor cells treated with cytokines or retinoic acid showed that phosphorylation of the catalytic subunit of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K p110alpha) and dephosphorylation of the inositol phosphatase synaptojanin-1 were common to the gliogenic stimuli. Although PI3K was found to be involved in both neuro- and astrogliogenesis, synaptojanin-1 was specifically involved in astrogliogenesis of neural precursor cells. The role of synaptojanin-1 in astrogliogenesis was further confirmed by analysis of neuron- and glia-specific markers in synaptojanin-1 knockout mouse brain. Additional experiments showed that the Sac1-like phosphatase domain of synaptojanin-1 is responsible for the observed astrogliogenic effect. Our results strongly indicate that phosphatidylinositol metabolism plays a key role in astrogliogenesis. The relevance of our findings for Down's syndrome pathology is discussed.

Cell biology of membrane trafficking in human disease

Understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying membrane traffic pathways is crucial to the treatment and cure of human disease. Various human diseases caused by changes in cellular homeostasis arise through a single gene mutation(s) resulting in compromised membrane trafficking. Many pathogenic agents such as viruses, bacteria, or parasites have evolved mechanisms to subvert the host cell response to infection, or have hijacked cellular mechanisms to proliferate and ensure pathogen survival. Understanding the consequence of genetic mutations or pathogenic infection on membrane traffic has also enabled greater understanding of the interactions between organisms and the surrounding environment. This review focuses on human genetic defects and molecular mechanisms that underlie eukaryote exocytosis and endocytosis and current and future prospects for alleviation of a variety of human diseases.

Two synaptojanin 1 isoforms are recruited to clathrin-coated pits at different stages

Phosphoinositides are thought to play an important role in clathrin-coated pit (CCP) dynamics. Biochemical and structural studies have shown a direct interaction of phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2] with endocytic clathrin adaptors, whereas functional studies using cell-free systems or intact cells have demonstrated the importance of PI(4,5)P2 synthesis and dephosphorylation in clathrin coating and uncoating, respectively. Furthermore, genetic manipulations of kinases and phosphatases involved in PI(4,5)P2 metabolism result in major defects in synaptic vesicle recycling and other forms of clathrin-dependent endocytosis. However, live imaging studies of these enzymes at CCPs have not been conducted. We have used multicolor total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) to visualize the spatial-temporal recruitment of synaptojanin 1 (SJ1), a polyphosphoinositide phosphatase, and its binding partner endophilin to CCPs. Strikingly, we observed differential temporal recruitment of the two major SJ1 splice variants to CCPs. The 145-kDa isoform, the predominant isoform expressed in the brain, was rapidly recruited as a "burst," together with endophilin, at a late stage of CCP formation. In contrast, the nonneuronal ubiquitously expressed 170-kDa isoform of SJ1 was present at all stages of CCP formation. These results raise the possibility that dynamic phosphoinositide metabolism may occur throughout the lifetime of a CCP.

Common principles in clathrin-mediated sorting at the Golgi and the plasma membrane

Clathrin-mediated vesicular trafficking events underpin the vectorial transfer of macromolecules between several eukaryotic membrane-bound compartments. Classical models for coat operation, focused principally on interactions between clathrin, the heterotetrameric adaptor complexes, and cargo molecules, fail to account for the full complexity of the coat assembly and sorting process. New data reveal that targeting of clathrin adaptor complexes is generally supported by phosphoinositides, that cargo recognition by heterotetrameric adaptors depends on phosphorylation-driven conformational alterations, and that dedicated clathrin-associated sorting proteins (CLASPs) exist to promote the selective trafficking of specific categories of cargo. A host of accessory factors also participate in coat polymerization events, and the independently folded appendage domains that project off the heterotetrameric adaptor core function as recruitment platforms that appear to oversee assembly operations. It is also now clear that focal polymerization of branched actin microfilaments contributes to clathrin-coated vesicle assembly and movement at both plasma membrane and Golgi sites. This improved appreciation of the complex mechanisms governing clathrin-dependent sorting events reveals several common principles of clathrin operation at the Golgi and the plasma membrane.

Type II phosphoinositide 5-phosphatases have unique sensitivities towards fatty acid composition and head group phosphorylation

The catalytic properties of the type II phosphoinositide 5-phosphatases of Lowe's oculocerebrorenal syndrome, INPP5B, Synaptojanin1, Synaptojanin2 and SKIP were analysed with respect to their substrate specificity and enzymological properties. Our data reveal that all phosphatases have unique substrate specificities as judged by their corresponding KM and VMax values. They also possessed an exclusive sensitivity towards fatty acid composition, head group phosphorylation and micellar presentation. Thus, the biological function of these enzymes will not just be determined by their corresponding regulatory domains, but will be distinctly influenced by their catalytic properties as well. This suggests that the phosphatase domains fulfil a unique catalytic function that cannot be fully compensated by other phosphatases.

Regulation of synaptojanin 1 by cyclin-dependent kinase 5 at synapses

Synaptojanin 1 is a polyphosphoinositide phosphatase concentrated in presynaptic nerve terminals, where it dephosphorylates a pool of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate implicated in synaptic vesicle recycling. Like other proteins with a role in endocytosis, synaptojanin 1 undergoes constitutive phosphorylation in resting synapses and stimulation-dependent dephosphorylation by calcineurin. Here, we show that cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) phosphorylates synaptojanin 1 and regulates its function both in vitro and in intact synaptosomes. Cdk5 phosphorylation inhibited the inositol 5-phosphatase activity of synaptojanin 1, whereas dephosphorylation by calcineurin stimulated such activity. The activity of synaptojanin 1 was also stimulated by its interaction with endophilin 1, its major binding partner at the synapse. Notably, Cdk5 phosphorylated serine 1144, which is adjacent to the endophilin binding site. Mutation of serine 1144 to aspartic acid to mimic phosphorylation by Cdk5 inhibited the interaction of synaptojanin 1 with endophilin 1. These results suggest that Cdk5 and calcineurin may have an antagonistic role in the regulation of synaptojanin 1 recruitment and activity, and therefore in the regulation of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate turnover at synapses.

A novel AP-2 adaptor interaction motif initially identified in the long-splice isoform of synaptojanin 1, SJ170

Phosphoinositides play a fundamental role in clathrin-coat assembly at the cell surface. Several endocytic components and accessory factors contain independently folded phosphoinositide-binding modules that facilitate, in part, membrane placement at the bud site. As the clathrin-coat assembly process progresses toward deeply invaginated buds, focally synthesized phosphoinositides are dephosphorylated, principally through the action of the phosphoinositide polyphosphatase synaptojanin 1. Failure to catabolize polyphosphoinositides retards the fission process and endocytic activity. The long-splice isoform of synaptojanin 1, termed SJ170, contains a carboxyl-terminal extension that harbors interaction motifs for engaging several components of the endocytic machinery. Here, we demonstrate that in addition to DPF and FXDXF sequences, the SJ170 carboxyl terminus contains a novel AP-2 binding sequence, the WXXF motif. The WXXF sequence engages the independently folded alpha-subunit appendage that projects off the heterotetrameric AP-2 adaptor core. The endocytic protein kinases AAK1 and GAK also contain functional WXX(FW) motifs in addition to two DPF repeats, whereas stonin 2 harbors three tandem WXXF repeats. Each of the discrete SJ170 adaptor-interaction motifs bind to appendages relatively weakly but, as tandemly arrayed within the SJ170 extension, can cooperate to bind bivalent AP-2 with good apparent affinity. These interactions likely contribute to the appropriate targeting of certain endocytic components to clathrin bud sites assembling at the cell surface.

RIN3: a novel Rab5 GEF interacting with amphiphysin II involved in the early endocytic pathway

The small GTPase Rab5, which cycles between active (GTP-bound) and inactive (GDP-bound) states, plays essential roles in membrane budding and trafficking in the early endocytic pathway. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the Rab5-regulated processes are not fully understood other than the targeting event to early endosomes. Here, we report a novel Rab5-binding protein, RIN3, that contains many functional domains shared with other RIN members and additional Pro-rich domains. RIN3 displays the same biochemical properties as RIN2, the stimulator and stabilizer of GTP-Rab5. In addition, RIN3 exhibits its unique intracellular localization. RIN3 expressed in HeLa cells localized to cytoplasmic vesicles and the RIN3-positive vesicles contained Rab5 but not the early endosomal marker EEA1. Transferrin appeared to be transported partly through the RIN3-positive vesicles to early endosomes. RIN3 was also capable of interacting via its Pro-rich domain with amphiphysin II, which contains SH3 domain and participates in receptor-mediated endocytosis. Interestingly, cytoplasmic amphiphysin II was translocated into the RIN3- and Rab5-positive vesicles when co-expressed with RIN3. These results indicate that RIN3 biochemically characterized as the stimulator and stabilizer for GTP-Rab5 plays an important role in the transport pathway from plasma membrane to early endosomes.

Endocytosis and the cytoskeleton

In this review we describe the potential roles of the actin cytoskeleton in receptor-mediated endocytosis in mammalian cells and summarize the efforts of recent years in establishing a relationship between these two cellular functions. With molecules such as dynamin, syndapin, HIP1R, Abp1, synaptojanin, N-WASP, intersectin, and cortactin a set of molecular links is now available and it is likely that their further characterization will reveal the basic principles of a functional interconnection between the membrane cytoskeleton and the vesicle-budding machinery. We will therefore discuss proteins involved in endocytic clathrin coat formation and accessory factors to control and regulate coated vesicle formation but we will also focus on actin cytoskeletal components such as the Arp2/3 complex, spectrin, profilin, and motor proteins involved in actin dynamics and organization. Additionally, we will discuss how phosphoinositides, such as PI(4,5)P2, small GTPases thought to control the actin cytoskeleton, such as Rho, Rac, and Cdc42, or membrane trafficking, such as Rab GTPases and ARF proteins, and different kinases may participate in the functional connection of actin and endocytosis. We will compare the concepts and different molecular mechanisms involved in mammalian cells with yeast as well as with specialized cells, such as epithelial cells and neurons, because different model organisms often offer complementary advantages for further studies in this thriving field of current cell biological research.

Delayed reentry of recycling vesicles into the fusion-competent synaptic vesicle pool in synaptojanin 1 knockout mice

Synaptojanin 1 is a polyphosphoinositide phosphatase implicated in synaptic vesicle recycling. We used FM1-43 imaging and electron microscopy in cultured cortical neurons from control and synaptojanin 1 knockout mice to study how the absence of this protein affects specific steps of the synaptic vesicle cycle. Exoendocytosis after a moderate stimulus was unchanged. However, during prolonged stimulation, the regeneration of fusion-competent synaptic vesicles was severely impaired. In stimulated nerve terminals, there was a persistent accumulation of clathrin-coated vesicles and a backup of newly reformed vesicles in the cytomatrix-rich area around the synaptic vesicle cluster. These findings demonstrate that synaptojanin 1 function is needed for the progression of recycling vesicles to the functional synaptic vesicle pool.

Functions of PI 3-kinase in development of the nervous system

In the nervous system, receptor regulated phosphoinositide (PI) 3-kinases (PI 3-kinases) participate in fundamental cellular activities that underlie development. Activated by trophic factors, growth factors, neuregulins, cytokines, or neurotransmitters, PI 3-kinases have been implicated in neuronal and glial survival and differentiation. PI 3-kinases produce inositol lipid second messengers that bind to pleckstrin homology (PH) domains in diverse groups of signal transduction proteins, and control their enzymatic activities, subcellular membrane localization, or both. Downstream targets of the inositol lipid messengers include protein kinases and regulators of small GTPases. The kinase Akt/PKB functions as a key component of the PI 3-kinase dependent survival pathway through its phosphorylation and regulation of apoptotic proteins and transcription factors. Furthermore, since members of the Rho GTPase and Arf GTPase families have been implicated in regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, vesicular trafficking, and transcription, the downstream targets of PI 3-kinase that control these GTPases are excellent candidates to mediate aspects of PI 3-kinase dependent neuronal and glial differentiation.

Synthesis and function of 3-phosphorylated inositol lipids

The 3-phosphorylated inositol lipids fulfill roles as second messengers by interacting with the lipid binding domains of a variety of cellular proteins. Such interactions can affect the subcellular localization and aggregation of target proteins, and through allosteric effects, their activity. Generation of 3-phosphoinositides has been documented to influence diverse cellular pathways and hence alter a spectrum of fundamental cellular activities. This review is focused on the 3-phosphoinositide lipids, the synthesis of which is acutely triggered by extracellular stimuli, the enzymes responsible for their synthesis and metabolism, and their cell biological roles. Much knowledge has recently been gained through structural insights into the lipid kinases, their interaction with inhibitors, and the way their 3-phosphoinositide products interact with protein targets. This field is now moving toward a genetic dissection of 3-phosphoinositide action in a variety of model organisms. Such approaches will reveal the true role of the 3-phosphoinositides at the organismal level in health and disease.

Synaptojanin 1 contributes to maintaining the stability of GABAergic transmission in primary cultures of cortical neurons

Inhibitory synapses in the CNS can exhibit a considerable stability of neurotransmission over prolonged periods of high-frequency stimulation. Previously, we showed that synaptojanin 1 (SJ1), a presynaptic polyphosphoinositide phosphatase, is required for normal synaptic vesicle recycling (Cremona et al., 1999). We asked whether the stability of inhibitory synaptic responses was dependent on SJ1. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings of unitary IPSCs were obtained in primary cortical cultures between cell pairs containing a presynaptic, fast-spiking inhibitory neuron (33.5-35 degrees C). Prolonged presynaptic stimulation (1000 stimuli, 2-20 Hz) evoked postsynaptic responses that decreased in size with a bi-exponential time course. A fast component developed within a few stimuli and was quantified with paired-pulse protocols. Paired-pulse depression (PPD) appeared to be independent of previous GABA release at intervals of >/=100 msec. The characteristics of PPD, and synaptic depression induced within the first approximately 80 stimuli in the trains, were unaltered in SJ1-deficient inhibitory synapses. A slow component of depression developed within hundreds of stimuli, and steady-state depression showed a sigmoidal dependence on stimulation frequency, with half-maximal depression at 6.0 +/- 0.5 Hz. Slow depression was increased when release probability was augmented, and there was a small negative correlation between consecutive synaptic amplitudes during steady-state depression, consistent with a presynaptic depletion process. Slow depression was increased in SJ1-deficient synapses, with half-maximal depression at 3.3 +/- 0.9 Hz, and the recovery was retarded approximately 3.6-fold. Our studies establish a link between a distinct kinetic component of physiologically monitored synaptic depression and a molecular modification known to affect synaptic vesicle reformation.

Identification and characterization of a synaptojanin 2 splice isoform predominantly expressed in nerve terminals

We have previously identified synaptojanin 1, a phosphoinositide phosphatase predominantly expressed in the nervous system, and synaptojanin 2, a broadly expressed isoform. Synaptojanin 1 is concentrated in nerve terminals, where it has been implicated in synaptic vesicle recycling and actin function. Synaptojanin 2A is targeted to mitochondria via a PDZ domain-mediated interaction. We have now characterized an alternatively spliced form of synaptojanin 2 that shares several properties with synaptojanin 1. This isoform, synaptojanin 2B, undergoes further alternative splicing to generate synaptojanin 2B1 and 2B2. Both amphiphysin and endophilin, two partners synaptojanin 1, bind synaptojanin 2B2, whereas only amphiphysin binds synaptojanin 2B1. Sequence similar to the endophilin-binding site in synaptojanin 1 is present only in synaptojanin 2B2, and this sequence was capable of affinity purifying endophilin from rat brain. The Sac1 domain of synaptojanin 2 exhibited phosphoinositide phosphatase activity very similar to that of the Sac1 domain of synaptojanin 1. Site-directed mutagenesis further illustrated its functional similarity to the catalytic domain of Sac1 proteins. Antibodies raised against the synaptojanin 2B-specific carboxyl-terminal region identified a 160-kDa protein in brain and testis. Immunofluorescence showed that synaptojanin 2B is localized at nerve terminals in brain and at the spermatid manchette in testis. Active Rac1 GTPase affects the intracellular localization of synaptojanin 2, but not of synaptojanin 1. These results suggest that synaptojanin 2B has a partially overlapping function with synaptojanin 1 in nerve terminals, with additional roles in neurons and other cells including spermatids.

PIP kinase Igamma is the major PI(4,5)P(2) synthesizing enzyme at the synapse

Disruption of the presynaptically enriched polyphosphoinositide phosphatase synaptojanin 1 leads to an increase of clathrin-coated intermediates and of polymerized actin at endocytic zones of nerve terminals. These changes correlate with elevated levels of PI(4,5)P(2) in neurons. We report that phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinase type Igamma (PIPKIgamma), a major brain PI(4)P 5-kinase, is concentrated at synapses. Synaptojanin 1 and PIPKIgamma antagonize each other in the recruitment of clathrin coats to lipid membranes. Like synaptojanin 1 and other proteins involved in endocytosis, PIPKIgamma undergoes stimulation-dependent dephosphorylation. These results implicate PIPKIgamma in the synthesis of a PI(4,5)P(2) pool that acts as a positive regulator of clathrin coat recruitment and actin function at the synapse.

Identification and characterization of a sac domain-containing phosphoinositide 5-phosphatase

We have characterized a novel Sac domain-containing inositol phosphatase, hSac2. It was ubiquitously expressed but especially abundant in the brain, heart, skeletal muscle, and kidney. Unlike other Sac domain-containing proteins, hSac2 protein exhibited 5-phosphatase activity specific for phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate and phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate. This is the first time that the Sac domain has been reported to possess 5-phosphatase activity. Its 5-phosphatase activity for phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (K(m) = 14.3 microm) was comparable with those of Type II 5-phosphatases. These results imply that hSac2 functions as an inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase.

Phosphoinositides in membrane traffic at the synapse

Inositol phospholipids represent a minor fraction of membrane phospholipids; yet they play important regulatory functions in signaling pathways and membrane traffic. The phosphorylated inositol ring can act either as a precursor for soluble intracellular messengers or as a binding site for cytosolic or membrane proteins. Hence, phosphorylation-dephosphorylation of phosphoinositides represents a mechanism for regulation of recruitment to the membrane of coat proteins, cytoskeletal scaffolds or signaling complexes and for the regulation of membrane proteins. Recent work suggests that phosphoinositide metabolism has an important role in membrane traffic at the synapse. PtdIns(4,5)P(2) generation is implicated in the secretion of at least a subset of neurotransmitters. Furthermore, PtdIns(4,5)P(2) plays a role in the nucleation of clathrin coats and of an actin-based cytoskeletal scaffold at endocytic zones of synapses, and PtdIns(4,5)P(2) dephosphorylation accompanies the release of newly formed vesicles from these interactions. Thus, the reversible phosphorylation of inositol phospholipids may be one of the mechanisms governing the timing and vectorial progression of synaptic vesicle membranes during their exocytic-endocytic cycle.

Clathrin

Clathrin was discovered nearly 25 years ago. Since then, a large number of other proteins that participate in the process by which clathrin-coated vesicles retrieve synaptic membranes or take up endocytic receptors have been identified. The functional relationships among these disparate components remain, in many cases, obscure. High-resolution structures of parts of clathrin, determined by X-ray crystallography, and lower-resolution images of assembled coats, determined by electron cryomicroscopy, now provide the information necessary to integrate various lines of evidence and to design experiments that test specific mechanistic notions. This review summarizes and illustrates the recent structural results and outlines what is known about coated-vesicle assembly in the context of this information.

The class II phosphoinositide 3-kinase C2alpha is activated by clathrin and regulates clathrin-mediated membrane trafficking

Phosphoinositides play key regulatory roles in vesicular transport pathways in eukaryotic cells. Clathrin-mediated membrane trafficking has been shown to require phosphoinositides, but little is known about the enzyme(s) responsible for their formation. Here we report that clathrin functions as an adaptor for the class II PI 3-kinase C2alpha (PI3K-C2alpha), binding to its N-terminal region and stimulating its catalytic activity, especially toward phosphorylated inositide substrates. Further, we show that endogenous PI3K-C2alpha is localized in coated pits and that exogenous expression affects clathrin-mediated endocytosis and sorting in the trans-Golgi network. These findings provide a mechanistic basis for localized inositide generation at sites of clathrin-coated bud formation, which, with recruitment of inositide binding proteins and subsequent synaptojanin-mediated phosphoinositide hydrolysis, may regulate coated vesicle formation and uncoating.

The role of dynamin and its binding partners in coated pit invagination and scission

Plasma membrane clathrin-coated vesicles form after the directed assembly of clathrin and the adaptor complex, AP2, from the cytosol onto the membrane. In addition to these structural components, several other proteins have been implicated in clathrin-coated vesicle formation. These include the large molecular weight GTPase, dynamin, and several Src homology 3 (SH3) domain-containing proteins which bind to dynamin via interactions with its COOH-terminal proline/arginine-rich domain (PRD). To understand the mechanism of coated vesicle formation, it is essential to determine the hierarchy by which individual components are targeted to and act in coated pit assembly, invagination, and scission. To address the role of dynamin and its binding partners in the early stages of endocytosis, we have used well-established in vitro assays for the late stages of coated pit invagination and coated vesicle scission. Dynamin has previously been shown to have a role in scission of coated vesicles. We show that dynamin is also required for the late stages of invagination of clathrin-coated pits. Furthermore, dynamin must bind and hydrolyze GTP for its role in sequestering ligand into deeply invaginated coated pits. We also demonstrate that the SH3 domain of endophilin, which binds both synaptojanin and dynamin, inhibits both late stages of invagination and also scission in vitro. This inhibition results from a reduction in phosphoinositide 4,5-bisphosphate levels which causes dissociation of AP2, clathrin, and dynamin from the plasma membrane. The dramatic effects of the SH3 domain of endophilin led us to propose a model for the temporal order of addition of endophilin and its binding partner synaptojanin in the coated vesicle cycle.

Three ways to make a vesicle

Cargo molecules have to be included in carrier vesicles of different forms and sizes to be transported between organelles. During this process, a limited set of proteins, including the coat proteins COPI, COPII and clathrin, carries out a programmed set of sequential interactions that lead to the budding of vesicles. A general model to explain the formation of coated vesicles is starting to emerge but the picture is more complex than we had imagined.

Mutations in synaptojanin disrupt synaptic vesicle recycling

Synaptojanin is a polyphosphoinositide phosphatase that is found at synapses and binds to proteins implicated in endocytosis. For these reasons, it has been proposed that synaptojanin is involved in the recycling of synaptic vesicles. Here, we demonstrate that the unc-26 gene encodes the Caenorhabditis elegans ortholog of synaptojanin. unc-26 mutants exhibit defects in vesicle trafficking in several tissues, but most defects are found at synaptic termini. Specifically, we observed defects in the budding of synaptic vesicles from the plasma membrane, in the uncoating of vesicles after fission, in the recovery of vesicles from endosomes, and in the tethering of vesicles to the cytoskeleton. Thus, these results confirm studies of the mouse synaptojanin 1 mutants, which exhibit defects in the uncoating of synaptic vesicles (Cremona, O., G. Di Paolo, M.R. Wenk, A. Luthi, W.T. Kim, K. Takei, L. Daniell, Y. Nemoto, S.B. Shears, R.A. Flavell, D.A. McCormick, and P. De Camilli. 1999. Cell. 99:179-188), and further demonstrate that synaptojanin facilitates multiple steps of synaptic vesicle recycling.

Identification and characterization of a novel inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase

We have identified a cDNA encoding a novel inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase. It contains two highly conserved catalytic motifs for 5-phosphatase, has a molecular mass of 51 kDa, and is ubiquitously expressed and especially abundant in skeletal muscle, heart, and kidney. We designated this 5-phosphatase as SKIP (Skeletal muscle and Kidney enriched Inositol Phosphatase). SKIP is a simple 5-phosphatase with no other motifs. Baculovirus-expressed recombinant SKIP protein exhibited 5-phosphatase activities toward inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate, inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate, phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) 4,5-bisphosphate, and PtdIns 3,4, 5-trisphosphate but has 6-fold more substrate specificity for PtdIns 4,5-bisphosphate (K(m) = 180 microM) than for inositol 1,4, 5-trisphosphate (K(m) = 1.15 mM). The ectopic expression of SKIP protein in COS-7 cells and immunostaining of neuroblastoma N1E-115 cells revealed that SKIP is expressed in cytosol and that loss of actin stress fibers occurs where the SKIP protein is concentrated. These results imply that SKIP plays a negative role in regulating the actin cytoskeleton through hydrolyzing PtdIns 4,5-bisphosphate.

The interaction between EEN and Abi-1, two MLL fusion partners, and synaptojanin and dynamin: implications for leukaemogenesis

The mixed lineage leukaemia gene, MLL (also called HRX, ALL-1) in acute leukaemia is fused to at least 16 identified partner genes that display diverse structural and biochemical properties. Using GST pull down and the yeast two hybrid system, we show that two different MLL fusion partners with SH3 domains, EEN and Abi-1, interact with dynamin and synaptojanin, both of which are involved in endocytosis. Synaptojanin, a member of the inositol phosphatase family that has recently been shown to regulate cell proliferation and survival, is also known to bind to Eps15, the mouse homologue of AF1p, another fusion partner of MLL. Expression studies show that synaptojanin is strongly expressed in bone marrow and immature leukaemic cell lines, very weakly in peripheral blood leukocytes and absent in Raji, a mature B cell line. We found that the SH3 domains of EEN and Abi-1 interact with different proline-rich domains of synaptojanin while the EH domains of Eps15 interact with the NPF motifs of synaptojanin. In vitro competitive binding assays demonstrate that EEN displays stronger binding affinity than Abi-1 and may compete with it for synaptojanin. These findings suggest a potential link between MLL fusion-mediated leukaemogenesis and the inositol-signalling pathway.

Novel inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase localizes at membrane ruffles

We have cloned a novel inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase from the rat brain cDNA library. It contains two highly conserved 5-phosphatase motifs, both of which are essential for its enzymatic activity. Interestingly, the proline content of this protein is high and concentrated in its N- and C-terminal regions. One putative SH3-binding motif and six 14-3-3 zeta-binding motifs were found in the amino acid sequence. This enzyme hydrolyzed phosphate at the D-5 position of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate, inositol 1,3,4, 5-tetrakisphosphate, and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate, consistent with the substrate specificity of type II 5-phosphatase, OCRL, synaptojanin and synaptojanin 2, already characterized 5-phosphatases. When the Myc-epitope-tagged enzyme was expressed in COS-7 cells and stained with anti-Myc polyclonal antibody, a signal was observed at ruffling membranes and in the cytoplasm. We prepared several deletion mutants and demonstrated that the 123 N-terminal amino acids (311-433) and a C-terminal proline-rich region containing 277 amino acids (725-1001) were essential for its localization to ruffling membranes. This enzyme might regulate the level of inositol and phosphatidylinositol polyphosphates at membrane ruffles.

Phosphatidylinositol polyphosphate binding to the mammalian septin H5 is modulated by GTP

BACKGROUND

Septins are members of a conserved family of GTPases found in organisms as diverse as budding yeast and mammals. In budding yeast, septins form hetero-oligomeric filaments that lie adjacent to the membrane at the mother-bud neck, whereas in mammals, they concentrate at the cleavage furrow of mitotic cells; in both cases, septins provide a required function for cytokinesis. What directs the location and determines the stability of septin filaments, however, remains unknown.

RESULTS

Here we show that the mammalian septin H5 is associated with the plasma membrane and specifically binds the phospholipids phosphatidylinositol 4, 5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P(2)) and phosphatidylinositol 3,4, 5-trisphosphate (PtdIns(3,4,5)P(3)). Deletion analysis revealed that this binding occurs at a site rich in basic residues that is conserved in most septins and is located adjacent to the GTP-binding motif. Phosphoinositide binding was inhibited by mutations within this motif and was also blocked by agents known to associate with PtdInsP(2) or by a peptide corresponding to the predicted PtdInsP(2)-binding sequence of H5. GTP binding and hydrolysis by H5 significantly reduced its PtdInsP(2)-binding capability. Treatment of cells with agents that occluded, dephosphorylated or degraded PtdInsP(2) altered the appearance and localization of H5.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that the interaction of septins with PtdInsP(2) might be an important cellular mechanism for the spatial and temporal control of septin accumulation.

Essential role of phosphoinositide metabolism in synaptic vesicle recycling

Growing evidence suggests that phosphoinositides play an important role in membrane traffic. A polyphosphoinositide phosphatase, synaptojanin 1, was identified as a major presynaptic protein associated with endocytic coated intermediates. We report here that synaptojanin 1-deficient mice exhibit neurological defects and die shortly after birth. In neurons of mutant animals, PI(4,5)P2 levels are increased, and clathrin-coated vesicles accumulate in the cytomatrix-rich area that surrounds the synaptic vesicle cluster in nerve endings. In cell-free assays, reduced phosphoinositide phosphatase activity correlated with increased association of clathrin coats with liposomes. Intracellular recording in hippocampal slices revealed enhanced synaptic depression during prolonged high-frequency stimulation followed by delayed recovery. These results provide genetic evidence for a crucial role of phosphoinositide metabolism in synaptic vesicle recycling.

Phosphoinositide-AP-2 interactions required for targeting to plasma membrane clathrin-coated pits

The clathrin-associated AP-2 adaptor protein is a major polyphosphoinositide-binding protein in mammalian cells. A high affinity binding site has previously been localized to the NH(2)-terminal region of the AP-2 alpha subunit (Gaidarov et al. 1996. J. Biol. Chem. 271:20922-20929). Here we used deletion and site- directed mutagenesis to determine that alpha residues 21-80 comprise a discrete folding and inositide-binding domain. Further, positively charged residues located within this region are involved in binding, with a lysine triad at positions 55-57 particularly critical. Mutant peptides and protein in which these residues were changed to glutamine retained wild-type structural and functional characteristics by several criteria including circular dichroism spectra, resistance to limited proteolysis, and clathrin binding activity. When expressed in intact cells, mutated alpha subunit showed defective localization to clathrin-coated pits; at high expression levels, the appearance of endogenous AP-2 in coated pits was also blocked consistent with a dominant-negative phenotype. These results, together with recent work indicating that phosphoinositides are also critical to ligand-dependent recruitment of arrestin-receptor complexes to coated pits (Gaidarov et al. 1999. EMBO (Eur. Mol. Biol. Organ.) J. 18:871-881), suggest that phosphoinositides play a critical and general role in adaptor incorporation into plasma membrane clathrin-coated pits.

The N terminus of amphiphysin II mediates dimerization and plasma membrane targeting

Amphiphysin I and II are nerve terminal-enriched proteins containing SH3 domains that interact with dynamin and synaptojanin. The amphiphysins may function in synaptic vesicle endocytosis by targeting synaptojanin and dynamin to emerging endocytic buds through SH3 domain-independent interactions with clathrin and AP2. We have recently identified and cloned several amphiphysin II splice variants that differentially incorporate clathrin-binding domains. To determine whether these domains function in membrane targeting, we used immunofluorescence to examine the potential localization of amphiphysin II variants to clathrin-coated pits on plasma membranes purified from transfected COS-7 cells. Full-length amphiphysin II targets to the plasma membrane where it partially co-localizes with clathrin. However, splice variants and deletion constructs lacking clathrin-binding domains still target to the plasma membrane, and removal of clathrin from the membrane does not affect amphiphysin II distribution. Surprisingly, plasma membrane targeting was dependent on the presence of a 31-amino acid alternatively spliced sequence at the N terminus of amphiphysin II, a result confirmed using subcellular fractionation. In binding assays, the 31-amino acid sequence was also found to facilitate amphiphysin dimerization mediated through the N terminus. Taken together, these data support a role for the N terminus of amphiphysin II in membrane targeting during endocytosis.